The study of pottery collections from the settlement site of seglamen 2010 field season

Abstract Archaeological investigations were conducted at the pre-Aksumite settlement site of Seglamen at different times starting from 2010, but systematic analysis on the ceramics that

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY AND HERITAGE MANAGEMENT

The Study of Pottery Collections from the Settlement Site of Seglamen:

2010 Field Season

By: Friyat Angesom

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

June, 2017

The Study of Pottery Collections from the Settlement Site of Seglamen:

2010 Field Season

By: Friyat Angesom

Advisor: Tekle Hagos (Ass.Professor) Co-Advisor: Luisa Sernicola(PhD)

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Addis Ababa University, in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Art in Archaeology

June, 2017

Addis Ababa University School of Graduate studies This is to certify that the thesis presented by Friyat Angesom entitled: The Study of Pottery Collections from the Settlement Site of Seglamen: 2010 Field Season submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Masters of Art in Archaeology complies with the regulation of University and meets the accepted standard with respect to originality and quality

Signed by Board of Examiners

DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this thesis is my own work; it has not previously been published or presented for a degree in any other university and that all sources of materials used for the thesis have been cited and duly acknowledged

Name: Friyat Angesom Signature:

Date: _

Acknowledgments

Most of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratefulness and respect to the Almighty God for giving me the courage, power, and mercy to finish my study “God and St Marry thank you so much for everything”

Next to this, I would like extend my deepest gratitude and great fullness to Aksum and Addis Ababa Universities respectively for sponsoring my education fully and rendering me the necessary budget

to accomplish my research Completing my study without the support of the two universities would have been very difficult

Next, I would like to extend my genuine appreciation and gratitude to my principal advisor Assistant Professor Tekle Hagos for his unrelenting supervision, tolerance, encouragement and determined support My advisor, I want to thank you so much for your invaluable, unchanged and continued support It has been a real blessing to have you

My heartfelt appreciation, respect and gratefulness also goes to my co-advisor Dr Luisa Sernicola for her priceless comments and guidance, and for the complete effort she made for the completion

of this study Besides her overall effort and determination to succeed this thesis, her role in translating different articles and books from Italian to English was quite indispensable for me to access important literary sources Thank you so much my dear

I would also like to extend my gratitude to peoples who were working with me at different times I want to thank Gabriella Giovannone, one of the ceramic analysts working at the site of Seglamen, for her active support while I was doing the description and documentation part of the work in the laboratory of Aksum’s museum Her experience was really valuable

I would like to express my gratitude to Ato Worku Derara for enhancing the drawings of potsherds using Adope Photoshop

Next I would like to thank my beloved family (Brhan, Hadush, Alula and Natnael) for everything I can’t imagine life without you

Finally, I would like to say thank you to my friends, classmates and other peoples whose name is not mentioned here

THANK YOU SO MUCH INDEED

Abstract

Archaeological investigations were conducted at the pre-Aksumite settlement site of Seglamen at different times starting from 2010, but systematic analysis on the ceramics that were recovered in 2010 field season from the building exposed at excavation unit SEG I has not yet been conducted These potteries are presently stored in the archaeological museum of Aksum This study was conducted aiming at providing the typological, functional and chronological classification of the pottery collection from one of the very few undisturbed contexts excavated at SEG I, namely unit 5, the living floor of Room 1 This was done in order to chronologically ascribe the building to one of the three major architectural phases exposed and documented

in the settlement area during 2010 up to 2014 field seasons by the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen of the University of Naples “L’Orientale” conducted under the direction of Rodolfo Fattovich, Andrea Manzo, and Luisa Sernicola Additionally, it was aimed at confirming the hypothesis that Room 1 of the building had been used as a food preparation and cooking area To achieve this, purposive sampling technique was employed in order to select the sample potteries from the whole pottery assemblage of SEG I Consequently, the data selected from the whole assemblage were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively Hence, the result of this analysis provides two groups of vessels with the total number of 377 sherds:276 non-diagnostic and 101 diagnostic sherds Detailed description and analysis of the diagnostic sherds allowed the researcher to extract seven types of vessels: bowls, cups, beakers, plates, basins, pots and jars, and thirteen groups of fabrics According to the types of vessels and color, and by comparing them with the ceramics from other pre-Aksumite sites, the researcher came up with the conclusion that Room 1 of the building was used as an area for cooking, preparing, and storing food and beverages; there serving vessels were also kept The room, and the building, can be chronologically dated to the pre-Aksumite period (1 st half

of the 1 st millennium BC) More precisely, they can be related to architectural Phase III of Seglamen, and dated to the 6 th /5 th centuries BC on the basis of radiocarbon dating from other buildings belonging to the same phase Finally, this research has come up with different recommendations which might be imperative for the future Hence, the intensive investigation of the entire ceramic assemblage from the whole building, their analysis combined with the study of related artifacts, botanical and faunal studies, as well as the detection of undisturbed samples for radiocarbon dating will surely play a pivotal role in bringing a more detailed knowledge about the dating and function of the building, and the economy and social organization

of the people living at Seglamen between the 6 th /5 th century BC

Key words: Seglamen, Pottery, Pre-Aksumite, Northern Ethiopia.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments……… I

