The challenge of globalization on the traditions of wameru (varwa) society in tanzania

The Challenge of Globalization on the Traditions of Wameru Varwa Society in Tanzania Habtamu Alessandro Bais A Thesis Submitted to The Center for African and Oriental Studies Presente

The Challenge of Globalization on the Traditions of Wameru (Varwa)

Society in Tanzania

Habtamu Alessandro Bais

A Thesis Submitted to The Center for African and Oriental Studies

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts in African Studies (African Intellectual History and Cultural Studies)

Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

June, 2017

COLLEGE OF SOCIAL SCIENCES CENTER FOR AFRICAN AND ORIENTAL STUDIES

THE CHALLENGE OF GLOBALIZATION ON THE TRADITIONS OF

WAMERU (VARWA) SOCIETY IN TANZANIA

HABTAMU ALESSANDRO BAIS

A Thesis Submitted to the Center for African and Oriental Studies of Addis

Ababa University Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Masters of Arts in African Studies (Intellectual History and Cultural Studies)

ADVISOR ZERIHUN BERHANE (PHD)

JUNE 2017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I want to express my immeasurable gratitude to every person that I encountered and shared my idea, because everyone helped and supported me with grateful kindness, humanity and emphatic comprehension I did my research putting on my shoulder all the suggestions and counsels of everyone It is for me a wonderful wage that I am happy to carry on I praise God I thank my family for economic sustain and encouragement I am

in credit to all staffs and students of Center for African and Oriental Studies and to my advisor Assistant Professor Zerihun Berhane (PhD) for his valuable directions and corrections I claim the privilege of benefiting from cooperative learning with Tesfaye Eba (Student of the Center) I express gratitude to Dr Samuel Tefera for inspiring me to

do this research and to Dr Getachew Kassa for priceless corrections and encouragement

I thank also Dr Solomon Hassen for his precious assistance in the phase of writing the paper In Arusha, I am in debt for the providential succor and comfort of ECHO I give special attention to all the people of Meru (Wameru); to the Chairman of the Varwa tribe,

to my hosting father Ndelekwa Yesaya Kaaya and my assistant Johova Roy Stephen Kaaya This research is approved by Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology (COSTECH)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I TABLE OF CONTENTS II ABSTRACT V ACRONYMS VI CHAPTER ONE 1

INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 3

1.3 Objectives of the Study 5

1.5 Description of the Study Area 6

Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania Plate 1.1: Mount Meru 6

Fig 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages 7

1.6 Significance of the Study 8

CHAPTER TWO 9

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 9

2.1 Introduction 9

2.1.1 Operational Definitions 10

2.2 Conceptual Framework 11

2.2.1 The Concept of Globalization 11

2.2.2 Concept of Culture 15

2.2.3 Relation between Cultures 20

2.2.4 Relation amid Cultural Globalization and Indigenous Culture 22

Chart 2.1: Conceptual Scheme of interaction amid globalization and local culture 24

2.3 Theoretical Framework 24

2.3.1 Hyperglobalizers or Globalist and Cultural Homogenization 25

2.3.2 Political Sceptics or Traditionalist and Cultural Heterogenization 26

2.3.3 Transformationalists and Cultural Hybridization 30

2.4 Background of Wameru 31

2.4.1 Historical Background of Wameru 31

2.4.2 Social and Economic Organization 32

2.4.3 Political Organization 32

2.4.4 Patterns of Change in the Culture of Wameru 33

CHAPTER THREE 35

RESEARCH METHODS 35

3.1 Introduction 35

3.2 Research Design 36

3.2.1 Why Case Study? 36

3.2.2 Description of the Study Area 37

Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania Plate 1.1: Mount Meru 38

