Perception on the quality of vocational education training in VietNam Basis to improve VietNam education training quality

Duong Duc Lan, Director General, General Directorate of Vocational Training, his external panelist and seasoned expert and also a high ranking policy leader in Vietnam Vocational Technic

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TRAINING IN VIETNAM: BASIS TO IMPROVE VIETNAM

EDUCATION TRAINING QUALITY

_

A DISSERTATION Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Southern Luzon State University, Lucban, Quezon, Philippines

in Collaboration with Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

EDUCATION TRAINING QUALITY

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree

DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

A program offered by Southern Luzon State University,

Republic of the Philippines in collaboration with

Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

has been approved by Oral Examination Committee

JOANNA PAULA A ELLAGA, DBA NELLY I MENDOZA, DBA

EDWIN P BERNAL, DBA ALICE T VALERIO, PhD

CECILIA N GASCON, PhD

Chairman Endorsed by: Recommended by:

CONRADO L ABRAHAM, PhD APOLONIA A ESPINOSA, PhD

Accepted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Business Administration

_ WALBERTO A MACARAAN, EdD

Date Vice President for Academic Affairs

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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

Dr Conrado L Abraham (SLSU), his first adviser, who gave him the strength and the encouragement to believe in his capacities, and taught him not to be afraid and to keep holding on and be steadfast in achieving his vision/mission In addition,

he patiently “listened” to him in his “down” moments and guided him with his wisdom

in the completion of this dissertation;

Dr Cecilia N Gascon (SLSU), Dr Tran Chi Thien (TNU), Dr Walberto A Macaraan, Dr Joanna Paula A Ellaga, Dr Nelly I Mendoza and Dr Eduardo T Bagtang, the panel of examiners, for their invaluable and constructive comments in improving the manuscript;

Prof Dr Duong Duc Lan, Director General, General Directorate of Vocational Training, his external panelist and seasoned expert and also a high ranking policy leader in Vietnam Vocational Technical Education Training system as the Director General, General Directorate of Vocational Training, who shared his precious time in giving him commendable advice which are valuable in developing the dissertation framework;

All his mentors/professors in the DBA class who provided him with leadership and managerial skills combined with the “IQ and EQ” formations so that he can be one of those humble yet synergized souls who believe that the community and people-centered development is achievable in our midst;

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him in the collection of data and information;

The Staff of the International Training Center (ITC), Thai Nguyen University and the staff of the University of Labor and Social Affairs, for all the services they have extended to him especially with regards to facilitating his schedules, providing him the convenience and good environment for studying;

His classmates for the stimulating and effective learning discussions on case studies and adding more value to his life during his study in DBA class;

Special mention is extended to Do Thi Hoa, Hoang Van Hung, Le Ngoc Quang, who never failed to support him in times of difficulty;

Nguyen Phuc Huong and Tran Xuan Ngoc (Ronaldo), Nguyen Xuan Phuc (Clinton), his roommates during his study time at Thai Nguyen University for being good friends, sharing with him joys and sorrows, happiness and tiredness during the time of studying in Hanoi and Thai Nguyen City;

His mother, sisters and friends and collaborative partners, who had always been with him and never ceased to support him through their patience;

Most especially, to his wife, Tong Thi Thu Hang, for her love, patience, and belief in his abilities; for her sacrifices and understanding of leaving their home every Saturday, Sunday and often coming home late after official working time to attend the DBA class, especially during the conduct of his dissertation, and most importantly for taking care of their home and their family;

And to his daughter Nguyen Huong Giang and his son Nguyen Chi Truong Son, for giving him the reason to finish this dissertation and for their smiles that bring him energy and inspiration

Nguyen Chi Truong

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To my ever loving mother, all my sisters, my wife, my children who gave me

the energy and strength to withstand the tests of the ‘unknown’ and the entirely new and unique experiences during my

study and in completing my dissertation, this

piece of work is lovingly dedicated

NCT

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PAGE

TITLE PAGE ……… i

APPROVAL SHEET ……… ii

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY ……… iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……… iv

DEDICATION ……… vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS ……… vii

LIST OF TABLES ……… ix

LIST OF FIGURES ……… xii

ABBREVIATIONS ……… xiii

LIST OF APPENDICES ……… xiv

ABSTRACT ……… xvi

CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ……… 1

Background of the Study ……… 3

Statement of the Problem ……… 6

Objectives of the Study ……… 7

Hypothesis of the Study ……… 8

Significance of the Study ……… 9

Scope and Limitations of the Study ……… 10

Definition of Terms ……… 11

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE ……… 13

Theoretical Framework ……….… 53

Conceptual Framework ……….… 54

III METHODOLOGY ……… 55

Locale of the Study ……… 55

Research Design ……… 55

Population and Sampling ……… 56

Research Instrument ……… 56

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Statistical Treatment ……… …….…… 59

