NCRP report no 111 developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical or industrial facilities

Offsite emergency planners and offsite emergency response person- nel are an integral part of any viable plan, and effective interface between facility personnel and offsite personnel in

NCRP REPORT No 11 1

DEVELOPING RADIATION EMERGENCY PLANS FOR

ACADEMIC, MEDICAL O R INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

Recommendations of the

NATIONAL COUNCIL O N RADIATION

PROTEC'TION AND MEASUREMENTS

Issued August 30, 1991

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

791 0 WOODMONT AVENUE 1 Bethesda, MD 2081 4

LEGAL NOTICE This report was prepared by t h e National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (NCRP) The Council strives to provide accurate, complete and useful information in its reports However, neither the NCRP, the members of NCRP, other persons contributing to or assisting in the preparation of this report, nor any person acting on the behalf of any of these parties: (a) makes any warranty or representation, express or implied, with respect to the accuracy, completeness or usefulness of the information contained in this report, or that the use of any information, method or process disclosed in this report may not infringe on privately owned rights; or (b) assumes any liability with respect to the use of, or for damages resulting from the use

of any information, method or process disclosed in this report, under the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Section 701 et seq as amended 42 U.S.C Section 2000e et seq (Title VZZ)

or any other statutory or common law theory governing liability

Library of Congress Catalogim-in-Publication Data

National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements

Developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical, or industrial facilities : recommendations of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Meawrements

Measurements Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emergency Preparedness 11 National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements ScientiRc Committee 46 on

Operational Radiation Safety 111 Title IV Series

[DNLM: 1 Disaster Planning 2 Emergencies 3 Radiation Injuries-

prevention & control 4 Radiation Protection WN 650 N277dI

Preface

This report is part of a series prepared under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety It provides guidance on developing radiation emergency plans for academic, medical or industrial facilities Information on preparing and imple- menting an effective plan is provided An approach to classification

of radiation emergencies is developed and examples are provided in the Appendices Practical considerations in handling an emergency are discussed with emphasis on recovery, restoration and preventing

a recurrence These recommendations are not intended for use at power reactors or other major nuclear facilities

Five reports have been published in this series: NCRP Report No

59, Operational Radiation Safety Programs, NCRP Report No 71,

Operational Radiation Safety-Training, NCRP Report No 88, Radia- tion Alarms and Access Control Systems, NCRP Report No 105, Radiation Protection for Medical and Allied Health Personnel and

NCRP Report No 107, Implementation of the Principle of as low as Reasonably achievable (ALARA) for Medical and Dental Personnel

Under preparation a t this time are reports treating radiation safety

in the mineral extraction industry, survey instrument calibration and radiation protection records

In accordance with the recommendations of NCRP Report No 82,

SI Units in Radiation Protection and Measurements only SI units are

used in the text Readers needing factors for conversion of SI to conventional units are encouraged to consult Report No 82 This report was prepared by Scientific Committee 46-7 on Emer- gency Preparedness which operated under the auspices of Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety

Serving on Scientific Committee 46-7 were:

George R Holeman, Chairman

Yale University New Haven, Connecticut

Brigham and Women's Hospital University of California, Boston, Massachusetts San Diego,

La Jolla, California

iv 1 PREFACE

Kenosha, Wisconsin University of Connecticut

Farmington, Connecticut

Rutgers University University of Iowa

Piscataway, New Jersey Iowa City, Iowa

Scientific Committee 46 Liaison Member

James A Spahn Jr (1986-1991)

Serving on Scientific Committee 46 on Operational Radiation Safety were:

Charles B Meinhold, Chairman

Brookhaven National Laboratory

Upton, New York

Ernest A Belvin (1983-1987) Thomas D Murphy

Tennessee Valley Authority GPU Nuclear

Chatanooga, Tennessee Parsippany, New Jersey

William R Casey (1983-1989) David S Myers

Brookhaven National Lawrence Livermore

Upton, New York Livermore, California

University of Texas University of Utah

Medical College of Wisconsin Lawrence Livermore National Milwaukee, Wisconsin Laboratory

Livermore, California

University of Massachusetts Minnesota Mining and

Worcester, Massachusetts Manufacturing Company

St Paul, Minnesota

PREFACE / v

University of California, Purdue University

Los Angeles, California West Lafayette, Indiana

The council wishes to express its appreciation to the committee members for the time and effort devoted to the preparation of this report

Warren K Sinclair

President, NCRP

Bethesda, Maryland

7 February, 1991

Contents

Preface iii

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report 2

1.2 Development of a Plan 2 1.3 Types of Facilities 3

1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel 4

2 Preparing a Radiation Emergency Plan 5

2.1 Introduction 5

2.2 Emergency Plan Development 5

2.3 Management Support and Assignment of

Responsibility 6

2.4 Emergency Organization Structure 6 2.4.1 Emergency Coordinator 7

2.4.2 Emergency Director 8 2.4.3 Other Members of the Emergency Response Team 9

3 Preparing Emergency Plan Implementing

Procedures 12 3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs) 12

3.1.1 Contents of Emergency Plan Implementing

Procedures 12

3.2 Emergency Facilities Supplies and Equipment 13

3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel 14

3.4 Maintaining Emergency Reparedness 15

3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan 15

3.4.2 Training 16 4 Classification of Radiation Emergencies 17

4.1 Sources of Radiation 17

4.1.1 Sealed Sources 17

4.1.2 Unsealed Sources 18

4.1.3 Machine Produced Radiation 18

4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan May Be Necessary 18

4.3 Associated Hazards 20

4.3.1 Biohazards (Infectious Agents) : 20 4.3.2 Toxic and Flammable or Explosive Materials 20

4.4 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification 21

4.5 Using the Emergency Classification System 28

4.5.1 Incident 28

viii 1 CONTENTS

4.5.3 Level Two Emergency 30 4.5.4 Precaution in Applying Classification Schemes 30 5 Practical Considerations in Handling an Emergency 33 5.1 Personnel Notification 33