Abstract……… ……… II

List of Tables……… V

List of Figures……… V

Table of contents ………III

C HAPTER O NE ……….1

1 Introduction……….1

1.1 Background of the Study Area……….1

1.2 Background of the Study……… 3

1.3 Statement of the Problem……… 9

1.4 Objective of the Study……… 10

1.4.1 General Objective……….10

1.4.2 Specific Objectives……… 10

1.5 Limitation of the Study……….10

1.6 Significance of the Study……… 11

1.7 Research Methodologies………11

1.7.1 Data Types and Source……… 11

1.7.2 Sampling Techniques……….11

1.7.3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures………12

1.7.4 Ethical Considerations……… 12

1.8 Organization of the Paper……… 13

C HAPTER T WO ……… 14

2 Review of Related Literature……… 14

2.1 Introduction……… 14

2.2 Previous Research on Ethiopian Pottery……… 16

2.3 Characteristics of the Aksumite Pottery from the Different Successive Periods in Aksum……… 20

C HAPTER T HREE ……… 28

3 Data Presentation……….28

3.1 Overview of the Ceramics from Seglamen: The Settlement and the Cemetery 28

3.1.1 The Settlement………30

3.1.2 The Cemetery……… 31

3.2 Documentation of the Ceramics from SEG I, Room 1, SU 5……… 32

3.2.1 Non-Diagnostic Sherds……… 33

3.3 Description of the Diagnostic Sherds from SEG I, Room 1, SU 5……….34

3.3.1 Rims……….36

3.3.2 Handles………37

3.3.3 Bases………39

3.3.4 Neck/Shoulders……… 40

3.3.5 Decorated Sherds………41

3.4 The Fabrics……… 45

3.5 From Diagnostics to Shapes……… 48

3.5.1 Bowls………48

3.5.1.1 Large Bowls……… 48

3.5.1.2 Medium Bowls……… 48

3.5.1.3 Small Bowls………49

3.5.2 Cups……… 49

3.5.3 Plates……….50

3.5.4 Pots………51

3.5.5 Basins………52

3.5.6 Beakers……… 52

3.5.7 Jars………53

C HAPTER F OUR ……… 56

4 Discussion………56

4.1 Introduction……… 56

4.2 An Interpretation on the Function of the Vessels from SEG I, Room 1, SU 5… 57

4.2.1 Bowls……….58

4.2.2 Cups……… 58

4.2.3 Plates……… 58

4.2.4 Pots……….58

4.2.5 Basins……….59

4.2.6 Beakers……… 59

4.2.7 Jars………59

4.3 An Interpretation on the Chronological Classification of the Pottery Collection and the Building 61

4.4 Conclusions andRecommendations……… ……… 65

B IBLIOGRAPHY ……… 68

List of Tables

Table 1: Tabulated list of the diagnostic sherds from SEG I, Room 1, SU 5……… 35

Table 2: Tabulated list of the decoration patterns from SEG I, Room 1, SU 5……….….42

Table 3: Tabulated list of the fabrics from SEG I, Room 1, SU5……… 46

Table 4 Tabulated list of the vessels identified at SEG I, Room 1, SU 5……… 54

List of Figures Fig 1: Map showing the location of Seglamen with respect to Aksum……… ….1

Fig 2: Photo of the May Haselo/Nigus river valley from the site……… ….………….2

Fig 3: Plan of the three major architectural phases exposed at the site……… ……….5

Fig 4: Photo and plan of the building of Phase I……….…6

Fig 5: Photo and plan of the structures of Phase II……….6

Fig 6: Photo and plan of the structures of Phase III……… 7

Fig 7: Photos and plan of the building exposed at SEG I: below right and left, stone slabs and stone blocks with traces of fire in Room 1……… 8

Fig 8: Map showing major pre-Aksumite and Aksumite archaeological sites of the Tigrean highland……… 19

Fig 9: Typical pre-Aksumite ceramics from Seglamen and Yeha……….…… 22

Fig 10: Typical Proto-Aksumite ceramics from Bieta Giyorgis……… ……… 23

Fig 11: Typological sequence of the Aksumite ceramics (after Bard et al 2014).……… 25

Fig 12: Photos and drawings showing different Akumite ceramics shapes and decorations……26

Fig 13: Map showing the location of the settlement and of the cemetery at the site of Seglamen.29 Fig 14: Map showing the Excavation Units from 2010 to 2013……….……… 29

Fig 15: Graph showing the amount of non-diagnostic and diagnostic sherds……….………… 32

Fig 16: Graph showing the amount of the types of diagnostics……… 35

Fig 17: Photos showing samples of rims from SEG I, SU 5……….……….36

Fig 18: Drawings showing samples of rims from SEG I, SU 5……….……….37

Fig 19: Drawings and photos showing samples of handles from Seglamen……….….38

Fig 20: Photos showing samples of bases from Seglamen……….39

Fig 21: Drawings showing samples of bases from Seglamen……… ……….40

Fig 22: Photos and drawing showing samples of shoulders from Seglamen……… 40

Fig 23: Drawings showing samples of decorations from Seglamen……… 43

Fig 24: Photos showing samples of decorations from Seglamen… ……….44

Fig 25: Graph showing the percentage of the different types of decoration ……….45

Fig 26: Graph showing the percentage of fabrics………… ……….47

Fig 27: Drawings of types of bowls from Seglamen……… … 49

Fig 28: Drawing of types of a cup from Seglamen……… ……… 50

Fig 29: Drawing of a plate from Seglamen……….50

Fig 30: Drawings and photos of types of pots from D-site at Kidane Mehret, Aksum………… 51

Fig 31: Drawing of a large basin from D-site at Kidane Mehret, Aksum……… …………52

Fig 32: Drawings of types of beakers from Seglamen….……… ………… ……… 53

Fig 33: Drawings of types of small jars from Seglamen……….54

Fig 34: Graph showing the percentage of types of vessels based on shape………….……… ….55