3.2.2.1 Wameru Society as a Case 39

3.2.3 Why Globalization as a Problem? 40

3.3 Qualitative Data Collection 41

3.3.1 Fieldwork 42

3.3.2 Document Analysis 44

3.3.3 Sampling Techniques 45

3.4 Data Analysis Strategy 45

3.4.1 Thematic Data Analysis 46

3.4.2 Procedure for Interpretation and Discussion of the Data 46

Table 3.2: Data Analysis 47

3.5 Ethical Considerations 48

CHAPTER FOUR 49

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 49

4.1 Introduction 49

4.1- Effect of Globalization on Tangible Practices of Varwa Culture 51

4.1.1 The Tangible Cultural Practices: Food Consumption, Clothing and Houses 51

4.1.2 Historical Pattern of Cultural Change among Varwa 53

Plate 4.1: Traditional Varwa mud house with banana leaves roof 56

4.1.3 Cultural Relation in the Age of Globalization 58

Box 4.1: Case story of a Lecturer on Culture 59

Plate 4.2: Ngararumu (boiled maize and beans) Plate 4.3: Loshoro (maize, banana and milk) 60

Plate 4.4: Tengeru Market (imported shoes) Plate 4.5: Tengeru Market (imported clothes) 62

4.2 Interpretation of the Challenges of the Current Globalization on the Traditions 63

4.2.1 Utu in the History of Cultural Change 64

4.2.2 Relation amid Globalization and Utu 69

4.2.2.1 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Wameru Youths 70

4.2.2.2 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Varwa Elders 71

4.2.2.3 Globalization and Traditions in the View of Mangusha age group 73

4.3- Mechanisms for Cultural Preservation 74

4.3.1 The Nature of Wameru Society 75

Table 4.1: Varwa Leadership (past and present) 75

4.3.2 Mechanisms for Cultural Preservation based on Utu Philosophy 78

Box 4.3: Case Story of a University Professor 78

4.3.2.1 Age Set System (irika) Nature and Role 79

4.3.2.2 Corporal Punishment (sabini) Nature and Role 80

4.3.2.3 Breaking Pot (chungu/ nungu) Nature and Role 81

Photo 4.7: Mrinagringa, House of meetings of the Central Committee 83

CHAPTER FIVE 86

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 86

5.1 Conclusion 86

5.2.2 Traditional Philosophy and Mechanism of Cultural Preservation 89

5.2.3 Recapitulation of the Findings of the Study 90

5.3 Recommendations 91

5.3.1 For the Next Researchers 91

5.3.3 For Tanzanian National and Local Governments 91

5.3.4 Lessons for Others 92

5.3.5 For African Union 92

REFERENCES 93

List of Table and Box

Table 3.2: Data Analysis 45

Table 4.1: Varwa Leadership (past and present) 66

List of Figures Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania 6

Plate 1.1: Mount Meru 6

Figure 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages 7

Chart 2.1: Conceptual Scheme of interaction amid globalization and local culture 23

Box 4.1: Case story of a Lecturer in culture 56

Plate 4.2: Ngararumu (boiled maize and beans) 57

Plate 4.3: Loshoro (maize, banana and milk) 57

Plate 4.4: Tengeru Market (imported shoes) 59

Plate 4.5: Tengeru Market (imported clothes) 59

Box 4.2: Case story from a tribe Leader (Chairman) 68

Box 4.3: Case Story of a University Professor 75

Plate 4.6: Mringaringa (cordia abyssinica) Tree under Which all Wameru Assemble….77 Plate 4.7: Mrinagringa, House of meetings of the Central Committee 80