5.2 Evaluation of Emergency 34

5.3 Plan Activation Levels 34

5.4 Emergency Response 34

5.4.1 Incident 34

5.4.2 Level One Emergency 35

5.4.3 Level Two Emergency 36

5.5 Recovery and Restoration 36 5.5.1 Exposure Control During Recovery and

Restoration 36 5.5.2 Dose Assessment 37

5.5.3 Restoration Management 37

5.6 Preventing a Recurrence 38 5.7 Documentation and Reports 38

5.8 Media Releases 39

5.9 Other Considerations 39

5.9.1 Management Involvement 39

5.9.2 Training Aids 39

6 Implementation and Evaluation of the Plan 40 6.1 Plan Approval 40

6.2 Testing and Modification of the Plan 40

6.2.1 Elements of the Exercise 41

6.2.2 Initial Exercise 41

6.2.3 Review of Exercise 42 6.2.4 Unannounced Exercise 42

6.3 Exercise Scenario 42

6.3.1 Scenario Preparation 43

6.3.2 The Roles of Controllers and Evaluators 44

6.4 Evaluation of the Exercise 45

6.4.1 Analyses of Deficiencies and Weaknesses 45 6.4.2 Implementation of Solutions 46

7 Summary 47

APPENDIX A Glossary 48

APPENDIX B Sample Emergency Plan for a n Industrial

Research Facility 52 APPENDIX C Sample Emergency Plan for a Medical Facility 74

APPENDIX D Emergency Classification Examples 97

References 106

The NCRP 109

NCRP Publications 116

INDEX 126

1 Introduction

The widespread use of radioactive materials and ionizing radiation

in education, research, medicine, and industry has made it essential

to prepare in advance for potential radiation emergencies Radiation emergencies may vary from minor contamination to significant whole body exposures, and it is important for managers and adminis- trators to ensure that appropriate, effective procedures are in place

to cover the range of possible radiation emergencies A viable plan designed to minimize the impact upon patients, employees, visitors, and the public should be available to managers and administrators Offsite emergency planners and offsite emergency response person- nel are an integral part of any viable plan, and effective interface between facility personnel and offsite personnel in the planning and emergency phases is extremely important in order to protect the health and safety of all involved

An effective radiation emergency plan will be an integral part of

a facility's or institution's overall emergency plan covering all types

of emergencies An effective radiation emergency plan will also match appropriate available resources to control the consequences with the emergency's potential effects The response of the radiation safety personnel must be planned to correspond to the potential impact of the emergency It is not intended that the entire plan be activated for each emergency and provisions for a graded response should be included For example, the full emergency plan will not need to be invoked for every minor spill of radioactive material where there is no potential for significant personnel exposure or the spread

of contamination

There is considerable emergency planning literature available for major installations such as nuclear power plants and major govern- ment facilities However, there is minimal guidance for academic, medical and industrial facilities Hospital accreditation groups, such

as the Joint Commission on Accreditation of Healthcare Organiza- tions (JCAHO), require hospitals to have emergency plans which detail management of, and acceptance criteria for, accident victims exposed to radiation or contaminated with radioactive material The National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurement (NCRP) has issued several related reports, such as Report No 65 Manuge- ment of Persons Accidentally Contaminated with Radionuclides,

(NCRP, 1980) which gives guidance in managing patients This report has been written to provide generic guidance for development

of a plan and implementing procedures to respond to a radiation

emergency which may occur in these facilities It is not intended

for emergency planning at power reactors or other major nuclear facilities

1.1 Scope and Objective of this Report

In recognition that the requirements for radiation emergency plan- ning a t academic, medical and industrial facilities have not been well defined, this report has been prepared to assist a planner in: defining a range of credible emergencies that could develop at these types of facilities;

determining the radiological impact for a potential range of emergencies; and

developing the implementing procedures to prevent, mitigate and remedy the adverse consequences of the emergencies This report is intended to assist in preparing plans t o cope with emergencies having a potential for exposure to radiation In assess- ing local circumstances, factors other than radiation may dictate

a more intensive response than may be required by the radiation

emergency alone, e g , a life-threatening traumatic injury of a radia-

tion contaminated worker

Terms used in the report are defined in Appendix A Two terms used in the report have a special meaning as indicated by the use of italics:

1) Shall and shall not are used to indicate that adherence to the recommendations is considered necessary to meet accepted standards of protection

2) Should and should not are used to indicate a prudent practice, exceptions to which may occasionally be made in appropriate circumstance

1.2 Development of a Plan

To develop a plan, several questions must be addressed:

What types and quantities of radioactive material or radiation- producing devices are actually being used, and what procedures are likely to lead to serious accidents?

Information is presented in this report for use in the classification

of emergencies based solely on radiological exposure and designed

to be conservative, i.e., prevent under-classification of an emergency involving radiation The tables represent condensed versions of the guides and limits in the literature and therefore should be used with caution in determining emergency classification Extreme caution

should also be used in applying these values to actuul dose assess-

ments, without further supplemental data

1.3 Types of Facilities

This guide is applicable to academic, medical, and industrial facili- ties Academic facilities may range from a single radionuclide labora- tory in a small college to extensive radionuclide receiving, storage, dispensing, and research laboratories in major universities Larger academic facilities may also have onsite particle accelerators andlor research reactors Medical facilities may range from small commu- nity hospitals with a clinical laboratory and a small nuclear medicine section to a multi-hospital medical school complex Some medical facilities may operate small accelerators and/or research reactors Industrial facilities include manufacturers or users of sources and irradiators, radiochemicals, and operators of accelerators and research reactors Industrial radiography is included within this tzroup

The purpose of emergency planning is to anticipate potential prob- lems and devise a plan and its implementing procedures that will successfully prevent or remedy adverse consequences Different emergencies require varying levels of response This report has been developed as a guide so that an effective plan can be formulated to suit the needs and requirements of each individual facility, large or small

4 1 1 INTRODUCTION

1.4 Radiation Protection Program and Personnel

Academic, medical and industrial organizations which use radio- active materials and radiation-producing devices are required both

by statutes and sound judgement to provide for the radiation protec- tion of employees and to minimize exposure of the general public The magnitude and sophistication of the radiation protection pro- gram are dictated by the potential risk associated with the use of radioactive material or radiation-producing equipment, the opera- tions involved, and the regulatory requirements (NCRP, 1978) A

Radiation Safety Officer (RSO) is generally appointed by the man- agement of an institution ta oversee the radiation protection pro- gram The training and experience of the RSO should be commensu- rate with the potential radiation risks The RSO should be a health physicist or have an academic degree in the physical or biological sciences or engineering with appropriate training and experience in radiation health sciences The RSO's professional experience should include application of this training to management and administra- tion of a radiation safety program

The RSO should be designated by management in the emergency plan as the individual responsible for the functional area ofradiation protection The existing radiation protection program should form the core of the emergency response preparedness If adequate emer- gency radiation protection expertise is not available on site, then the emergency plan should make appropriate provisions for obtaining such expertise on a timely basis

The emergency plan should clearly address the range of emergency conditions that could occur at the facility The purpose of the emer- gency classificationsystem is to provide a basis for defining the level

of response based on the potential for radiation exposure (See Section

4)

2.2 Emergency Plan Development

An emergency plan provides a framework for immediate response

to a wide range of emergency conditions The degree of development

of each implementing procedure specified in the plan will depend on

the potential consequences of &he hazard as well as the availability

of resources The following subjects need to be considered in the development of an emergency plan:

evaluation of accident potential

management support

emergency organization

emergency facilities and equipment

implementing procedures

emergency training and retraining

coordination with outside agencies

public relations

legal assistance

termination of the emergency

restoration of the facility

testing and critiquing the plan

6 1 2 PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

All institutions, whether academic, medical or industrial should

develop some type of plan for responding to emergencies The degree

of planning necessary for each institution can be determined only through careful evaluation of the potential for an emergency, as well

as its severity

2.3 Management Support and Assignment of Responsibility

At any institution, the level of management that makes the deci- sions necessary to implement policy and commit resources must ensure that there is an appropriate level of emergency preparedness