CHAPTER ONE

1 Introduction

1.1 Background of the Study Area

The modern village of Seglamen is located about 12 km to the southwest of Aksum along the Aksum-Adet road, in Lae’lay Maychew wereda, Central Tigray, Ethiopia (Fattovich et al., 2012) Surface survey conducted at the site proved that the pre-Aksumite site of Seglamen extends over an area of about 7 hectares, at the edge of the western cliff of the Nigus river gorge, and is bounded by the May Negus/Haselo river gorge on the north and north-east, the Shetambo hill on the south, the Ferasit and Gerat Gabara hills on the south-west, Teenti hill on the west and Kesaad Addi Kerni hill on the north-west (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola, 2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al., 2016)

Fig 1: Map showing the location of Seglamen with respect to Aksum (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological

The site of Seglamen is located in a conducive environment where there is a fertile soil and a regular rainfall Although much of the terrace surrounding the archaeological site is now heavily eroded, in some places down to bare rock, elsewhere the soil remains deep and apparently fertile The well-watered valley bottom provides lush pasturage and is also cultivated The land is currently under traditional plough cultivation and there are traditional rural houses nearby (Phillipson L., 2012)

According to Sernicola and Phillipson (2011), cited in Phillipson L (2013) the site’s prosperity may have been due to its location in a well-watered and fertile area and to its strategic position

on a main route leading in one direction to the Tekeze River and thence into central and southern Ethiopia, and in the other direction joining a major route that extends from the Red Sea coast westwards into Shire

Fig 2: Photo of the May Haselo/Nigus river valley from the site (courtesy of the photographic archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

The site encompasses the areas of Amda Tsion and Mogareb, in the eastern sector of the present village, where the settlement and the related cemetery are respectively located (Fattovich et al., 2012)

The definitive location of the pre-Aksumite settlement was identified during the survey conducted in 2006 in the framework of the World Bank Ethiopian Cultural Heritage Project (Fattovich and Tekle Hagos, 2006) and was confirmed in 2009 during a visit to the site by members of the Italian expedition and representatives of the Aksum University (Fattovich et al., 2012)

Starting from 2010, the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen of the University of Naples “L'Orientale”, under the direction of Rodolfo Fattovich, Andrea Manzo, and Luisa Sernicola1, is conducting systematic archaeological investigations at the site with the aim of reconstructing the cultural and environmental history of this area and to provide a detailed archaeological map for the cultural heritage management of Central Tigray (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola, 2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al., 2016) Significant information has been collected so far and remarkable new ideas have also emerged

1.2 Background of the Study

In Ethiopia, pottery making has been practiced for a long period of time in the past and is still present in some part of the country, including the northern regions (Phillipson D.W., 2000, 2012) although, it is rapidly disappearing as traditional clay pots are nowadays progressively replaced

by plastic and metal containers Even though, the beginning of pottery making in Ethiopia is still

an outstanding problem, archaeological evidence suggests that it was already practiced during the 3rd-2nd millennium BC; evidence from pre-Aksumite sites such as Yeha, Hawelti/Malazo, Matara, Kidane Mehret (D-site), Gulo Makeda, and Seglamen, proves that the use of ceramic pots and containers was fully established and widespread on the Tigrean highlands by the late 2ndmillennium/early 1st millennium BC (Phillipson D.W., 2000, 2012)

Among these, the pre-Aksumite site of Seglamen is conceived as a place where the tradition of pottery making was practiced on the basis of the occurrence of a set of lithic and ceramic tools which, according to Laurel Phillipson, were used to refine and decorate pots (Phillpson L., 2013)

Traces of the possible occurrence in the area of an archaeological site dating back to the 1st half

of the 1st millennium BC emerged in the early Seventies of the last century, when a royal inscription in monumental South-Arabic, attributable to the so-called pre-Aksumite period and

commemorating the re-erection or restoration of a temple dedicated to the god HBS, was found

by local farmers at Amda Tsion, in the southeastern sector of the modern village (Fattovich et al, 2012) Preliminary excavations at Seglamen were carried out in 1974 by the Università di Roma

“La Sapienza,” Rome, under the direction of Lanfranco Ricci (Ricci and Fattovich, 1987) These excavations brought to the light a large Post-Aksumite rural house, which was apparently built

on earlier foundations (Ricci and Fattovich, 1987)

Archaeological excavations conducted between 2010 and 2014 in the area of the settlement distinguished three major occupational phases, all ascribable to the pre-Aksumite period (1st half

of the 1st millennium BC) on the basis of the ceramics, other materials as well as radiocarbon dating, which have been classified as Phase I, II, and III from the bottom to the top of the sequence (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola, 2014, 2015, in press; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola

et al., 2016)

Fig 3: Plan of the three major architectural phases exposed at the site (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

According to Sernicola (2015), the earliest phase (Phase I) is represented by walls directly constructed on the bedrock and is characterized by a rectangular structure SW/NE oriented with four rooms, a back-yard and a possible front-yard; to the west of the building, outside of the structure, a hearth associated to a cluster of ashy soil has been recovered Radio carbon dating suggests a date for this building at very beginning of 1st millennium BC (ca 940-810 BC)

Phase I: red

Phase II: light blue

Phase III: green

Fig 4: Photo and plan of the building of Phase I (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

The intermediate phase (Phase II) is characterized by the remains of three open-air hearths and

by the remains of a circular dwelling This is the first positive evidence of the tradition of building circular houses in this region during the first half of the 1st millennium BC, so far suggested only by few clay models found at Hawelti