ABSTRACT

The Challenge of Globalization on the Traditions of Wameru (Varwa) in Tanzania

Habtamu Alessandro Bais

Addis Ababa University, June 2017

This study is an attempt to explore the challenge of globalization on the indigenous philosophy of Wameru (Varwa) society of Tanzania, by investigating the change in the tangible cultural practices in food consumption, clothing and building house Globalization, with its forceful individualism, is a challenging phenomenon to the local traditional societies, which are based on communalism The objectives of the inquiry relay on this issue Firstly, it is to examine the actual effect of globalization on the local practices and customs Secondly, it is to explain that this visible outcome of the globalization process goes farther by replacing the indigenous knowledge, values and norms system Finally, it is to analyze the assumption that if the society has not cultural strategies and instruments to preserve itself then it would cease to be an authentic historical civilization The research is a qualitative exploratory case study This method is chosen because; the topic of the study is empirical, contemporary and active also in the socio-cultural context Within this design, the collected data fulfills and addresses the objectives of the study All findings are tied with the fact that Varwa have endogenous mechanism to safeguard their cultural identity There are some lessons that are important for higher education institutions, local communities, national governments and African continental institutions; therefore, the essence of the study is grounded on the fact that globalization has a cultural dimension rooted on personal identity and it is dangerous to the collective identity of the local culture

Key Words: Globalization, Wameru, (Varwa), Ubuntu (Utu), Case Study, Tanzania

ACRONYMS

AMEC African Mission Evangelical Church

COSTECH Tanzania Commission for Science and Technology

DPMF Development Policy Management Forum

ELCT Evangelical Lutheran Church of Tanzania, it is the English form of KKKT

IO Instituto Oikos [Oikos Institute]

KKKT Kanisa la Kiluteri Kristo Tanzania

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

Local Terms

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study

Early in my study on African history and cultures, I was reading a book titled 'Philosophy from Africa' (Coetzee & Roux, 2002) I came in contact, for the first time,

with the word Ubuntu It is a Bantu concept and it is expressed in the Zulu's proverb

"Umuntu Ngumuntu Ngabantu", which means that a person is a person through other persons It is associated with human dignity, equality, justice and solidarity (Gade, 2011;

Van Niekerk, 2013) The latter characteristic of Ubuntu, reminded me the childhood experiences When I was in Wello region, in the Ethiopia's Highlands, my grandfather's house was old, therefore all adult males came together to destroy the old one and rebuilt a new one It was an outcome of communal work and life and expression of mutual aid

Keeping this in mind, I decided to do research on Ubuntu Reflecting on it,

sharing with others and by attending the course 'Anthropology in the African perspective',

I finally committed myself for an ethnographic research on a rural society that has the Ubuntu philosophy Another factor that encourage me was the concern that African societies in general and rural communities in particular had only ―two choices: disappearance –‗either through genocide, cultural erasure or assimilation‘–or adaptation, through transformation in the form of hybridization and synthesis‖ (Leonhard & Siphokazi, 2012, p.7) In other words, there is a general protest over the erosion of the communal identity due to the increasing attention to the individual interest, rights and freedom The relation amid globalization idea of individualism and indigenous idea of communalism is a current issue and concern for Africans

African relations with the outside world, since Egyptian Empire, were characterized by mutual exchange of cultural elements within the commercial and political connections In fact, as evidenced by Bayart and Ellis (2000) there were ―regular patterns of trade with China, India, the Persian and the Mediterranean‖ (p.218) In the same manner, there were a rich interconnection regarding language, usage and even religious belief between Middle East, Northern and Eastern Africa In the ancient time, Africa was regarded even culturally equal to others and it had respect and fascination

Notwithstanding, the contemporary Africa is considered poor culturally, economically, politically and inferior to the other continents

Historically, there are several tentative of globalization, in a sense of uniforming and governing the world under the same authority and cultural system The Roman Empire and the British Empire are the major historical examples In the same manner, globalization as a process had various stages The current started in 1990s, after the end

of Cold War It is founded on the capitalist idea of enrichment and liberalist idea of total freedom or liberty The combination of these two ideas created an aggressive phenomenon that is affecting local society all over the world There is a vivid debate whereas the influence is positive or negative