Coordination between the institution and outside assistance orga- nizations, such as fire, police, the public, and the news media, is the responsibility of management Management should appoint a

contact person to interact with offsite planning and response organi- zations This would probably be the Emergency Coordinator All such coordination must be clearly documented

Criteria must be established for selection of personnel assigned to emergency preparedness positions A mechanism should be provided

for input to the emergency preparedness program by all employees who will have an active role in the plan Professional development training should be made available to emergency personnel to main- tain state-of-the-art knowledge in emergency preparedness plan- ning Such training is available through a number of universities, government laboratories and private consulting firms

2.4 Emergency Organization Structure

A necessary part of any emergency preparedness plan is to define the lines of authority and functions of all individuals that will be involved The emergency organization should account for absences

and be flexible enough to handle a wide range of events Duties of key personnel should be designated so that the required level of

response to an emergency can be determined quickly Decisions regarding when to escalate the response must be made as quickly as

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 1 7

possible The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developing the emergency plan

The emergency preparedness organizational structure should

specify by title or position the individuals who will be assigned to various functions For example, the Chief Administrative OfEcer for

a medical institution might be the Emergency Director (See Section 2.3.2) In the case of an industrial organization, the plant manager might be designated as the Emergency Director

All or some of the following functional units should be included in

an emergency response team:

radiation safety

security and traffic control

public information

fire, safety and hazardous substance control

physical plant services

medical services

legal counsel

In certain situations it may be appropriate to involve operations personnel (personnel associated with operation of the affected area)

as members of the emergency response teams

At the time of an emergency, the manager or director of each of the functional units listed in the emergency plan should report to the

Emergency Director (See Section 2.4.2) These individuals, together with the Emergency Director, will comprise the emergency organiza- tion depicted in Figure 2.1 and may be physically located in one central area during the emergency response

The introduction to the emergency plan should contain concise

statements which describe:

the type of facility

the address or location

the purpose and objectives of the emergency plan

management's commitment to the purpose and objectives of the plan, and delegation of authority to key personnel

The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for developing an emer- gency plan, for maintaining the document and related distribution lists The Emergency Coordinator should be included in all routine

matters that have an impact on emergency planning, such as budget meetings, facility planning, modifications and procedural changes The Emergency Coordinator may or may not be assigned a role in responding to an emergency The duties of the Emergency Coordina-

8 1 2 PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

I

OFFSITE

COMMUNITY

AGENCIES

tor shall be detailed in an Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure

(EPIP) Section 3 discusses in detail the format and content of specific EPIPs It is possible, and may be desirable, that the functions of Emergency Coordinator and Emergency Director will be performed

by the same person

MEDICAL GROUP

PUBLK:

INFORMATION OFFICER

SECURINIGROUP TRAFFIC CONTROL

LEGAL COUNSEL

The Emergency Director exercises command and control over all

of the institutional emergency response personnel in the event of a declared emergency and works in close liaison with the offsite response agencies The position carries the responsibility and author- ity to initiate any emergency action within the emergency plan necessary to correct or mitigate hazards created by the emergency situation

The Emergency Director should provide a point of contact between

the offsite and onsite response personnel to assure coordination

It is essential that offsite emergency response personnel are not prevented from performing their normal legal responsibilities to protect the health and safety of the public and to assure that these personnel have the proper information to perform their responsibili- ties safely and in the best interests of the public

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 1 9

The individual designated as the Emergency Director may not always be immediately available when an emergency arises Hence,

it is essential that the call list for initial contact and the levels of responsibility be clearly defined The initial responder will be the person in charge until the Emergency Director or the designated alternate arrives, at which time the leadership will be transferred and responsibilities appropriately divided In many smaller institu- tions, the supervisory security personnel or the individual assigned

to the position of night supervisor could be the designated Emergency Director until properly relieved The emergency plan should clearly

specify the lines of authority, not only for the Emergency Director's position, but also for the team leader of each functional unit shown

in Figure 2.1 The duties of the Emergency Director shall be detailed

in an EPIP

In addition to the Emergency Director, the emergency response team should include a radiation safety officer, an institutional secu-

rity officer, a plant services or facilities operations supervisor, fire marshal, and public information officer The team may also include other safety professionals, such as an industrial hygienist, biohaz- ards expert and a physician or allied health care professional The duties of each member of the emergency response team shall be detailed in an EPIP Any one of these individuals may also be the Emergency Director The radiation safety expert may be the institu- tional radiation safety officer or a consultant health physicist Many

of the above responsibilities and individuals may overlap in their job functions In a small facility many responsibilities might be borne

by one individual The team may also include operational personnel, when needed The type of emergency, location or time of day of the emergency would dictate who would first assume the responsibility

of Emergency Director

The Radiation Safety Officer and other radiation safety staff

should be available to respond to the radiological aspects of any

emergency The Radiation Safety Officer is responsible for immedi- ate assessment of actual or potential exposure to radiation, in order

to determine the appropriate level of emergency response The Radia- tion Safety Officer should determine requirements for dosimetry,

bioassay and environmental monitoring activities as required to assess the radiation exposure potential and to activate special assis- tance teams as rapidly as possible

10 / 2 PREPARING A RADIATION EMERGENCY PLAN

The experience and general knowledge of the institutional Secu- rity Officer can provide an essential capability in the control of most emergency situations Among the emergency response functions often assigned to the security department are evacuation of person- nel, establishment and control of assembly areas, personnel account- ability, access control, rescue and f i s t aid, provision of transporta- tion and communication for emergency teams and liaison with local law enforcement agencies and medical facilities

The responsibility for ensuring the availability of essential ser- vices, such as electricity, water, ventilation, heating, and cooling is commonly assigned to Physical Plant Services The provision and maintenance of such services normally requires an around-the-clock availability of personnel familiar with these operations The Plant

Services Director or Supervisor should be designated as one of the

emergency response team members Among the emergency response functions of Plant Services are facility damage assessment, repair work, technical support and liaison with public utilities suppliers Plant services personnel provide the emergency director with an essential first response capability for the Emergency Organization

In addition, they are a trained and experienced resource for repair

of facilities and equipment throughout an emergency situation Most institutions do not have a full-time fire marshal or fire depart- ment and must rely on response from local fire departments What- ever the degree of development of this function within the institution, the individual assigned the responsibility for fire protection must be included among the primary advisors to the Emergency Director This individual will provide broad knowledge of the institution's fire potential, facility layout, engineered fire protection systems and availability and capabilities of equipment and personnel The train- ing and experience of the fire protection personnel can also be useful

in coordination with local governmental fire protection agencies The role of the offsite support agencies, such as fire and police, may vary considerably and should be factored into the emergency plan Frequently, an emergency involving radiation would also involve other hazardous substances, such as chemical, biological and infec- tious agents, carcinogens and cytotoxic substances Many institu- tions have an industrial hygienist on staff who would be in charge

of hazardous substance control, and could provide valuable assis- tance to the Emergency Director