IV RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ……… 61

V SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ……… 111

Summary of Findings ……… 111

Conclusions ……… 114

Recommendations ……… 114

BIBLIOGRAPHY ….……… ……… 124

APPENDICES ……… 127

CURRICULUM VITAE ……… 147

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1 Number of Professional Technical Education and Training

Institutions, Teachers and Students (2009~10) 35

2 2013 Status on Approved NOSS in Vietnam 47

3 Vietnamese Legislation & Regulation on Certification

5 Demographic Information of the Respondents 62

6 Reliability Statistics on Individual Characteristics 64

7 Mean Distribution of Respondents Perception in Terms of

8 Reliability Statistics on Qualification of Lectures 66

9 Item – Total Statistics of Qualification of Lecturers’

10 Mean Distribution of Respondents Perception in Terms of

11 Reliability Statistics on Physical Facilities 68

12 Item – Total Statistics of the Physical Facilities 68

13 Mean Distribution of Respondents’ Perception in Terms of

14 Reliability Statistics on Management Capacity 70

15 Item – Total Statistics of Management Capacity’s Variable 70

16 Mean Distribution of Respondents’ Perception in terms of

17 Reliability Statistics on Job Opportunities 72

18 Item – Total Statistics of Job Opportunities 72

19 Mean Distribution of Respondents’ Perception in terms of

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20 Reliability Statistics on Labor Market Information 74

21 Item – Total Statistics of Information on Labor Market’s

22 Mean Distribution of Respondents’ Perception in terms of

23 Reliability Statistics on Support Policies 76

24 Item – Total Statistics of Support Policies 76

25 Mean Distribution of Respondents’ Perception in terms of

30 Result of Linear Regression Analysis 81

31 Test of Homogeneity of Age Variance 83

32 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception in

33 Test of Homogeneity of Gender Variance 85

34 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception in

35 Test of Homogeneity of Marital Status Variance 87

36 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception in

37 Test of Homogeneity of Income Variance 89

38 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception in

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39 Test of Homogeneity of Educational Level Variance 91

40 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception in

41 Comparison between the Respondents’ Perception when

they are Grouped following Related Profile 93

42 Number of Meister Schools and their Students in Korea 100

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2 National Education Training System and Relationship

between General Education and VET in Viet Nam 36

4 NOSS is a Key Factor for Development of VET 43

5 Importance of NOSS and Relations among NOSS,

8 Objectives Tree to Solve Current Problems for Improving

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ADB Asia Development Bank

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

AQTF Australian Quality Training Framework

BOG Board of Governors

CPSISC Construction and Property Services Industry Skills Council

CVET Continuous Education Training

DEEWR Department of Education, Employment and Workforce Relations DETB District Education and Technical Board

DSD Development Skills Department

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GDVT General Directorate of Vocational Training

IAC Industry Advisory Council

ILO International Labor Organization

ISC Industry Skills Council

ITI Industrial Training Institutes

IVET Initial Educational Training

KCSE Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education

KNEC Kenya National Examination Council

KOICA Korean International Cooperation Agency

KRIVET Korea Institute of Vocational Education Training

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

MOLISA Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs

MPE Master Plan on Education

NOSAC National Occupational Skill Assessment Center

NOSS National Occupational Skills Standard

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NQF National Qualification Framework

NQF National Qualification Framework

NSDC National Skill Development Corporation

NSSC National Skills Standards Council

NSTCS National Skills Testing and Certification System

NSTMA National Skills Testing Management Agency

NTIS National Training Information Service

OLS Ordinary Least Squares

OSD Occupational Skills Department

RTO Registered Training Organization

SCOTESE Standing Council on Tertiary Education Skills and Employment SDF Skill Development Fund

SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences

SSC Sector Skills Council

STC Skills Testing Center

SWOT Strengths Weakness Opportunities Threats

TAFE Technical and Further Education

TEP Technical Education Program

TESDA Technical Education and Skills Development Authority

TIQET Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training

UK United Kingdom;

UNEVOC: UNESCO – Vocational Education

(International Centre for Technical and Vocational Education and Training) VET Vocational Education and Training