There are globalists, who favor globalization Among them Wang (2007) advocated the fact that globalization brought development and mutual enrichment among cultures On the other hand, the traditionalists protest the destructive effect of globalization They sustain that the local or indigenous culture are losing their means of survival and it is imminent their extinction The cultural alienation is something current and actual, which also brings numerous social, environment and political problems

The African current cultural reality is dominated and affected by globalization phenomenon Africa is pervaded by the individualism and Western supremacy As stated

by Caracciolo and Mungai (2009) ―the obsessive Western focus on individualism and the continued colonization of African indigenous peoples through the new forms of global capitalism have served to diminish the importance of African collectivist humanism and

… communal way of life‖ (p 10) Despite of that, in the case of Tanzania, the Western infiltration is not that radical, because of the considerable transformations brought by Nyerere with his party TANU during the formation of the new State

The first President of the Country, changed the whole colonial system and

avoided the Western system of development basing the new one, called Ujamaa, on the

traditions as well as on self-reliance and self-organization philosophy (Nyerere, 1968; Essack, 1971) Although the Ujamaa ideology failed in its implementation (Ibhawoh and Dibua, 2003), its contribution is still present in the current Tanzanian social, political and cultural environment It is guaranteeing better education, peace, stability and hospital service This condition strengthens the social and cultural system making it stronger than

many other African countries Yet, globalization can affect the traditions of the rural people, such as Wameru, who can be attracted by the new globalized tendencies

In Northern Tanzania, in the Southern border of Arusha National Park, there is an agriculturalist Bantu speaking population, who has the philosophy of Ubuntu This idea is

near to the Ujamaa ideology The community calls itself as Varwa1 but the Tanzanians know it as Wameru, giving the name from the Mount Meru, because they occupied its fertile slope for more than three hundred years They reached East Africa, as the result of Bantu migration (Holden, 2002; Grollemunda, 2015), which took place during the first millennium C.E Their departure was from the original homeland of the Bantu people, the area on the border of modern Nigeria and Cameroon and by the Eighth Century; however, their recent movement is from Usambara, South East Tanzania toward North to Mount Meru, around four hundred years ago

In the history of this society the cultural relation with outsiders such as Maasai, Arusha, Europeans was characterized by taking new practices and ideas Varwa replaced and shaped part of their culture for the adaptation to the new condition and for survival from a crisis and struggles Nevertheless, they did not give up any fundamental value, norm and practice One of these core elements, which persisted throughout the time is

Utu (Ubuntu2) philosophy, which is currently challenged by the individualistic nature of globalization

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Globalization is a ―multifaceted‖ phenomenon that influences peoples' day to day activities (Giddens cited in Ibrahim, 2013, p.3) Africans are acquainted with it through numerous means, which are connected with projects for economic development and improvement of the peoples' life Notwithstanding, globalization has a negative impact on African indigenous cultures (Maduagwu, 1999; Kasongo, 2010; Ibrahim, 2013; Yankuzo, 2014; Yaboah, 2016), because it is replacing values and traditions (Petković, 2007)

1 In this paper Varwa and Wameru are used intechangeably, referring to the population of the study Wameru of Tanzania are not in any way related with the Meru of Kenya, except the fact that both are Bantu speaking people (Pulitt, 1977)

2 Ubuntu is an Ngoni term meaning humanness or humanity Utu is a Kiswahili term, with the same meaning

Traditions are fundamental, specially, for peoples who live in the rural area, as they are involved for identity formation, transmission of practices, values, norms and knowledge, for preservation of the core philosophy of the culture and providing for members of a society moral set for accountability (Ugbam, Chukwu & Ogbo, 2014, p.64; Yaboah, 2016, p.8) Hence, the disappearance of traditions brings identity crisis, social conflict and carelessness toward the community; moreover, a society risks of losing principles such as conviviality, solidarity and humanness These are synthetized by Ubuntu philosophy, which is present almost in whole African continent, shaping the livelihood of all Bantu speaking people (Khomba, 2011, p.128) It is also vital for the whole human being community (Chimuka, 2015) It is essential because, the dominant current reality is based on the personal identity and individualism; while the Ubuntu is founded on the collective identity, enhancing sense of communalism, belongingness and responsibility toward every human community and institution