The institution's Public Information Officer is responsible for timely release of all information to the media and public A communi- ty's perception of radiation often creates anxiety and it is essential that accurate information be given to the media All contacts with

the news media should be reviewed and released by the Public Infor-

2.4 EMERGENCY ORGANIZATION STRUCTURE 1 11

mation Officer It is important that this individual is aware, and keeps the media apprised, of all current information The Public Information Officer must have a basic understanding of radiation and its terminology All information should be transmitted to the

Public Information W c e r by the Emergency Director or designee The public information responsibility should not be left to staff mem-

bers who are dealing with the emergency or providing emergency medical care The Public Information Officer should be considered

an indispensable member of the Emergency Director's staff in any emergency and should be involved in all preliminary emergency

preparedness planning

A health professional is a valuable member of an emergency response team If medical facilities are not available within an insti- tution, it is of paramount importance to set up arrangements with a hospital designated to accept patients that might be involved in a radiation emergency It is the institution's responsibility to ensure that the hospital staff members are provided training and are included in drills The duties of each member of the emergency response team shall be detailed in an EPIP

3 Preparing Emergency

Plan Implementing

Procedures

3.1 Emergency Plan Implementing Procedures (EPIPs)

If the emergency plan is complex, it shall be implemented through

the use of emergency plan implementing procedures (EPIPs) EPIPs are documented instructions which describe the actions necessary to

achieve the emergency plan objectives The EPIPs should be written

to cover the range of emergency classifications (see Section 4) These procedures should be attached to the plan and available for reference during an emergency Sample EPIPs are contained in the sample plans in Appendices B and C Implementation of simple emergency plans, for example, a plan appropriate for a small manufacturing concern using small amounts of radioactive materials of low poten- tial for radiation exposure, do not require the use of EPIPs

The EPIPs should address the actions needed during restoration

of the facility, as well as during the emergency In this respect, certain routine administrative, radiation protection, and mainte- nance procedures should not be restated as EPIPs, but merely refer-

enced in the emergency plan

The EPIPs should be developed using input from the individuals

who will be using the procedures and should not be placed into

service until they have been thoroughly tested It is also necessary that the EPIPs be compatible with existing documents, such as an institution's existing plan to deal with any type of emergency The EPIPs should identify individuals and their designated alter-

nates by title and assigned responsibilities

The following should be considered in developing each EPIP:

description of the purpose of the EPIP

3.2 EMERGENCY FACILITIES, SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT 1 13

identification of the individual or the organizational unit which has both the authority and responsibility for implementing the EPIP

identification of appropriate means of communications includ- ing telephone numbers

description of the action sequence to achieve the purpose description of any prerequisites to the performance of the speci- fied actions

specification of the precautions and limitations to be observed during the performance of the prescribed task(s)

specification of guidelines to be followed in the exercise ofjudg- ment on the part of an individual, either in the interpretation

of results, action levels, or recommendation of protective actions specification of training requirements

reference any routine procedure in an EPIP and make available

to the user of the EPIP

attach copies or examples of forms to be used in carrying out tasks to the EPIP

include sign-off sheets, checklists and/or data sheets to docu- ment completion of the actions prescribed in the EPIP

3.2 Emergency Facilities, Supplies and Equipment

The institution should make available to the emergency response teams the facilities and equipment necessary as required in the EPIPs The facilities and equipment should be supplied only to the extent required by the most serious credible emergency classifica- tion Adequate emergency equipment, such as radiation detection instrumentation, sampling equipment, personnel dosimeters, per- sonal protective equipment, decontamination supplies and communi- cation systems should be readily available and operable Measure- ment and sampling equipment must be calibrated and consistent with the requirements described in the emergency plan

Following is a listing of recommended items that should be avail- able for dealing with radiation emergencies:

copies of the emergency plan and EPIPs

space for Emergency Director and staff

communication links between team members

cummunication links with outside public agencies

personal protective equipment

radiation detection equipment

air sampling and counting equipment

14 / 3 EMERGENCY PLAN IMPLEMENTING PROCEDURES

data display modes, such as status boards, and maps

facility floor plans

reference material

computer or calculator

The communication system must be able to maintain communica- tion between members of each response team and the control center,

as well as communication with outside emergency forces such as

police, fire, hospital, health department and public information offi- cials Communication equipment should include as a minimum a

dedicated telephone and two-way radios It may be advisable to

install some type of restricted communication system, such as tele- phones dedicated for emergency use only The use and installation

of such equipment and communication networks must be appropriate for the level of emergency deemed credible for the facility

Data display, such as message boards, maps and status boards are necessary to indicate facility, radiological and meteorological conditions Copies of pertinent regulatory agency licenses and regu- lations and a listing of regulatory reporting levels should be main-

tained and readily available

The configuration of facilities and buildings a t many medical, academic and industrial institutions may mean that the radiation protection office is not centrally located Consideration should be

given to either preparing an emergency response kit for transport to the emergency site or the establishment of an emergency supply locker in a more central location In particular, a separate radiation emergency supply locker should be prepared and located for use in

the emergency room of a hospital

3.3 Emergency Organization Personnel

EPIPs should be prepared for each of the following functional

positions

emergency director

security/police personnel

radiation safety officer

public information officer

plant services director

institutional fire marshal

medical officer

legal counsel

The Emergency Director must make an immediate assessment of the situation and make the decision that there is an emergency

3.4 MAINTAINING EMERGENCY PREPAREDNESS / 15

situation If there is a true emergency situation, the Emergency Director's responsibilities are to bring the emergency situation under control as effectively as possible and to institute remedial action to permit safe return to routine operations

When an emergency occurs, the designated representative of each functional unit should report to the Emergency Director to provide

consultation and information to the Emergency Director and other officials as necessary (Figure 2.1) Individuals should be in direct

communication with their own hnctional unit The radiation protec- tion staff should normally be alerted and directed to report as

required by the EPIP Similarly, all other units should report as

required by their EPIPs

The emergency plan should define each responding group and

indicate by title the individuals responsible for directing each group This listing should provide the Emergency Director with a selection

of capabilities when structuring a specific emergency response team The composition of each team should allow specific emergency tasks

to be accomplished ranging from initial assessment to preparation

of the incident report Each individual assigned to an emergency response team should:

be thoroughly familiar with the institution's emergency plan know the elements of radiation protection in practice at the facility

be aware of assigned functional group assignments

be knowledgeable of emergency site procedures

be trained in performance of assigned tasks

be familiar with appropriate protective equipment

be involved in plan rehearsals, drills and exercises

know when to involve offsite emergency response agencies

3.4 Maintaining Emergency Preparedness

The emergency plan should describe how emergency preparedness

will be maintained and how the effectiveness of the emergency plan will be routinely tested