VIF Variance Inflation Factor

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A Regulation Principles, Procedures of Developing and

Issuing National Skills Standards 128

`

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Title of Research : PERCEPTION ON THE QUALITY OF

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION TRAINING IN VIETNAM: BASIS TO IMPROVE VIETNAM EDUCATION TRAINING QUALITY

Researcher : NGUYEN CHI TRUONG (BUSH)

Degree Conferred : DOCTOR OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION

Name and Address

of Institution

: Southern Luzon State University Lucban, Quezon, Philippines and Thai Nguyen University, Socialist Republic of Vietnam

Adviser : Dr Conrado L Abraham

Year Written : 2013

Vocational education and training play a key role in raising skill levels and improving the society’s productivity The demand for skilled workers has increased job specifications in the use of technology Vocational Education Training helps people in improving their performances in their jobs as they acquire a great learning experience Working professionals get a chance to hone their skills while increasing their income On May 2012, Vietnam government has approved and issued two important national strategies that have the general objective to develop an education vocational training system

to support the development of socio-economy for our country’s mission “will basically become a developed country by 2020” These policies assert that vocational education training is essential for Vietnam’s development In this context, the dissertation proposed a system of a set of criteria to evaluate the quality of Vocational Education Training and analyze the status of VET in Vietnam, especially its weak points In addition, the study introduces modern models and value experiences from developed countries in improving

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regression equation to evaluate fully factors affecting the quality of Vocational Education Training in Vietnam Based on these analyses, the dissertation proposed highly value recommendations to improve Vocational Education Training in meeting the demands of industries and government’s vision

Keywords: Vocational Education Training, Labor Quality, National

Qualification Framework, National Occupational Skills Standard, Industry Skills Council

INTRODUCTION

Since “innovation” policy started in 1986, Vietnam Vocational Educational Training (VET) has concentrated for development in 1998, when the Government established the General Directorate of vocational training that belongs to the Ministry of Labor, Wars invalid and Social affairs (MOLISA) At this particular time, Vietnam has been implementing “innovation” policy for over 10 years and has gained success in terms of socio-economic development Foreign investors have directly increased investment, industries contribute higher rate to the GDP, economic structure has strongly shifted from agriculture to industry and also labor force has moved from agriculture sector to industry sector

Since the start of its establishment, the General Directorate of vocational training has developed policies for vocational training development

to meet the needs of industries in terms of skilled workforce, however, the quality and quantity as well as productivity were low Nonetheless, the mission

of vocational education training is to produce skilled labor force for country’s vision to become a modern and developed country by 2020

Considering the above mission, from 1998 to present, the General Directorate of vocational training has been developing many positive policies

to develop vocational education training system According to GDVT, the number of vocational training schools has been increasing each year In 2008, there were 129 vocational training schools, but in 2012, there were only a total

of 455 vocational training schools, in which there are 155 vocational training

colleges, 305 secondary vocational training schools, 900 vocational training centers and about 1,000 related vocational training institutions nationwide With regards to the entries of vocational training system, according to GDVT,

it has been increasing in quantity’s entries: from 526,600 in 1998 to 1,538,000

in 2008 and to 1,790,000 in 2012, thus, giving remarkable contributions for the country’s industrialization and modernization processes

In terms of law and policy development, one of its remarkable achievement is that the Government has issued the law on vocational training

in 2005 for the first time, which formalized VET system with 3 levels training in

3 vocational training institutions/vocational training colleges/ secondary schools for vocational training and primary vocational training schools These three kinds of vocational training institutions system have produced a considerable number of skilled workforce for labor market and serve the industry needs, thus, contributing to the socio-economic development in the past years

However, the existing VET system still has limitations in terms of producing skilled labor force to fit the industry needs According to VCCI’s survey in 2011, indicator in satisfaction of industries about quality of VET was only 34% and this is a low indicator The quality of Vietnam labor force is still low; it was placed in the 11th position among 12 Asian countries which have been ranked in 2008 Vietnam’s productivity in comparison with some countries in 2007 is as follows: lower than Japan 50.4 times; Korea 18.6 times; Malaysia 7.8 times; Thailand 1.96 times; and Indonesia 1.5 times In addition, Vietnam has insufficient skilled labor and low competitiveness (according to

the Global Competitiveness Index (GCI) for the 2013-2014 periods, Vietnam placed on the 70th positions among 148 economies in the world