Finally, the latest phase (Phase III) is represented by a quadrangular building (12m x 12m) with massive walls about 1.20m thick Ten rooms with diversified sizes were detected: in Room 1, located in the north-eastern corner, a quadrangular stone feature 1.40m x 1.40m erected on a massive wall in the center of the room, was most likely used as a base for a pillar which supported an upper storey (Sernicola, 2015)

Fig 6: Photo and plan of the building of Phase III (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

Furthermore, excavations in 2010, conducted in the southernmost sector of the settlement, brought to light the heavily disturbed remains of an architectural unit, most likely a rectangular building, covered by a very thin layer of plowed top-soil (ca 10 cm) The walls were directly built on the bed-roc On the basis of the fragmentary evidence of the walls, it has been hypothesized that the original building might have had three rooms: two smaller ones in the north and a larger one to the south In one of the two smaller rooms, that located in the north-western sector and designed as Room 1, which measures 4.30 m × 4.70 m in area, an arrangement of three large stones with evidence of ashes associated with a great quantity of potsherds, bones, and grinding stones were found on the preserved living floor (SU 5), suggesting this was an area devoted to food preparation and cooking (Fattovich et al., 2012)

Fig 7: Photos and plan of the building exposed at SEG I: below right and left, stone slabs and stone blocks with traces of fire in Room 1 (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

The excavation at SEG I was conducted as a field-school for 3rd year BA students of archaeology and heritage management of the Aksum University under the supervision of Dr Hiluf Berhe The field-school was organized in the framework of an affiliation program established in 2008 between University of Naples “L'Orientale” and Aksum University to provide students with practical training in archaeological field procedures

However, at the moment, although the materials collected can be ascribed to the pre-Aksumite period, a detailed attribution of the recorded building at one of the three major architectural phases, and its functional classification are not yet possible as the ceramics associated to the structure have not yet been systematically analyzed Therefore, undertaking a systematic study of

the ceramics may help to provide important indications for a more precise chronological and functional classification of this structure

1.3 Statement of the Problem

Ceramics from the different contexts excavated at Seglamen have been systematically studied by

Dr Michela Gaudiello, who focused on the ceramics from Excavation Units II, V, VI, VIII, IX,

X, XII, and XIII from the settlement, and by Dr Luisa Sernicola and Mrs Gabriella Giovannone, who dealt with the ceramics coming from the cemetery (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola, 2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al., 2016) The ceramics have been described and classified in conformity with the typology Fattovich (1980) suggested in the mid-1970s for the classification of the “Pre-Aksumite” pottery (Fattovich et al., 2012) As stated before, so far, no systematic study has been conducted on the ceramics from Excavation Unit SEG I excavated in

2010

The systematic scrutiny of all field reports from 2010 to 2014 (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola,

2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al., 2016) motivated the researcher to undertake a systematic study of the pottery collections of the building exposed at SEG I, with a special focus

on the ceramics assemblage from SU 5 which represents one of the few living floors still preserved within that very disturbed archaeological deposit Preliminary field observation suggested the occurrence of typical pre-Aksumite specimens, nevertheless the exact attribution

of the building to one of the three architectural phases recorded at the settlement is not yet defined Sernicola added that, forthcoming analysis on collected materials would provide more detailed information not only with respect to the chronological attribution of the building, but also for a more detailed reconstruction of its function and the internal organization of space (Fattovich, et al., 2012; Sernicola in press) Therefore, these field reports led the researcher to dig out what has been considered as a missing and poorly understood part of the research project at Seglamen

The concern of the researcher was to critically study the ceramics assemblage from SU 5, Room

1, of the building excavated at SEG I By conducting the systematic analysis of the ceramics

from this unit, and by comparing the ceramics from this unit with those coming from the buildings of the three different architectural phases, the researcher attempted to (a) provide the chronological classification of the structure, and (b) confirm the hypothesis of Room 1 as an area

of food preparation and area of cooking

1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

 The general objective of this thesis is to study the pottery collections from the living floor (SU 5), Room 1, of the building exposed at Excavation Unit SEG I in 2010

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

The specific objective of this thesis are:

 To describe thewhole pottery collection from SU 5, Room 1 at SEG I

 To conduct a typological classification of the same ceramics on the basis of diagnostic fragments

 To provide a functional classification of the vessels (processing food, cooking food, serving food, containers and storage vessels) on the basis of their shape, size and surface treatment and by comparing with the vessels from sounding pre- Aksumite and Aksumite sites

 To undertake a chronological classification of the pottery collections in order to assign the building to one of the three architectural phases recorded in the settlement

1.5 Limitation of the Study

This thesis was confined to studying the ceramic assemblage of the living floor (SU 5) of Room

1 of the building exposed at SEG I, in the settlement of the pre-Aksumite village of Seglamen

of chronological classification of the structure Final results will be obtained when the whole assemblages from all contexts of the building is thoroughly be analyzed

1.6 Significance of the Study

The result of this study will provide preliminary data for the chronological classification of the structure and suggest the function of Room 1 Moreover, the study will serve as a spring board for other researchers with an interest of conducting a related detailed studies