3.4.1 Maintenance of Emergency Plan

The Emergency Coordinator is responsible for updating and main- taining the emergency plan, as well as scheduling and documenting drills and exercises The emergency plan should provide for periodic

update of the emergency plan, EPIPs, and agreements with offsite

16 1 3 EMERGENCY PLAN IMPLEMENTING PROCEDURES

support organizations and agencies This should include reviews

by those responsible for emergency planning, the incorporation of modifications resulting from drills or changes in the facility or envi- ronment, and the distribution of amendments to the plan

3.4.2 Tmining

Emergency situations can cause changes in reporting pathways,

in the scope and nature ofduties and in the perceptions of individuals, particularly when radiation is involved When under stress, individ- uals may exhibit counterproductive behavior Proper training helps establish acceptable behavior patterns and minimizes abnormal response

The objective of an emergency plan training program is to ensure that all personnel assigned emergency response tasks are trained to perform their respective duties The EPIPs should describe initial

training and periodic retraining programs for all individuals who could be involved in response to an emergency, including backup personnel The training should include familiarity with each individ-

ual's role in the overall response plan to an emergency Response team members requiring training include those persons responsible for:

hazardous substances control (chemical, biohazards)

The training should include demonstrations and actual hands-on

use of equipment, as well a s classroom instruction The emergency plan training program should also include training, as needed, for

those outside agencies which may be required to respond to an emer- gency, such as police, fire, ambulance and emergency medical person- nel This training should include specific instruction in the institu-

tion's procedures for notification, basic radiation protection, site access and the expected role(s) of the trainees

After emergency personnel are trained to manage radiation acci- dents, continuous positive feedback must be provided for their learn- ing experience Photographs and videotapes ofactivities during drills are valuable aids in accomplishing this objective

4 Classification of Radiation

Emergencies

An emergency is an event which results in an actual or potential threat to the safety of personnel and/or the facility and which requires immediate response The Emergency Director is placed in the position of deciding the level of action required, which must include the avoidance of overreaction to trivial situations In order

to assist the Emergency Director, a method for classifying radiation emergencies according to the potential for radiation exposure is dis-

cussed in this section It should be emphasized that this information

is provided as guidance for the Emergency Director, and that profes- sional judgment plays an important role in the final emergency planning for a specific facility

4.1 Sources of Radiation

To assist in planning for the consequences of an emergency, it

is appropriate to categorize and identify the location of sources of radiation as follows:

sealed or encapsulated sources

their integrity for most accident conditions However, they may pose

18 / 4 CLASSIFICATION O F RADIATION EMERGENCIES

a significant external exposure hazard If sealed sources are subjected

to unusual stresses, (i.e., stresses beyond those for which they were designed) radioactive material may be released

4.1.2 Unsealed Sources

Many facilities use radioactive materials that are in a solid (e.g., powder), liquid or gaseous state Such facilities include hospitals, universities, and manufacturers of radionuclide products Unsealed sources of radioactive material are more easily dispersed into the facility and the environment than are sealed sources Contamination

by, and ingestion or inhalation of, radioactive material must be considered in planning for emergencies involving unsealed sources

4.1.3 Machine Produced Radiation

This category includes x-ray machines, x-ray fluorescence equip- ment, x-ray diffraction equipment, particle accelerators, and any other electronic equipment which may produce ionizing radiation Except where activation of components is possible, the radiation exists only while the machine is operating Emergencies associated with radiation-producing equipment usually involve a limited num- ber of individuals

4.2 Emergencies for Which a Plan M a y Be Necessary

Radiation emergencies are unplanned events which reduce the level of radiation safety for individuals working in the facility or for the general public Unexpected events which have the potential for release of radioactive material beyond the bounds of a facility or have the potential for exposure or involvement of the general public should be considered in constructing an emergency plan All poten- tial emergencies require a plan of action

There is a large variety of potential emergencies which may occur

In planning for these, it is important that plans not go beyond a credible worst case situation to ensure an appropriate level of response This section provides information which the emergency planner can consider in constructing an emergency plan A number

of emergency situations are discussed in Section 4.5 These are pre- sented as typical and are not intended to include all possible emer- gencies

4.2 EMERGENCIES FOR WHICH A PLAN MAY BE NECESSARY 1 19

Emergencies may result from equipment malfunction andlor human error The failure of exposure limiting devices or mechanisms used for controlling sources of radiation may lead to significant par- tial or whole body irradiations Failure of devices such as interlocks and source positioning mechanisms should be considered in emer- gency planning Sealed source rupture should be considered if a source of radiation can be associated with a fire, explosion, flood, or mechanical damage Theft, vandalism, unauthorized use and civil disorder should be considered when assessing the possibility of radio- active source dispersal or loss Such events may involve the general public and local emergency personnel such a s fire fighters, police, and emergency areas of local hospitals The potential for release of radioactive material outside the bounds of a facility mandates the development of an emergency plan Radioactive materials transpor- tation accidents should be considered if they are "credible" for a given facility For these and other similar situations, potential expo- sures for both employees and the general public should be evaluated and plans developed to mitigate these exposures

The most common cause of a radiation emergency is human error Such errors are the result of fatigue, lack of training, complacency, substance abuse or carelessness Although it is difficult to identify conditions which may lead to such emergencies, they can be identi- fied in terms of the radiological effects to be expected For example, accidents can be assessed in terms of the potential for:

external whole or partial body exposures due to point or area

sources of radiation

exposures due to skin contamination

internal exposures due to ingestion or inhalation

internal exposures due to puncture, lacerations, or skin contami- nation

internal and external exposures due to submersion in a radioac- tive medium

Radiation emergencies involving unsealed radioactive materials may be more likely to occur than those emergencies involving sealed sources Emergency plans must be in place to deal with events rang- ing from a minor skin contamination to the potential for exposure of the general public It is important to consider the exposure pathway

as listed above, rather than each condition which may lead to an accident Two examples of such emergency classifications (for a cos- metics manufacturer and a university) are provided in Appendix D

Emergencies are classified in this report only on the basis of the

potential for radiological exposure The Emergency Coordinator shall

include the radiological emergency plan within a broad emergency plan An event which may be radiologically insignificant may be

20 1 4 CLASSLFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

serious from the point of view of other hazards, or if the public is involved

4.3 Associated Hazards

Any emergency may be accompanied by life threatening medical emergencies such as wounds, burns, fractures, or other trauma Within the facilities considered in this report, biological and chemi- cal hazards, in addition to hazards resulting from malfunctioning equipment may be present The risks Erom these associated hazards, alone or in combination with radiation exposure, may be greater than those from the exposure to ionizing radiation itself and must

be considered

Laboratory equipment is subject to malfunctions Simple failure

of controls, a minor problem when nonhazardous materials are involved, could be critical in units employing hazardous materials