The limitation of VET may come from limitations of factors influencing its quality such as capacity of teachers/instructors, management capacity, physical facilities, and information on labor market, graduates employability; support policies; connection with industries, etc

Background of the Study

At present, new technology in almost industries has been changing very fast In this process, it is necessary to request for the upgrading of skilled workforce including existing skill areas and new skill areas that arise to meet the demands for socio-economic development in the new era This will challenge the Vietnamese Vocational Education Training (VET) on how it can

be flexible in terms of changing the industry needs In order to solve these problems, VET should improve and strengthen its training capacity to meet the requirements of high skilled human resources in the new context Thus, it should develop policies, strategies, plans and curricula, training programs that are scientific and advanced enough, and suitable and fit with existing industry needs

In fact, in order to have a flexible VET system, other countries like the United Kingdom has the Sector Skills Councils (SSCs); and Australia has the Industry Skills Councils (ISCs) In two these countries, the model of SSC or ISC could play as a bridge to connect between industry, VET and government

In Japan and Korea, they developed the testing and certification systems

separately from the training side (VET) to supply skilled labor for labor market This model also has strong engagement of industry to Vocational Education Training In Vietnam, in 2008, Ministry of Labor, Invalids and Social Affairs (MoLISA) has introduced a new frame work to develop a National Occupational Skills Standards (NOSS) under Decision No 09/2008/QĐ-

BLĐTBXH dated 28th March 2008 in regulating the principles and procedures for development and issuance of NOSS Under this framework, the ministries will develop the national occupational skills standards for each occupational under ministry’s management and collaboration for approval and issuance of NOSS by MoLISA

The advantages of the NOSS is it serves as a foundation for: General Directorate of Vocational training (GDVT) as an agency that is authorized by MoLISA to manage the development of NOSS to manage the national skills testing and certification systems and help MoLISA to issue other related policies in terms of skilled workforce development; for VET institutes to develop the curricular and training program; for employers to develop the employee recruitment, wage payment plans and to identify the training needs and arrange working position for employees; for the laborers to identify these skills gaps and improve for themselves to seek for the job However, NOSS only has real value as the above mentioned advantages, the procedure and process to develop NOSS should be strongly engaged by industries On the other hand, industries must be involved to identity the skills needed in each area since these are the requirements for manufacturing and should be developed through training Unfortunately, there is a lack of participation of industries in this process Therefore, NOSS seems not functional any more as

to government expectation and socials needs in terms of human resources development, especially in training program or curricular development

Towards 2020, Vietnam’s strategy for socio-economic development stage 2011-2020 has formulated one of three pillars for socio-economic development that is “human resource development” The strategy for human resource development stage 2011 – 2020 has formulated “development of regulations, mechanisms, policies to speed up training towards social needs driven, engagement of enterprise in training” and “basically and comprehensive innovation of education and training to meet the demands for social development”

On May, 2012, Vietnam government has approved and issued two important national strategies: (1) strategy for development of education stage 2011- 2020, and (2) strategy for the development of Vocational Education Training stage 2011 – 2020 These two strategies have the objectives that aims to find solutions to “comprehensive and basic innovation of education and training for social development needs; improve the training quality as requirements in terms of standardization, modernization, socialization, and international integration to efficiently serve the development of and defend motherland” that has been approved by the government as strategy for human resources development period 2010 – 2020 and contribute to the country’s mission “to become a developed country by 2020” Thus, this

dissertation discussed the “Perception on the Quality of Vocational Education Training in Vietnam: Basis to Improve Vietnam Education Training Quality ”

Statement of the Problem

International economic integration makes the national economies of the region and the world increasingly closely linked Technology changes so fast and industries of each country have to constantly upgrade new technology for improving their productivity Vocational training sector plays an important role for this process to upgrade the skilled workforce to fit with the industry needs, which is a key factor for improving country’s competitiveness in the integration process One of the requirements for socio-economic development in stage 2012-2020 is to improve the skilled workforce and to meet the industry needs

In connection with this, the Vietnam Government has approved a strategy for the development of vocational education training stage 2011–2020 to innovate basically the comprehensive vocational education training Therefore, this paper discussed on policies, models and development of those policies and models from the perspective of policy makers in order to engage industries more in VET process in Vietnam On the other hand, based on the new strategies for development of educational and vocational trainings just approved by Government, this paper discussed how to develop a policy and introduce a model for developing a national occupational skills standards (NOSS) with the strong participation from industry side and other related sides, including professional associations, training sides, researchers, policy makers, employer’s representatives, worker’s representatives etc The revised NOSS will be an important factor for training (vocational training institutes) to develop curriculum, training program (training packages) based on industry needs Also, NOSS will be a place for the industry to meet the skills needs of their manufacturing process and for vocational training sector that can produce

skilled workforce What are the policies and models that can effectively support Vietnam vocational training in Vietnamese context towards 2020?