1.7 Research Methodologies

1.7.1 Data Types and Sources

The study used both primary and secondary sources of data The primary data were collected from the pottery collections of the Seglamen Project which are stored in the Archaeological Museum of Aksum Additionally, the researcher made intensive interaction and communication with the specialists and researchers working at Seglamen during the whole research period Furthermore, reports, documents and articles which are related to the research were employed as major sources of secondary data throughout the research The combination of these sources served as a means to achieve the specific objectives stated in this research

of Aksum which are taken from the settlement site of Seglamen Hence, out of the different

recorded from SEG I, SU 5 The reason for selecting the pottery collections recorded from SEG

I, and specifically from SU 5 in Room 1, was the absence of systematic investigation on these potteries

1.7.3 Data Collection and Analysis Procedures

The following approaches were basically used in the study of the pottery collections of the settlement site of Seglamen These include;

 Consulting existing literatures on pottery classification, chronology, function and other related issues

 Describing and illustrating the diagnostic ceramics (rim, decoration, handle and base) on the bases of fabrics, surface treatments, shapes and decorations by using standardized forms and sketching using the materials like (ruler, profilographer, rim chart and pencil) and photographing with digital camera

 Grouping, measuring and weighing the non-diagnostic body potsherds on the bases of fabrics (color and inclusion) using the instruments like the Munsell’ Soil Charts, calliper and scale

 Chronologically classifying the described materials based on their typology and function according to the typology of pre-Aksumite ceramics proposed by Fattovich and to the updated typology of the ceramics from Seglamen provided by Gaudiello

 Comparing the potteries from SU 5 with those from the other buildings exposed at Seglamen, whose ceramics have been already described and classified

1.7.4 Ethical Considerations

The researcher placed a due care in collecting and analyzing data as a means of assuring the accuracy of results Moreover, the researcher did not misrepresent ideas and disseminate a faulty conclusion

1.8 Organization of the Paper

The study incorporates four chapters Chapter One includes the background of the study area and background of the study, statement of the problem, objectives of the study, limitation of the study, significance of the study, research methodology and ethical considerations Chapter Two

is about review of related literature focusing on ideas, concepts, arguments and research findings

of other scholars related to this topic Chapter Three gives emphasis to data presentation and analysis Finally, Chapter Four encompasses the discussion part, some concluding statements and recommendations

Together with other artifacts, pottery is a significant source of information to reconstruct human behavior in archaeological studies (Shrotriya, 2007) as it provides information on social boundaries, subsistence, trades and exchange, social networks, kinship systems, disease, and demography (Livingood, 2009) Potteries help to reconstruct household size, economic differentiation, craft specialization and social structures (Kramer, 1985) Furthermore, according

to Glassie (2010) potsherds are not only useful to know about shape, size, raw material and production techniques But they also reflect potters taste and idea towards beauty and significance

Pottery also provides information about chronology Beginning from the mid-19th century, archaeologists started to recognize that artifacts evolve through time and that these changes can

be used as indicators of specific time-periods and cultures (Renfrew and Bahn, 2000) The ideas

of typology and typological seriation have been applied since the beginning of their establishment to the study of ceramics assemblages with extremely useful results (see e.g the case of Sir William Flinders Petrie and the dating of more than 2000 Pre-Dynastic Egyptian

tombs based on ceramics seriation) (Renfrew and Bahn, 2000) Hence, as different types of

potteries reflect specific time periods and places, it is assumed that the minute study of potsherd

offers considerable promise in achieving an understanding of site chronology (Sutton and Yohe (2003) Thus, in archaeological studies pottery is generally used to identify style of cultural zones, explain migration of communities, interactions of populations (Shrotriya, 2007)

The art of pottery making emerged about 12,000 years ago in the Old World and about 5,000 years ago in the New World (Fagan, 1996) These early dates of pottery from different areas advocate that pottery was independently invented in Africa, probably as early as 10,000 BP According to Haaland (1995), pottery production first emerged alongside the southern edge of the Sahara and stretched pretty rapidly east-west across a 3,000 km belt of the continent

In most cases, pottery manufacturing was accompanied by a transition to increased sedentism in the early Holocene (Fagan, 2003) According to Fagan (2003), the first clay vessels were used for domestic purposes: food processing, preparation and consumption, as well as for carrying and storing water

Early pottery always appeared to occur in association with grinders and with the exploitation of aquatic resources According to present evidence it was used 2,000 years before the beginning of agriculture and people used pots to exploit aquatic and plant resources and for the boiling of food like porridge According to Haaland (1995), first ceramic vessels in Africa were part of a parcel

of a soup, porridge, and fish stew revolution

2.2 Previous Research on Ethiopian Pottery

In the last fifty years, even though archaeological research has made notable contributions to our knowledge of the early history of Ethiopia, and abundant material evidence including buildings and other monuments, inscriptions engraved in stone, metal, ceramic, glass and glass objects together with gold, silver and bronze coins have been gathered and revealed (Anfray, 2012), still

we don't have a complete and exhaustive picture of Ethiopia’s past This is mostly due to the fact that research (and research groups) focuses only on specific areas and specific periods while others remains so far almost completely unexplored

Although many archaeological expeditions recognized the existence of ancient pottery remains

in different parts of Ethiopia, the emergence of the earliest pottery in the highland and in the lowland parts of Ethiopia still remains to be scantly exploited and understood (Finneran, 2007), making it too hard to come up with final conclusions

According to Finneran (2007), potteries have been found in the latest occupation horizons of Porc Epic, Laga Oda, the Macho and Waso sites of Lake Zway area, Yabello and at Melka Kunture (Wofi) However, due to the bad state of preservation of these potteries and their contexts their chronology still remains uncertain In addition, in the highland regions, potteries were also found in the Moche-Borago site (dated to 2255+/-80 BP), Lalibela dating from the last millennium and at Quiha (5 kya-3kya)