4.3.1 Biohazards (Infectious Agents)

The manufacture and use of radionuclides for analytical purposes

(e.g., radioimmunoassays, cell labeling, and DNA hybridization) may lead to combined radiological and biological hazards in a single procedure Where such agents are known to be present together, the advice of a qualified biohazard control specialist should be integrated with that of a health physicist For example, the choice of decontami- nating materials used in cleaning an area containing both biological and radiological contaminants is important The disinfectant used must be effective against the infectious agent and any impact on radiological characteristics must be evaluated (Sehulster et al.,

1981)

Many decontaminating materials are toxic and irritating, and the advice of a qualified industrial hygienist should be obtained in planning for their use This planning should include consideration

of respiratory and skin protection, as well as training for emergency response personnel Autoclaving of biologically contaminated wastes

is normally the preferred procedure because of its effectiveness in killing the biological material, however, the possibility of volatiliz- ing some of the radioactive material must be considered

4.3.2 Toxic and Flammable or Explosive Materials

The presence of highly toxic chemicals and flammable or explosive materials should be known to the emergency planner and to the

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES / 21 emergency response team Emergency plans should reference proce- dures for safe handling of these materials

Information about safe handling of hazardous materials is usually available from the manufacturer in the form of a Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) If the MSDS is not provided when the material

is purchased, it should be obtained from the manufacturer In gen- eral, the information provided describes the hazards involved, the means to use the materials safely, and actions to be taken if an accident occurs

4.4 Emergency Planning Guidelines and Classification

Planning for an emergency involving radiation requires evalua- tion of potential external dose equivalents and internal committed dose equivalents to the exposed population After determination of potential exposures, an assessment of the potential seriousness of different exposure conditions should be used to develop appropriate response plans The classification of an emergency is essential to the development of an acceptable response plan, although the process of establishing an emergency classification scheme based on potential radiation exposure is difficult Exposure to intense external radiation fields can produce relatively high doses and these doses may produce severe clinical effects Situations involving contamination and intake of radioactive material usually result in a low rate of dose accumulation and generally produce no immediate clinical effects Emergency planning is concerned with response to both types of exposure conditions

It is prudent to classify the most serious emergency as one which may produce nonstochastic effects Nonstochastic effects are those for which the severity of the effect in affected individuals varies with the dose, and for which a threshold may therefore occur (NCRP, 1987) Nonstochastic effects include cataract induction, nonmalig- nant damage to the skin, hematological deficiencies, and impairment

of fertility (BEIR, 1980; NCRP, 1987) Emergencies which would have the potential for producing serious nonstochastic effects require planning for medical treatment of the exposed individuals Within the scope ofthis report, accident classifications are based on potential dose, with the classification increasing with potential dose

This report is based on the assumption that facilities in which radiation emergencies could involve large numbers of individuals will have emergency plans in place Therefore, the scope of this report does not include consideration of facilities where exposure to

, 22 1 4 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

a large segment of the population is likely Although collective dose (person-sieverts) may be a significant factor in assessing the risk from a large accident, such situations are considered to be outside the scope of this report

If potential exposures are below nonstochastic thresholds, the major emphasis of the emergency plan should be to limit stochastic effects in exposed individuals Stochastic effects are those in which the probability of occurrence (rather than its severity) is a function

of dose without threshold Radiation induced cancer is the major stochastic effect (BEIR, 1980; NCRP, 1987) Special care shall be taken to protect the embryolfetus (NCRP, 1987)

Situations involving radiation exposure are characterized in this report as

Incidents

Level One Emergencies

Level Two Emergencies

An Incident is a situation which results in any unplanned exposure

or any unplanned release of radioactive material Level One Emer- gencies occur when exposures in excess of applicable effective dose equivalent limits are possible (NCRP, 1987) Level Two Emergencies occur when exposures high enough to produce nonstochastic effects

in those exposed are possible Table4.1 provides threshold doses for effects in various organs (UNSCEAR, 1982; ICRP, 1984a; NCRP, 1987; NRC, 1989)

This is a planning document and the individuals responsible for preparing emergency plans need to be realistic in assessing the potential for radiation exposure and subsequently placing into Inci- dent, Level One or Level Two Emergency Categories

In evaluation of emergency classifications it is clear that an expo- sure potential within any applicable effective dose equivalent limit should be considered as an incident If any limit may be exceeded, the classification may be a Level One or a Level Two Emergency, depending on the magnitude of the estimated dose equivalent If the dose equivalent exceeds any of the threshold doses for nonstochastic effects listed in Table 4.1, the emergency must be classified as a Level Two

It should be noted that the NCRP has recommended, as an effective dose equivalent limit for an individual member of the public, 5 mSv

TABLE 4.1-Threshold doses for effeets

Tissue exposed Dose equivalent

All other organs (eg., bone marrow >0.5 Sv

depression, lens opacification)

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES 1 23 for infrequent annual exposures from any given radiation source (NCRP, 1987) If a member of the public could be exposed to a dose

in excess of 5 mSv this could be considered a Level One Emergency

It should be emphasized that an exposure of 5 mSv to a member of the general public may indeed be considered significant The NCRP recommends as a limit for continuous or frequent exposure of mem- bers of the public an annual limit of 1 mSv The NCRP recommends that only when an annual effective dose equivalent is less than 0.01 mSv should it be considered as representing a negligible individual risk (NCRP, 1987) Therefore, all involved with the control of poten- tial exposures to workers or the public should maintain exposures

as low as reasonably achievable during the recovery period Tables 4.2 to 4.5 are intended to assist the Emergency Director in the classification of potential emergencies involving radiation They provide the means for the estimation of internal and submersion committed dose equivalents for skin or external dose equivalents produced by exposure to various radionuclides The committed dose equivalent is the dose equivalent to the most highly exposed tissue

in the body that will occur over a period of 50 years after the intake

of a radionuclide

The data presented in Table 4.2 are taken from ICRP Publication

30 and its supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197923; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b) and may be used to approximate the most conservative committed dose equivalents resulting from ingestion, inhalation and absorption from wounds that may occur during emergencies involv- ing the radionuclides listed The data of Table 4.2 are maximum dose equivalents for adults and should be used only for emergency planning purposes for the categorization of potential emergencies The maximum committed dose equivalents reported are for the one body organ that -would receive the largest dose equivalent due to a hypothetical accident scenario Such a scheme was adopted in order

to simplify the classification process and to ensure that the most conservative committed dose equivalent is used, regardless of organ The reader is referred to ICRP Publication 30 for radionuclides not listed in Table 4.2 The committed dose equivalent indicated for oral intakes is that body organ that would receive the maximum committed dose equivalent due to an ingestion of the radionuclide indicated