Individuals, historically and naturally, replace their tangible cultural practices to express their personal identity This phenomenon, per se, is not a concern, because it is part of the dynamic nature of a culture (Erez & Gati, 2004) Notwithstanding, it has drastic effect on the core aspects of a local traditional society, which is rooted on collective identity By this, the researcher means that when a person decides to substitute his/her dressing, eating and housing pattern by following the new style brought by globalization, they are abandoning even their traditional principles, values, norms and wisdoms Above all, the intangible cultural elements are transmitted to the next generation by also tangible practices, therefore when there is a complete replacement of customs there is also a risk for losing the identity of that culture (Ugbam et al., 2014) When, a society has not a cultural identity and therefore aspects that differentiate

it among the others, then the society ceases to be an historical authentic civilization (Wahab, Odunsi, & Ajiboye, 2012) It is well expressed by a popular Tanzanian proverb:

―Kila Mwacha Mila ni Mtumwa‖, meaning literally whoever forsakes his/her culture is a slave (Mollel, May 2011) It is in a sense of becoming a property of another person or culture This study is meant to explore the risk of disappearance of cultural identity of a particular society such as Wameru in interaction with globalization process

Regarding the literature on the issue, despite the fact that, the scholars extensively wrote about the general effects of globalization on African cultures, there is little about a specific country like Nigeria (Nwegbu, Eze & Asogw, 2011; Ugbam et al., 2014); similarly on a particular ethnic group such as Maasai (Mollel, May 2011) Generally, there is shortage of studies that empirically had probed the effect of globalization on the traditions of a rural society, like Wameru of Tanzania

The literature, concerning Varwa, is characterized by ethno-historical studies (Moore & Puritt, 1977; Spear, 1997) and sociological study based on gender issue and HIV/AIDS (Haram, 1999) Most of the investigations are primarily related with the natural setting of Mount meru, therefore with land management and ecosystem conservation (Carlsson, 2003; Ghiglieri, 2008; Nelson, 2009)

Being aware on the need for genuine understanding of African cultures (Yankuzo, 2014) and based upon the stated problem of absorption of local culture into globalization, the researcher will explore, in the qualitative case study manner, the challenge of globalization on the traditions of Wameru society

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.3.1 The general objective of the study

To explore the challenge of globalization on the intangible traditional heritage of Varwa society, such as Ubuntu, by focusing on the change of tangible cultural practices, as well

on their endogenous mechanism of cultural preservation

1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the study

The study is in the effort to meet the following specific objectives:

* To examine the effect of globalization on the tangible elements of the Varwa culture such as food consumption, dressing code and houses form

* To explain the danger of the process of replacement of the tangible practices on the intangible core aspects of the local culture, by focusing on Varwa's interpretation of cultural change

* To analyze the role of Utu philosophy in formulating a mechanism for conservation of the Varwa cultural identity from the threat of globalization

1.5 Description of the Study Area

The research is a qualitative case study, which inquire into the Wameru society

traditions Thereby, considering, the geographical setting of this community, it is in

Eastern Africa Precisely, in Northern Tanzania, Arusha region, Arumeru District, Usa

River and Tengeru area, as respectively the capital town and the market town On the

slope of Mount Meru there are several villages, but in the concern of the researcher are

Kimundoo, Akeri and Poli, for their centrality and historical importance

Mount Meru is an active volcano and stand at an imposing height of 4,565 m The

rainforests on its slopes provide a home to many species of animals and its distinctive

shape was created 8000 years ago, when a huge eruption blasted most of the eastern side

apart (IO3, 2011) The volcano is a fertile zone for agriculture Indeed the dominant

group, called Varwa or Wameru, which means the people of Meru, practices traditional

agroecosystem based on the small-scale farming

Map 1.1: Map of Africa and Tanzania Plate 1.1: Mount Meru

Source: Countries and Their Cultures/Culture of Tanzania (Apr 2017) Source: Field Research, Feb 2017