Much more detailed is our knowledge of the ceramic sequences of the Tygrean highlands and particularly of the area of Aksum, as this area has been interested by many researches and research groups which focused on the emergence and decline of complex societies in this region between the early 1st millennium BC and late 1st millennium AD

Extensive excavations conducted between 1967 and 1969 under the direction of Francis Anfray

at Dungwur, in the area of Addi Kilte, resulted in the well-known and still visible Late Aksumite monumental building also named as “Queen of Sheba Palace” and yielded a large amount of potteries mostly dateable to the 6th/8th centuries AD (Anfray, 1972) Furthermore, remarkable pottery assemblages were also discovered during the investigation between 1974 and 1997 of tombs from the Main Stelae Field, as the 4th century AD Tomb of the Brick Arches, and from the

Gudit Stelae Field, GT 11(10-11), dating probably to the 3rd century AD (Phillipson D.W., 2000; Wilding, 1989) Moreover, Phillipson discovered potteries presumably dating between the 3rdand 4th millennium BC at Gobedra rockshelter (Philipson D.W., 1977) However, the dating of these assemblages still remains controversial Some of the decoration patterns of the sherds of Gobo Dura share similarities with potteries discovered in Southern Sahara and Nubia (Phillipson D.W., 1977)

In addition, Phillips (2000) carried out investigations on the potteries from the so-called D site at Kidane Mehret, to the north-east of Aksum town Accordingly, the superficial levels contained mixed up modern and Post-Aksumite material while lower levels were dated to the Late Aksumite and pre-Aksumite phases

Moreover, extensive archaeological excavations were conducted by the joint project of the University of Naples “L’Orientale” and Boston University on Bieta Giyorgis (BG) hill from

1993 to 2003 This resulted in establishing a comprehensive archaeological sequence and chronology for the development of the ancient capital city based on ceramic typology corroborated by radiocarbon dates from well-defined archaeological contexts (Bard et al., 2014) Thus, a ceramics collection consisting of 6,550 diagnostic fragments and 20 complete vessels has been studied by classifying each sherd by attributes relating to fabric, form and decoration and a detailed sequence was outlined distinguishing different phases of development Five phases of development of Aksum (Proto-Aksumite Phase, 360 BC – 120/40 BC, Aksumite 1 (Early Aksumite) Phase, 120/40 BC – AD 130/190, Aksumite 2 (Classic Aksumite) Phase, AD 130/ 190–360/400, Aksumite 3 (Middle Aksumite) Phase, AD 360/400–550/610 and Aksumite 4 (Late Aksumite) Phase, AD 550/610–800/850) have been identified (Bard et al., 2014)

Out of the territory of Aksum, but in its near vicinity, is the site of Seglamen Since 2010, the Italian Archaeological Expedition of the University of Naples "L'Orientale", under the direction

of Rodolfo Fattovich, Andrea Manzo, and Luisa Sernicola, is carrying out systematic archaeological investigations with the aim of reconstructing the cultural and environmental history of this area and to provide a detailed archaeological map for the cultural heritage management of Central Tigray (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola, 2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al., 2016) As a result of this, significant collections of potteries were found, a

preliminary typology of the ceramics has been proposed, and new information on ceramic technology have been obtained Therefore, the site is dated to the 1st half of the 1st millennium

BC on the basis of radiocarbon dating and that the ceramics can be typologically ascribed to the so-called “Pre-Aksumite” culture

Finally, a few archaeological researches which provided significant information on the ceramic sequence of this region have been carried out in different parts of present day central and eastern Tigray, and central Eritrea: specifically, at the sites of Yeha, Matara, Adulis and Mezber and the recent project conducted at Wakarida (eastern Tigray) and Mai Adrasha (Shire) site will also provide us a significant additional information in this regard The major outputs of these researches have been to establish site chronology and cultural affiliation, to determine site function (domestic, funerary/ceremonial, or for trade) in conjunction with other features (e.g., monumental architecture and human remains), and to pinpoint local stylistic and technological features of the pottery (D’Andrea et al., 2008)

All in all, with the fundamental steeping stone laid down by different archaeologists and recently

by the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Aksum of the University of Naples “L'Orientale” at Seglamen, the researcher undertook an investigation of the pottery collection from the living floor (SU 5) of Room 1, of the building exposed at Excavation Unit SEG I in 2010

The main goal of this research is to get information on the chronology of this building and on the use of the Room 1 This was done on the basis of the systematic study of the ceramics, which relays mostly on a typological classification on the basis of diagnostic fragments, and by comparing the ceramics with other artifacts found in the same context The typological description of the ceramics was done based upon the reference the typology provided for the ceramics of the settlement area of Seglamen by Michela Gaudiello (2014) as well as on the typological classification of pre-Aksumite ceramics proposed by Fattovich (1980)

Specifically, the research is aimed at providing a functional classification of the vessels (processing food, cooking food, serving food, containers and storage vessels) on the basis of their shape, size, surface treatment, observation of contemporary pottery function and comparison with other ceramics brought from the surrounding pre-Aksumite and Aksumite sites and, at undertaking a chronological classification of the pottery collections in order to assign the

Fig 8: Map showing major pre-Aksumite and Aksumite archaeological sites of the Tigrean highland

(courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

2.3 Characteristics of the Potteries from the Different Successive Periods in Aksum

The various archeological investigations mentioned in the previous section highly contributed at providing a detailed typology of the ceramics that circulated in central and eastern Tigray and central Eritrea between the early 1st millennium BC and the late 1st millennium AD In this section, major characteristics of the ceramics of the different cultural phases in the area of Aksum and its immediate surroundings will be overviewed