When using the data of Table 4.2 for determination of the commit- ted dose equivalent it should be remembered that the dose is deliv- ered over a time period which depends on the effective half-life of the radionuclide in the body This time period should be considered when assessing the possibility of nonstochastic effects Use of Table 4.2 requires an estimate of the potential oral intake, the intake

24 1 4 CLASSIFICA!I7ON OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

TABLE 4.2-Maximum committed dose equivalent to any organ for adults per

becquerel of intake

Route of intake

Oral Punctureb Inhalation

Radionuclide (SvIBq) (SvIBq) (SvIBqf

3H (as 3H20) 1.7 x 10-l1 1.7 x 10-l1 1.7 x lo-" 3H (elemental) - - 9.9 x lo-g." 14C 5.6 x 10-lo 5 6 ~ 10-lo 5.6 x 10-lo

WI 4 6 ~ 10-9 4.6 x 1 0 - ~ 2.9 x 10-9

"From Publication 30 and supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197913; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b) with appropriate corrections for intakes due to puncture or injection Dose indicated is the maximum organ dose to the organ most sensitive to the particular mute of intake Does not include skin as an organ

bComputed from oral and fl values of Publication 30 (ICRP, 1979a)

Wnits are Sv-cma/Bq-h Air concentration in Bq/m3 times value gives maximum

S v h while immersed in 3H

due to inhalation, and the fraction of activity injected or absorbed through the skin Consideration should be given to the chemical nature of the radioactive compound prior to assigning a percent uptake through the skin

Table 4.3 may be used to evaluate the potential committed dose equivalent to the skin due to surface contamination on the skin The dose equivalent rate to the radiosensitive layer of the skin in mSv- cm2/MBq-h is tabulated for several radionuclides The factors are for infinite plane and point sources at a depth of 7 mg/cm2 in water These factors are taken from Cross et al (1982) and are essentially identical to the data of Berger (1971) Kocher and Eckerman (1987)

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES / 25

TABLE 4.3-Skin contamination dose equivalent rate fdetors at a depth of

7 mglcm2J'

Infinite area

s o ~ r c e ~ , ~ Point sourced Radionuclide (mSvcm2/MBq-h) (mSvlMBq-h)

"From Cross et al (1982)

bAppropriate for sources with average radii larger than the range of the radiation

in water

cMultiply by 3.7 to obtain the dose equivalent rate in rad-cm2/mCi-h

dMultiply by 3.7 to obtain the dose equivalent rate in rad1mCi-h

'See text for application of table Values from McGuire and Dalrymple (1990) Recommended value from Johnson and Lamothe (1987)

=NO value provided

have published values for the dose equivalent rate a t depths of 4,7,

8, and 40 mg/cm2 in tissue for a large number of radionuclides These values are also in general agreement with the above authors The doses determined very near the skin surface for energetic beta sources would tend to be overestimates because of the assumption of

an infinite homogeneous medium (Berger, 1970; 1974) The dose equivalent rates for area sources are applicable if the source radius

is greater than the range of the maximum energy beta particle in tissue For areas of skin contamination with radii less than the range

of the maximum energy beta particle, electron point source kernels and numerical integration may be required The maximum commit- ted dose equivalent can be computed using the point source factors given in Table 4.4 However, interpretation of such calculations

26 / 4 CLASSIF'~ATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

TABLE 4.4-Maximum external photon and electron dose equivalent fnctors for any organ for selected mdionuclides for point and infinite area sources.*b

Area sourcebL Area sourceb$ at Point sourc+ at 1 md-photon 1 md-electrons Radionuclide (mSv-cm2/Bq-h) (rnSv-m2/Bq-h) (mSv-cm2iBq-h)

"Point source factors from Jaeger et al (1968)

bArea source factors from Kocher (1980)

'Specific gamma factors were multiplied by the factors for converting from roentgens

to rads in water given in NCRP Report No 69 (NCRP, 1981) and assuming a Q of 1

TO obtain mSv/h, multiply by activity in Bq and divide by the square of the distance

'nv indicates no value has been provided

may prove difficult and may lead to unrealistic committed dose equivalents

Use of Table 4.3 for the determination of a skin dose resulting from an area source on the skin would require knowledge of the average activity per unit area (MBq/cm2) on the skin for an assumed time in hours In using Table 4.3 for determination of skin dose due

to a point source on the skin, the activity present in MBq and the time of exposure in hours is required The skin dose factors for point sources must be used with caution as these factors are very dependent

on geometry and the self absorption characteristics of the source Improper application of these factors may lead to significant overesti- mates of skin exposures and overresponse in an actual emergency See Report No 106 (NCRP 1989) for a discussion of the "hot particle" problem

Information provided in Table 4.4 may be used to approximate the maximum external dose equivalent rate to body organs for a point

4.4 EMERGENCY PLANNING GUIDELINES 1 27

TABLE 4.5-Maximum photon dose equivalent mte conversion factors for any organ and electron dose equivalent mte conversion factors for skin for submersion in

contaminated aira

Photon dose Electron dose equivalent rateb equivalent rate' Radionuclide (mSv-cmS/Bq-h) (mSv-cm3/Bq-h)

137Cs-1"Ba (equilibrium) 1.2 x lo-' 4.3 x lo-a

"From Kocher (1980) Berger (1974) or Kocher and Eckerrnan (1981)

bValue is the maximum over all organs, excluding skin, semi-infinite cloud 'Value is for infinite medium dose to basal layer, 70 p+m depth and does not include the photon skin dose Photon skin dose is approximately equal to the value in the photon dose column

source or an infinite area source of radioactive material It should be noted that attenuation in air or in encapsulation material of the source was neglected in determining the values presented in Table 4.4 The area contamination dose equivalent factors are taken from Kocher (1980) and are valid at a distance of 1 m from the surface contaminated The point source factors were taken from Jaeger et

al (1968) and have been adjusted by multiplying by the factors of

absorbed dose to exposure given in Report No 69 (NCRP, 1981) Use

of the area contamination factors in Table 4.4 requires a knowledge

of the activity per unit area (Bq/cm2) of the surface contamination present, and the use of the point source factors requires a knowledge

of the distance in centimeters and the activity in becquerel of the radionuclide

Finally, the information in Table 4.5 may be used to estimate the dose equivalent rate to an individual immersed in a semi-infinite cloud of radioactive material The data were compiled from Kocher (1980), Berger (1974), and Kocher and Eckerman (1981) The dose equivalent rate for photons is the maximum expected to any organ

in the body (except skin) The electron dose equivalent is for the skin

a t a depth of 7 mg/cm2, and does not include the contribution from

photons An estimate of the photon contribution may be obtained from the photon column The dose equivalent rate may be determined

if the concentration in air in Bq/Cm3 is known

As stated previously, information given in these tables should be used for planning purposes only In an actual emergency situation, measured data, such as wound burden measurements and bioassay results, would be utilized for dose determination and subsequent impact Publications such as Report No 83 (NCRP, 1985b), Report