Specifically, this study sought to answer the following questions:

1 What is the profile of the respondents in terms of age, gender, educational level, civil status and income?

2 What is the perception of respondents in terms of individual characteristics, training quality, physical facilities, management capacity, job opportunities, information on labor market, support policies?

3 What are the factors influencing vocational education training?

4 What are the problems of Vocational Education Training of Vietnam and experiences from developed countries?

Objectives of the Study

The study aimed to evaluate the status of vocational education training

in Viet Nam and determine the factors that influence the quality of vocational education training

Specifically, this study aimed:

1 To describe the profile of the respondents in terms of:

1.1 Age 1.2 Gender 1.3 Educational level

1.4 Marital status 1.5 Income

2 To compare vocational education training as perceived by training staff, learners and managers in VET sector in terms of:

2.1 Individual Characteristics 2.2 Training Quality

2.3 Physical Facilities

2.4 Management Capacity 2.5 Job Opportunities

2.6 Information on Labor Market 2.7 Support Policies

3 To compare the quality of VET and determine factors influencing the quality of vocational education training

4 To compare the perceived quality of VET when they are grouped in terms of selected personal characteristics and responses

Hypotheses of the Study

1 There is a significant difference between perceptions of respondents and respondent’s profile in terms of age, gender, educational level, marital status, income

2 There is no significant difference in the perception of respondents in terms of individual characteristics, training quality, physical facilities,

management capacity, job opportunities, information on labor market and support policies

3 There is no significant relationship between independent variables (individual characteristics, training quality, physical facilities, management capacity, job opportunities, information on labor market, support policies) and quality of vocational education training

Significance of the Study

In 2013, Vietnam government presented a new law on vocational training and new law on Employment for National Assembly approval; Government has approved the strategy for development of vocational training stage 2011 – 2020, in which the Ministry of Labor – Invalid and Social Affairs was nominated to submit a project on “Innovation and development of Vocational Education Training towards 2020” in order to upgrade the skilled work force to meet the demands for the development of industries and contribute to the improvement of nation’s productivity and competitiveness Therefore, this dissertation will be beneficial for policy makers in vocational education training sectors, skilled workforce developers, vocational training institutions, industry side and related researches

For the Vietnamese government, this paper will express current status

of vocational training education, their strength and weakness points; it also shows lots of useful information about the factors influencing the quality of VET It will be a good basis for Vietnamese government to increase labor capacities

For other researchers, this study will help them to collect necessary

information in relation to their research fields Other researches will also consider the limitations of this research in case they conduct the research in the same field

Scope and Limitations of the Study

The main purpose of a vocational training system is to produce skilled workforce to meet the demand for industry needs This dissertation focused

on the lessons learned and experiences in terms of policies and models for industry engagement in Vocational Education Training that is responsive to the needs of industry and the emerging market economy

The study assessed the quality of vocational education training in Vietnam in terms of the following seven major variables: individual characteristics, training quality, physical facilities, management capacity, job opportunities, information on labor market, support policies These main variables were due to the results of reviewing related literatures and studies This paper considered provinces in Vietnam However, this research conducted surveys from two vocational training institutions for each province only Within each institution, only one manager, two staffs and two learners were interviewed This study was conducted during the year 2012-2013

Aside from the above constraints, the questionnaire is self-made,

hence, it has limitations

Definition of Terms

For clarity and better understanding, the following terms are operationally and conceptually defined:

Competency is the ability to do something successfully or efficiently; "a

cluster of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes that affects a major part of one’s job (a role or responsibility), that correlates with performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards, and that can be improved via training and development." (Training Magazine: July, 1996)

Individual Characteristics are personal natures of a person which can

influence results of actions It also mentions about capacity, personal opinions, natural reaction efforts and attitude

Industry Skills Councils (ISC) are recognized and funded by the Australian

Government, governed by independent, industry led boards and for-profit companies limited by guarantee

not-Job opportunities are schemes or supports related finding job It offers both

the employer and the learners’ opportunity to find a suitable job It includes information system to introduce jobs