The Mountain is located about 8-10 km from the city of Arusha The site of the

study was in the center of Arumeru District and its boundaries are: north Arusha National

Park, on the south Arusha-Moshi road, the Nduruma River in the West and the Usa

3 Instituto Oikos [Oikos Institute], it is an Italian NGO research report In this paper it is used in the

acronym IO

Momela road to the East (Carlsson, 2003, p.77) There are four principal rivers They are Nduruma, Malala, Tengeru and Makumira Rivers

Fig 1: Map of Arumeru District and Meru Villages

Source: (Larsson, 2001)4

4 Larssson, R (2001) Between Crisis and Opportunity: Livelihoods, Diversification and Inequality among the Meru of Tanzania Lund Dissertations in Sociology 41, p.30

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research is, at personal level, an experience of growth and acquaintance with rural and folk cultures It is the first of future series of ethnographic research in the tentative to document the heritage of rural societies, in order to preserve the history of that particular society Above all, it is meant as a empirical evidence for the theoretical debate on the effect of globalization on the indigenous African cultures It is in the aspiration of being part of the general movement of African cultural renaissance The study is, also, part of general project of conservation of cultural heritage of Wameru, Waarusha and Maasai It is in informal collaboration with the University of Tumahini Makumira, Arusha

The findings of the research can be useful for generalization on the relationship between globalization and traditions in the Africa context In general, the results can be valuable, in suggestion for academic institutions, policy makers and for continental institutions such AU Commission, which should deal, also with challenge of globalization on local cultural heritages

1.6 Organization of the Study

CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction

Globalization is applied in the ordinary everyday conversations It is used to describe quite vast spectrum of situations that are connected with the current process of unification of the world (Reich, 1998) Nonetheless, in the academic level the concept is not extensively studied and so often it is not object of enquiry There are several reasons, but to mention some of them In the first place, it indicates a multidimensional phenomenon; therefore it is difficult to have an Omni-comprehensive and common understanding of it In the second place, as a consequence of the first, the process is fluid and ever changing It is like a snake transmuting itself continuously In the third place, the phenomenon does not change only in its form but also in its substance and with such rapidity that it is difficult to have a perception of it

Globalization is less enquired in the cultural context and in the relation to rural and indigenous culture Even though, it plays a fundamental role in shaping or in the dramatic situation, also destroying entire societies In one way or another every person in this planet deals with global phenomenon in its various forms (Giddens, 2000) Considering this fact, the purpose of this chapter is twofold: Firstly, it is to discuss the various arguments on the issue to establish the ground to address the research problem and objectives of the study, to facilitate the data collection and to assess the findings Secondly, it is to sketch the gap in the literature relevant to the study to fill partially, in it

The chapter will be divided in two parts In the first place, the section of conceptual framework will be illustrated as a basis for discussion of the relevant literature regarding the concept of globalization, culture and cultural change The concepts such as globalization, culture and change are all multidimensional; therefore they will be analyzed only in their anthropological partial form and nature, which are suitable for the study Secondly, the theoretical framework will be involved in the form of three positions

on the cultural dimension of globalization They are cultural convergence, differntialism and hybridization

2.1.1 Operational Definitions

The study engages several concepts that are fundamental for exploration and examination of the interaction amid globalization and local cultures These terms, in this section are shortly defined, in order to indicate the meaning on which the research is grounded

- Globalization: a multidimensional phenomenon that stands for progressive

interconnection and interdependence of societies, communities and peoples at the global level (Grebosz & Hak, 2015)

- Cultural Globalization: is a phenomenon by which experiences of everyday life, as

influenced by the diffusion of commodities, ideas, meanings and values, reflects a standardization and homogenization of the cultural expressions around the world