No 84 (NCRP, 1985a), Report No 65 (NCRP, 1980), Report No 54 (NCRP, 1977), Technical Report No 152 (IAEA, 1974), Publication

41 CICRP, 1984a), and Publication 30 with supplements (ICRP, 1979a; 197923; 1980; 1981a; 1981b; 1982a; 1982b) may be helpful

in actual evaluation of emergency conditions, evaluation of dose equivalents, and initiation of emergency treatment

4.5 Using The Emergency Classification System

The emergency plan should describe several types of emergency conditions and provide an appropriate classification and response for each Once the emergency planning reference level is selected using the guidelines suggested in Section 4.4, an appropriate sequence of responses may be placed into an emergency plan The flow chart shown in Figure 4.1 may be of use in the classification of radiation emergencies a t various facilities and in the construction of an emer- gency plan

The plan should include a mechanism for escalating or reducing the emergency classification as conditions change Use of the classi- fication scheme may help the Emergency Director in determining actions to be taken It may also help some of the assistance groups

in responding to an accident involving radioactive material

4.5.1 Incident

Situations that have been classified as incidents may require the interruption of normal operations but are unlikely to lead to signifi- cant exposures of individuals or more than a trivial release of radio- active material Such incidents may also impose regulatory require- ments on the facility or institution Situations which fall into the incident classification would usually be confined to the facility Potential incidents include, but are not limited to:

radioactive contamination in laboratories

radioactive contamination of personnel

4.5 USING THE EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM 1 29

IDENTIFY RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

QUANTITIES AND LOCATIONS

REVIEW RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS USE BY LOCATION AND SELECT CREDIBLE EMERGENCY CONDITIONS

DETERMINE AFFECTED GROUPS, PATHWAYS OF

ESTIMATE DOSE EQUIVALENTS FOR

APPROPRIATE TISSUES AND CONDITIONS-TABLES 4.2.4.3,4.4.4.5

CONSTRUCT EMERGENCY PLAN J

INCIDENTS

Fig 4.1 Emergency classification flow chart

ingestion or inhalation of radioactive material

loss of radioactive material

external exposures of individuals

LEVEL ONE EMERGENCY

4.5.2 Level One Emergency

LEVEL TWO EMERGENCY

Level One Emergencies have the potential for exposing individuals

in excess of the applicable effective dose equivalent limits Protective evacuations or isolation of certain areas within the facility may be necessary Releases of radioactive material outside the confines of the facility would not be expected to occur, but if such releases did occur, exposures to the general public would need to be considered Such a situation would interrupt normal activities and one or more elements of the emergency organization might be activated or noti-

30 1 4 CLASSIFICATION OF RADIATION EMERGENCIES

fied Such a situation may require the notification of governmental agencies and offsite emergency response organizations Emergencies which would be classified as Level One Emergencies could include but would not be limited to:

facility multi-laboratory contamination

admission of an injured and contaminated patient to a medical treatment facility

involvement of non-facility personnel such as fire fighters and police

floods or fires in low-level radioactive waste areas

loss or theft of radioactive material

4.5.3 Level Two Emergency

Level Two Emergencies are the most serious Normal operation of the facility would be interrupted and a potential for escalation of the radiation hazard exists Response is required as soon as possible to reduce the potential for significant radiological hazards Emergen- cies would be placed in this classification only if potential for radia- tion exposure exceeded the Level One limits It should be recognized that an emergency so classified may result in nonstochastic effects

in exposed individuals Protective actions such as evacuation of both the facility and offsite areas may be necessary, and the emergency plan should incorporate such contingencies Situations which could

be categorized as Level Two Emergencies include, but are not limited to:

a situation which has the potential for the release of a large quantity of radioactive material

emergency personnel entering areas which are significantly con- taminated

an accident involving serious injury and extensive personnel contamination and exposure

any situation which may result in radiation exposures above the reference levels of a Level One Emergency

4.5.4 Precautions In Applying Classification Schemes

The Emergency Director should understand the limitations of the

emergency classification scheme presented here The classification system categorizes emergencies based solely on their potentiul for radicrtion exposure to individuals This report includes only the vital

components of general emergency planning based on potential radio-

4.5 USING THE EMERGENCY CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM / 31

logical harm The Emergency Director must consider and evaluate all unique problems or circumstances, many of which have not been discussed here

Figure 4.2 is an example of a worksheet which should be available

to the Emergency Director as a guide in the evaluation of potential emergencies a t specific locations within a facility For each location, radioactive materials or radiation sources should be identified and classified Various conditions should be considered Each exposure category should be evaluated and the highest classification deter- mined using the appropriate tables provided in Section 4.4 A classi- fication would be associated with each potential emergency All'situ- ations not classified at higher levels would be Incidents Such work- sheets should be included in the emergency plan The "Amount

to Classify" column would represent the activity assumed for the classification indicated Conditions assumed in determining the clas- sification should be indicated in the "Mechanism" column The use

of this worksheet is illustrated in Appendix D

Instead of classifying as suggested in Figure 4.2, the Emergency Director may wish to determine the ranges of activity which would

be required to classify a t each level for the radioactive materials and forms used at a facility Once these activities are determined, the quantities on hand a t each location may be compared to the range and potential incidents classified This approach is also illustrated

in Appendix D for source classification a t a university

Many assumptions and approximations may be necessary in classi- fication of radiation emergencies The Emergency Director should

be as judicious as possible while maintaining a practical approach

to assessing the risks to health Emergencies are unexpected events which occur even though established procedures are in place

It should be remembered that the classification scheme is based

solely on potential radiological impact A h e or explosion would be

classified as a serious emergency irrespective of the radiological conditions

Facility: -r

Location:

a

inhalation other

"Type is S for sealed, U for unsealed, M for machine, 0 for other ?2

bMechanism Key: F fire

an emergency However, other factors need to be considered when developing an emergency preparedness plan, such as personnel noti- fication, guidelines for evaluation of an emergency, plan activation levels, integrated response of all support groups, actual classification

of an emergency, restoration, recovery, documentation and media releases

5.1 Personnel Notification

Notification of a radiation emergency in a medical, academic or industrial institution will probably be directed by telephone to the switchboard operator, or to personnel in the Security Office or Police Department, who should immediately contact members of the emer-

gency response team EPIPs should be reviewed frequently to ensure

that they are current and that the individuals listed are aware of the expected responses

An Emergency Plan Implementing Procedure (EPIP) should

address the steps to be taken for notification of an emergency condi- tion The EPIP for notification should describe the sequence ofactions required to alert, mobilize or augment the emergency response forces

of the institution and other supporting organizations If planned messages, announcements or alarm signals are used in the initial notification, the content of such messages and clear descriptions of alarms or signals used should be included in the relevant procedure

All individuals and agencies or organizations who are part of the plan should be listed, including current telephone numbers and radio

frequency and call letters If any authentication scheme is required

by outside support groups (e.g., fire, police, hospital), the methods of contact should be included