Management Capacity is the management of the limits of an organization's

resources, such as its labor force, manufacturing and office space, technology and equipment, raw materials, and inventory Capacity management also deals with the capacity of an organization's processes

Physical Facilities refer to an installation, contrivance, or other things which

facilitates something; a place for doing something It also pertains to a commercial or institutional building, such as a hotel, resort, school, office complex, sports arena, or convention center VET, in particular includes physical facilities including infrastructure, training materials, training equipment, etc

Sector Skills Councils are independent, employer-led, UK–wide

organizations The SSCs and the UK Commission are committed to working in partnership across four nations to create the conditions for increased employer investment in skills which will drive enterprise and create jobs and sustainable economic growth They share a belief that the sectoral approach is the most effective way to do this

Skills are the learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with

the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both In other words, the abilities that one possesses

Support policies are assistance from local government or vocational training

centers to learners in finding jobs or learning necessary knowledge and technical skills

Training Quality refers to service quality of training and comparison of

expectations with performance A business with high service quality will meet customer needs whilst remaining economically competitive Improved service quality may increase economic competitiveness

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Vocational education training (VET) is education that prepares people for specific trades, crafts and careers at various levels from a trade, a craft, technician, or a professional position in engineering, accountancy, nursing, medicine, architecture, pharmacy, law etc Craft vocations are usually based

on manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic, related to a specific trade, occupation, or vocation It is sometimes referred to as technical education as the trainee directly develops expertise in a particular group of techniques In UK, some higher technician engineering positions that require 4-5 year apprenticeship require academic study to HNC/HND or higher City and Guilds level

In addition to this, it may be classified as teaching procedural

knowledge This can be contrasted with declarative knowledge, as used in education in a usually broader scientific field, which might concentrate on theory and abstract conceptual knowledge, characteristic of tertiary education Vocational education can be at the secondary, post-secondary level, further education level and can interact with the apprenticeship system

Moreover, vocational education can be recognized in terms of recognition of prior learning and partial academic credit towards tertiary education (e.g., at a university) as credit; however, it is rarely considered in its own form to fall under the traditional definition of higher education

Vocational education is related to the age-old apprenticeship system of

learning Apprenticeships are designed for many levels of work from manual trades to high knowledge work

However, as the labor market becomes more specialized and economies demand higher levels of skill, governments and businesses are increasingly investing in the future of vocational education through publicly funded training organizations and subsidized apprenticeship or traineeship initiatives for businesses At the post-secondary level, vocational education is typically provided by an institute of technology, university, or by a local community college

Vocational education has diversified over the 20th century and now exists in industries such as retail, tourism, information technology, funeral services and cosmetics, as well as in the traditional crafts and cottage industries

VET classification

VET is designed to prepare individuals for a vocation or a specialized occupation and is directly linked with a nation’s productivity and competitiveness Most literature generally considers that the concept of VET

is restricted to non- university education (Cornford, 2005) More information

on different types of VET is provided on the next page:

Across European countries, VET is shaped by widely different cultural and social-class values of vocational training status in society As a result, the role of VET, as an organized form of education, differs from one country to another This review examines the role of VET through its benefits

From a theoretical perspective, VET can be classified in the following categories (Grubb and Ryan, 1999):

Pre-employment VET: prepares individuals for the initial entry into employment; in most countries these are traditional programs of vocational and educational training in schools; they are found both in schools and workplaces as dual systems and are often operated by national ministries of education;

Upgrade training: provides additional training for individuals who are already employed, as their jobs change, as the technology and work environment become more complex, or as they advance within the company;

Retraining: provides training for individuals who have lost their jobs so that they can find new ones, or for individuals who seek new careers to develop the necessary competences for employment; individuals in retraining programs, by definition have already had a labor-market experience; therefore, retraining may not have a direct connection with the occupation they already have;

Remedial VET: provides education and training for individuals who are in some way marginal or out of the mainstream labor force; typically those who have not been employed for a long period of time or who do not have any labor-market experience; usually people depending on public income;

Cedefop (2008) offered a distinction which encompasses the previous ones: initial and continuous educational training (IVET and CVET)

IVET refers to general or vocational education and training carried out in the initial education system, usually before entering working life Some training undertaken after entry into working life may be considered as initial training (e.g retraining) Initial education and training can be carried out at any level in general

or vocational education (full-time school-based or alternate training) pathways or apprenticeship;