- Change: It might have Celtic origin, but it is associated with the Latin word cambiare

and the Old French change It means to make or to become different in substance entirely

The other definition is the act or instance of making or becoming different, be altered or modified The meaning that is suitable for this research is the substitution of one practice

or value for another It is involved in the cultural context

- Culture: its origin is from Latin cultura 'growing, cultivation', which changed sense in

the early 16th cent as 'cultivation (of the mind, faculties or manners)' Generally, it is defined as the customs, arts, social institutions and other manifestations of human intellectual that are collectively accepted and shape attitudes, behavior It represents the achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group In anthropology, culture is a shared set of beliefs, customs, and ideas that held people together in recognizable, self-identified groups UNESCO (2009) defines culture as 'a series of distinct features of a society or social group in terms of spiritual, material, intellectual or

emotional'

- Local Culture: is commonly used to characterize the experience of everyday life in

specific, identifiable localities It reflects ordinary people's feelings of appropriateness, comfort, and correctness

- Tradition: Etymologically it is from Latin traditio(n-) from tradere 'deliver, betray' or

from trans- 'across' + dare 'give' and old French tradicion The transmission of

long-established customs or beliefs from generation to generation by artistic or literary method

established by the society

- Identity: It has origin in the Latin word identitas, which is associated with idem It

indicates ‗quality of being identical‘ For the research, it is taken in its sense of being part

of something, associated with the social and cultural definition of the persona

- Society: Etymologically, it is from Latin societas, socius 'companion' In modern time,

it indicates the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered community,

which is organized in a particular place and has shared customs, laws, and institutions

- Ubuntu or Utu: It is a Bantu word, which is the combination of U ' I' and tu or buntu

'we, human beings' and it is a concept similar to others in different African societies such

as Rwanda 'Gacaca', Dinka 'Cieng', Somali 'Xeer') It indicates also, in the Zulu tradition,

a quality that includes the essential human virtues; compassion and humanity (Tutu,

2000)

- Human Dignity: Its origin is from Latin dignitas, from dignus meaning 'worthy' It is

the natural quality of being honored and respected, just because of being a human In the African perspective, it is the status of being a Man The latter is expressed by the statement ―the ultimate goal of a person, self, or human in the biological sense should be

to become a full person, a real self, or a genuine human being‖ (Metz, 2010, 83)

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 The Concept of Globalization

Globalization is one of the most controversial and elusive term, which makes complicate to do research on it It is not a new phenomenon, rather historically, it was well present but it was known by different names such as Empire, Colonialism, Mercantilism, Neo-colonialism and Imperialism Although several scholars tried to give a definition to this concept, there is not a commonly accepted one According to Osterhammel and Petersson (2005) ―We can only speak to a very limited degree about … globalization The various processes summarized under the general rubric of globalization do not always occur concurrently‖ (p.150)

Delineating its boundaries, firstly, in this study, it is not taken in its economic sense of worldwide interconnection and interdependence (Wolf, 2004); secondly it is not

considered what is called ―global culture‖ (Berger, 1997), which refers to the ideology of one universal culture that is the Western one In contrast to it the researcher put the multiculturalist philosophy that emphasizes the equality and plurality of cultures They are part of the whole mankind community as effort for survival in every environment Although this debate is interesting, it is not again the concern of the research In the third place, Westernization or Americanization, neither the Mcdonaldization nor the influence

of Hollywood system are not taken in relevance by the researcher

Overall, to explicit the intentions, globalization is taken as a holistic phenomenon that is a sum of standardizations in every part of human activities and life experiences In fact, in this study, the current global phenomenon is considered in its cultural dimension (Appadurai, 1996; Grebosz & Hak, 2015), with its transmission known as cultural globalization It is facilitated by the diffusion of idea, values and commodities; moreover,

it is examined its tendency for totally substitute the existing culture of a society