Before dealing with the characteristics of potteries from each periods, it is important to remark how the term “pre-Aksumite” will be used in this work in the light of recent debates The term Pre-Aksumite has been commonly used to refer to the archaeological culture recorded in northern Ethiopia and central Eritrea during the first half of the 1st millennium BC This culture showed abundant element of South Arabian origins, mainly of the Sabean culture, such as, for instance, inscriptions, stamp seals and monumental buildings like the temple at Yeha The term Pre-Aksumite has first been introduced by Anfray in the 1950s, when only few sites dating to that period had been investigated Increasing researches conducted at 1st millennium BC sites in the last decades have shown that, what was considered as single culture spreading all over the Tigrean highland is actually not so uniform Regional traditions are emerging thus providing a much more complex picture of the population history of the first half of the 1st millennium BC

of this region This evidence has opened up a debate among the archaeologists working in this area about the proper terminology to be used to refer to this period and its archaeological evidence (Fattovich, 2012) Phillipson has rightly remarked that the term Pre-Aksumite, at least

in its original meaning is no more acceptable (Phillipson D.W., 2009) Three main ceramic traditions have been recognized which have been tentatively defined by Fattovich (2014) as:

Tigray Ceramic Tradition, which encompasses the area between Aksum and Yeha, Agame Ceramic Tradition, which includes present Agame and Akale Guzay, and Sahel Ceramic Tradition which refers to the coastal regions of Eritrea (Adulis) Eventhough, scholars have not

come up with a final solution so far In my thesis, the lower case pre-Aksumite will be used to refer to the chronological period spanning along the 1st half of the 1st millennium BC Radiocarbon dating have demonstrated that the site of Seglamen falls in to this time-span The

ceramics found at the site, both in the cemetery and settlement stylistically has been defined as

belonging to what Fattovich has defined Tigray Ceramic Tradition

The Tigray ceramic tradition most likely is derived from a local Neolithic tradition dated to the

3rd and 2nd millennia BC, as the Neolithic and Early Pre-Aksumite ceramics include vessels with the same fabric and decorative patterns Two main periods of cultural development have been distinguished characterized by this ceramic tradition: The Pre-Aksumite Period (c 1000/900–400/300 BC), and the Aksumite Period (c 50 BC–AD 700) (Fattovich, 2010)

Therefore, the different characteristics of the ceramics discussed below belong to the Tigray

Ceramic Tradition

As noticed by Phillips (2000), pre-Aksumite pottery in the area of Aksum had not been reported from extensive occupation contexts before excavations were undertaken at the D site at Kidane Mehret between 1993 and 1997 From the study conducted on the ceramics from the lowest levels of this site, we can infer that the range of pre-Aksumite vessels used in this domestic area

is considerably different from that known from religious and burial sites such as Hawelti and the Yeha temple and tombs (Anfray 1966; Fattovich 1976, 1978, 1980; Phillips, 2000) The assemblage is characterized by an emphasis on forms and fabrics rather than on decoration Major shapes are Black Topped bowls, cups and beakers, pots, and flasks (Phillips, 2000) Almost all vessels have rounded bottoms; decoration is limited and thin, mainly including incised or combed bands usually in combinations of straight and wavy or zigzag lines near the rims of bowls and lids and on the shoulders of pots and storage pots Punctuated, possibly rouletted, bands also appear regularly on the body, as do applied bosses, ridges and other more elaborate types Fabrics of this period are mostly orange and red coarse to medium ware, black ware is also present but in a very low quantity

Fig 9: Typical pre-Aksumite ceramics from Seglamen and Yeha (courtesy of the archive of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen and of Prof Rodolfo Fattovich)

During the Proto-Aksumite period, according to Bard et al (2014), ceramics assemblages mostly included open bowls, often characterized by the presence of a vertical band handle and horizontal grip, and by a ring-foot base, closed jars with a globular body, straight short cylindrical neck, and vertical strap handles or moulded horizontal grips, round basins with a ledge rim, foot-washer and square basins with incised or impressed decorations on the rim, cups with inverted rim and vertical strap handles Decoration was scantly used during this period and included mostly incisions; molded and painted decorations sometimes occurred on circular and square basins The majority of the fabrics were very fine and hard and orange ware was pretty common Besides, ceramics with a dark red-purple color both on the internal and external surfaces were also common

Fig 10: Typical Proto-Aksumite ceramics from Bieta Giyorgis (courtesy of the photographic archive of the Italian/American Archaeological Expedition at Bieta Giyorgis)

Dealing with the Aksumite period, potteries of this period had a wide range of forms, shapes, and decorations; all vessels, except those which were imported, were handmade and in some cases coil fractures are observed A preliminary typological classification proposed by Wilding suggests that Red Aksumite (RA) is the earliest of the defined wares and with its variants appears to have been the basic pottery of ancient Aksum and have lasted from perhaps the 2nd to the 5th century AD (Wilding, 1989) However, the color cannot be considered as a fundamental attribute in making typological seriation of ceramics as it largely depends on raw material and firing techniques A much more detailed typology of Aksumite ceramics, updated in the light of last researches in this area, has been recently proposed by Bard et al (2014) According to it, ceramics of the Early Aksumite phase were characterized by small and large bowls with a ring-foot, high necked bottles with a globular body and rounded base, and cups with a tiny vertical handle Fabrics of this period were predominantly orange and red in color, relatively coarse and could be easily broken up into small pieces