CVET is defined by the area of education or training that comes in after entry into working life and aims to help people to (a) improve or update their knowledge and/or skills; (b) acquire new skills for a career move or retraining; (c) continue their personal or professional development (Cedefop, 2008); continuing education and training is part of lifelong learning and may encompass any kind of education: general, specialized or vocational, formal or non-formal, etc

Classifying VET benefits

VET benefits can be grouped using a classical typology based on the nature of results Two main categories can be identified: economic benefits and social benefits Both can be analyzed on three different levels: the micro level (the benefits for individuals); the meso level (benefits for enterprises/groups); and the macro level (benefits for society as a whole)

Figure 1 Types of VET Benefits

Some benefits may occur at the intersection of different levels of analysis, for instance when a training course in an enterprise leads to more satisfied workers that become more productive VET benefits are interdependent at different levels Countries did not report on all VET benefits

as reported in Figure 1 Instead, they focused on some aspects of economics

and social benefits that are most prominent in research The box below reviews the types of benefits countries reported

Economics and Social Benefits Reported by Countries

The Economic Dimension

Macro level:

Economic returns on VET: research on the evaluation of public and

private investment in VET in terms of profitability and economic growth;

Labor-market outcomes of VET: reduction of unemployment and

inequality resulting from more people attaining a VET qualification

Meso level:

Performance of enterprises: costs and benefits of training in terms of

profitability and innovativeness;

Employee productivity: individual abilities and capacity to contribute to profit

after VET

Micro level:

The benefit of IVET and CVET on individuals: earnings, finding a job,

reduction of skill mismatch, integration into the labor market with satisfactory

wage, further career development opportunities and professional status

The social dimension

Macro level:

Effects of VET across generations within families and how family impacts

on skills development;

Relationship between VET and health: how education and VET can support

the health of a nation;

Social cohesion: multidimensional concept measured by, for example,

tolerance, trust, formal and informal networking (social and relation capital), low

grade of social polarization, etc.;

How education and VET can reduce delinquent and criminal acts in a

Personal well-being: quality of life for individuals and effects on personal

development, attitudes and motivation

Over many years, various theories have been developed to explain job satisfaction The researcher found these theories applicable to acquisition of skills in vocational training centers The study of two theories namely Herzberg’s theory and Vroom’s theory are discussed below:

Herzberg’s Theory

Herzberg et al (1959) embarked in a study of some factory workers to determine what motivated people to work They found out that work behaviors are affected by hygiene factors and intrinsic or growth factors

The hygiene factors originate from the nature of human beings of always trying to avoid pain from the environment They also come from the learnt drives which become conditional to the basic biological needs such as hunger which is physiological and the need for money to buy food to satisfy hunger

According to Herzberg et al, maintenance needs include such things like social groups, comfort, work facilities, professionals, wages and salaries, compensation, secure retirement, constituency, reassurance, fairness, privileges and relationship These things do not usually arise from the job itself, but are peripherally related to the job when they are inadequate They resulted into dissatisfaction but when they are present they do not do it by themselves for satisfaction but for function

The factors that stem from the job itself and internally mediated are related to human nature through achievement (Herzberg, 1968) The needs include the feelings of using and developing one’s skills and abilities They originate from actual work and provide satisfaction of human needs When they

are absent in a work condition, people remain neutral while their presence satisfy people Hence, they are named satisfiers

Critics of this theory argued that it is based on a small sample of only

200 factory workers, such as accountants and engineers in the United States

of America They further argue that the method used has low validity This is because respondents were involved in self reporting on happy and unhappy experiences concerning their jobs This was bound to introduce bias of being able to recall the most recent job conditions The third criticism is that it offers

no explanation as to why various extrinsic and intrinsic job factors should affect performance (Tripath, 1982)

Vroom’s Theory

Vroom’s and Schafer developed this theory in 1964 It explains that people are motivated to do things which lead to desired outcomes and that desired outcomes could be both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards This theory says that satisfaction with a job follows the attainment of rewards This simply means that people are satisfied with jobs that provide them with desired rewards; however, they are not necessarily motivated to perform the job effectively

People will perform effectively when their intrinsic and extrinsic rewards are contingent upon effective performance This theory asserts that people only get satisfied with the instrumental jobs providing them with their desired rewards and they will be motivated to do jobs well, when these rewards are contingent on good performance Rewards satisfy people but the contingency

of rewards is what motivates people

This theory has been supported by studies that have indicated that when a job provides people with the opportunity to achieve their desired goals they will more likely be satisfied with their jobs (Glimmer, 1977 and Agarwal, 1990)