Bard et al (2014) didn’t recognize a big difference between the shapes and fabrics of ceramics

of the Early Aksumite period and those of the Classic Aksumite period Hence they came up with the conclusion that Classic Aksumite ceramics are akin to those of the earlier phase The major difference they identified was in the emphasis given to decoration: Classic Aksumite pots

were characterized by the presence of grooved vertical lines alternating with bands of cut lozenges packed with egg shaped dots as well as vegetal motifs

Ceramics of the Middle and Classic Aksumite periods, again, have a big resemblance in shapes and style, albeit the decorations of Classic Aksumite pots are very limited in this phase Besides,

at this stage cross progressively emerged as a new form of decoration (Bard et al., 2014)

Pertaining to Late Aksumite potteries, according to Phillips (2000), these are best differentiated

by referring to their shape and/or decoration With regard to the shape of these potteries globular jars with a short cylindrical neck, handled bowls with everted rim and dishes are the common of this period Furthermore, according to Munro-Hay (1991), painted decoration on pottery consisted of crosses in various colors, plant motifs, or panels filled in different ways and the presence of impressed or molded crosses became a dominant decorative motif in this period Red, black, purplish and white paints were popular colors The decorations used during the Early and Classic Aksumite periods were hardly used at this time Besides, potteries of this period were typically characterized by their brown or well fired light orange/pink ware (Bard et al., 2014)

Finally, with reference to the Post-Aksumite period, potteries of this phase were characterized

by closed bowls with a rounded shape and short inflected rim in a wide range of dimensions, undecorated rounded cups, trays with a short rim, burnished interior and rough exterior, and large high-necked jars with burnished or smoothed surfaces and, rarely Burnishing, incisions and molding were the major decoration techniques of ceramics of this period Grey and black ware with mineral and vegetal inclusions were predominant at this time (Bard et al., 2014)

Fig 11: Typological sequence of the Aksumite ceramics (after Bard et al 2014)

Fig 12: Photos and drawings showing different Akumite ceramics shapes and decorations (courtesy of the photographic archive of the Italian/American Archaeological Expedition at Bieta Giyorgis and after Anfray 1966)

With this background, this thesis is aimed at bridging the gap created in the absence of scientific and systematic studies on the potteries which were exposed during 2010 field season from the settlement site of SEG 1, Room 1, SU 5 Moreover, this research provides additional knowledge

on the description and classification of the potteries based on typology, function and chronology

Before going into the detail of the data collected, it is worthy to provide a general overview of the ceramics from the other excavation units so far investigated at the pre-Aksumite site of Seglamen, both in the area of the settlement and of the cemetery This overview is based on the preliminary study and typology of the ceramics from Seglamen provided by Michela Gaudiello

as part of her PhD research project in African Studies at the University of Naples “L’Orientale (Gaudiello, 2014) The typology provided by Gaudiello constituted the primary reference tool for the description and classification of the ceramics studied for this research

Fig 13: Map showing the location of the settlement and of the cemetery at the site of Seglamen

(courtesy of the archives of the Italian Archaeological Expedition at Seglamen)

Fig 14: Map showing the Excavation Units from 2010 to 2013

Cemetery

3.1.1 The Settlement

As presented in Chapter 1, excavations conducted at Amda Tsion, the settlement area of the ancient village of Seglamen, brought to the light the remains of three major architectural phases, which means phases of occupation of the area characterized by the presence of stone buildings overlapping each other These have been classified as Phase I, II, and III from the bottom to the top of the sequence All the phases are ascribable to the pre-Aksumite period on the basis of the ceramics and other materials as well as on radiocarbon dating (Fattovich et al., 2012; Sernicola,

2014, 2015; Sernicola et al., 2013; Sernicola et al 2016; Sernicola in press; Sernicola, personal communication)

Phase I corresponds to the most ancient architectural phase documented in the area and the ceramics which belong to this phase consist of fragments of jars, jugs, open bowls, pots, cups and flasks Decorations of this phase are very simple They mostly consist of incised horizontal, wavy or zig-zaging lines almost exclusively made by using a single-point tool; impressed and molded decorations are also present Predominant fabrics are Red Polished Fine Ware (RPFW), Light Brown Ware (LBW), Pink Ware (PW), Dark Red Ware (DRW) and Light Red Polished Fine Ware (LRPFW); Black Topped Ware (BTW) are also present Orange Fine Ware (OFW) and Orange Medium Ware (OMW), which are predominant in the later phases, are almost completely absent (Fattovich et al., 2011, 2012; Gaudiello, 2014; Sernicola et al., 2013, 2016; Sernicola, 2014, 2015)

Phase II is so far poorly represented but it is extremely interesting as it is characterized by a completely different layout of the structures and by a different construction technique if compared with the earlier phase (Fattovich et al., 2011, 2012; Gaudiello, 2014; Sernicola et al.,

2013, 2016; Sernicola, 2014, 2015) Major changes occur also in the ceramics of this phase Ceramics assemblages include bowls, cups, bottles, jars and jugs The decoration techniques include impression, molding and incision, as in the previous phase, incisions are very simple, almost exclusively made by using a single-point tool Black Topped Ware (BTW), Orange Fine Ware (OFW) and Orange Medium Ware (OMW) are dominant fabrics, followed by Black Polished Fine Ware (BPFW) (Fattovich et al., 2011, 2012; Gaudiello, 2014; Sernicola et al.,

2013, 2016; Sernicola, 2014, 2015)