On the other hand, this theory has also met some criticism on the basis that jobs satisfaction is a function of not only what a person receives but also what he feels he should receive and what he wants to receive (Hicks and Gullet 1975).Therefore, from the above theories, it can be seen that job satisfaction is related to feelings one has towards his job in relation to what he expects, what he receives, what others receive, what others receive in similar situations and how overall the job is These theories that have been discussed above are relevant to vocational training centers where learners are expected

to perform a lot of manual work that enables them to acquire skills they are taught The two theories are most applicable in this study

Factors Affecting Vocational Education Programs

Attitudes towards Vocational Skill Acquisition

Attitude refers to how one feels or thinks about an act towards objectives and ideas Keil (2005) defines attitude as positive or negative feelings that an individual holds about objects, persons or ideas Trainers who join technical or vocational centers for training already have formed opinions; some of these opinions are culturally based They are found in some cultural beliefs and practices among Kenyan communities towards technically industry related work Some communities showed the low status accorded to craft and

vocational education Masonry, tailoring, carpentry, driving, dressmaking and metal work are despised

The community said these jobs were for other people not for their children In the report of the commission of inquiry into education system of Kenya of 1999, Totally Integrated Quality Education and Training, TIQET, chaired by Koech pointed out that one of the hindrance to the development of a technological culture is found in some cultural beliefs and practices among a number of Kenyan communities towards technically related work

Gitau (2008) argued that educationist should be liberated from this mentality Many of them design vocational education for other people’s children instead of designing a universal system that is suitable for all children who decided to join that career including their own children

One important recommendations of the Koech commission was that education be designed to play a deliberate role of demystifying the negative attitude towards work and locally manufactured goods It is possible for trainers to build positive attitude into students to ensure good performance Positive attitude is an ingredient in achieving desirable performance in vocational training

Dutton (2008) stated that immediately after independence students’ attitude toward vocational training was very positive He further notes that it is

at this time that the youth polytechnics were very vibrant Irumbi’s (2005), who studied on the relationship between attitude and performance in mathematics found that attitude played a vital role in determining the pupils’ performance in the subject

Pupils with negative attitude failed in mathematics in the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education examinations This could possibly be applied to the vocational training to show that pupils with favorable attitude towards training will do better than those with less favorable attitude

Charlton and David (2005) pointed out that one of the most important factors that influence academic outcome is a positive attitudinal approach to pupil’s performance rather than a negative attitudinal imposition of punishment that gives poor result When trainers reward good performance of their students, they continue to do well However, punishment imposed on learners because of poor performance is a sign of negative attitude and exposes learners to continue performing poorly

Relevance of Learning Resources in Supporting Skill Acquisition

Jacques (2010) asserted that learning resources in vocational education support skills acquisition These include text books which he describes as instructional par excellence According to him they are central to training or teaching In the developing countries, they constitute 85% of educational sector’s expenditure A classroom that is deprived of text book promotes little skill acquisition and students are obliged to rote learning, recitation, copying from the blackboard and taking lecture notes

Hadra (2006) said that in many cases the lack and inadequacy of instructional materials seriously hampers the effectiveness of non – formal training Above all, the viability and sustainability of programs has frequently proved difficult For example, if a trainee has to effectively acquire tailoring skills he has to be provided with a sewing machine, threads, tapes, bobbin,

bobbin case and fabrics This indicates that the vocational education and training requires adequate instructional resources in order for the delivery to

be adequate The adequacy of the resources gives the trainers easy time in explaining facts and learners’ acquisition Learners are able to grasp better explanation if they conduct a demonstration using available resources

Maclure (2007) asserted that this sector of education has been ignored for a long time in most countries According to him, it is evident that fewer financial and human resources have been devoted to vocational education and training It is the finances that enable the heads of vocational institutions

to purchase learning resources that are adequate in supporting skills acquisition

Courses offered at the Vocational Education Training Centers

In Primary school, the trainees in the immediate community are recruited to vocational training centers In most of these training centers, trainees take a period of two years to complete training especially those who train at the youth polytechnics They train in vocational skills such as masonry, carpentry and joinery, metal work, plumbing and tailoring

One of the recommendations of the Ndegwa commission was that the success of vocational education training centers like the youth polytechnics depend on the support that the government of Kenya gave to the development of small scale enterprises directly and through developing markets for them

Eraser Savas (2008) affirmed that youth polytechnics must take the initiative and develop good strategies and aggressive programs for their