Globalization's tendency seems toward homogenization but, it has the side defect

of heterogeneity, in the sense of fragmentation; therefore the question is not easily intelligible Notwithstanding, the study is focused on the interaction amid cultural globalization and local or indigenous culture, taking Wameru (Varwa) society as a case in the current reality, where people and culture are less tied to specific places and culture, identity, and traditions are disrupted and reworked

2.2.1.1 Globalization in the View of Scholars

Some scholars such as Giddens (cited in Ugbam et al., 2014) stated the fact that globalization is often used without a clear and substantial definition (p.63); while Ibrahim (2013) sustained that ―globalization means different things to different people‖ (p.86) Beyond this affirmation, Scholte (cited in Ugbam et al.) suggested that any research needs to address the concept itself with attention and having precise understanding (p.63)

Considering the above suggestion, then the suitable definition for this research is what Ibrahim (2013) traced reporting on Giddens work According to him, globalization

is ―multifaceted‖ phenomenon, which engages in all aspects of a society (p.87) and multidimensional (Osterhammel & Petersson, 2005, p 150; Grebosz and Hak, 2015) As

well, Ugbam et al (2014) proposed Fischer's description of globalization evidencing its holistic nature in covering every aspect of collective and individual life (p.64)

Ritzer (2008) opined that ―Globalization is the spread of worldwide practices, relations, consciousness, and organization of social life [ ] that transforms people around the world with some transformation being dramatic‖ (p.573) The latter one, is the element which will be explored in this research, in a sense that globalization has a dramatic impact on the cultures, further, it is strong in relation to the traditional cultures which are not attractive as much as globalization

2.2.1.2 Perspectives on Globalization

2.2.1.2.1 Global Perception

Globally, it is considered as a phenomenon that brings development to the backward realities It breaks their expensive and useless traditions Although, some suggest for instance that it is a radical process of integration among societies, becoming interconnected and interdependent each other (Murat, 2009) In contrast, there is the European localization, which is a tentative to preserve the privileges brought by exponential economic growth and seeing the cultural and religious interconnection as threat to their benefits and advantages

According to right-wings European parties, the globalization process need to be blocked therefore, they are fighting for localization In this debate, Africans are not present They are still fighting with the collateral factors of globalization which is presented as a way of development and improvement of peoples' lives, in a sense of reducing poverty, to bring equality and so on They understood that the challenges are more than opportunities, despite that; it became to them a tunnel without exit In Asians' case, they see globalization challenging effect on language (Vaish, 2012) and in general

on the sociolinguistics structure of the local culture (Kroon, Blommaert & Jie, 2014) While considering the phenomenon in interaction with the Latin American cultures it is the cause of radical change in the traditional cultural system (Kuecker, 2011)

2.2.1.2.2 African Perception of Globalization

There is not such an African univocal perspective Notwithstanding, considering the Seventh annual conference of the Development Policy Management Forum (2002)

definition of globalization: Its root is grounded on ―the compression of space and time, so that people from distant areas are able and in fact obliged to interact with one another intensively and in a wide range of areas‖ (p.12) The DPMF was focused on the globalization challenge on democracy and economy in Africa; however the participants evidenced the negative impact of globalization also in the cultural aspects Regarding the work of a specific scholar such as Nsibambi (2001), he defined globalization as ―a process of advancement and increase in interaction among the world countries and peoples facilitated by progressive technological changes … knowledge and skills, as well

as interfacing of Cultural values, systems and practices‖.Although the two interpretations are similar and not far from what is expressed globally by non-African intellectuals, the fact is that globalization has negative impact on African societies

According to Jeremy (2004) (cited in Ugbam et al., 2014) globalization ―is destructive to African culture‖ (p.65) As well, Ibrahim (2013) affirmed that because African societies are neglecting their traditions that they have not a mutual exchange with others in the independent environment (p.88) Going to the specific issue, there are philosophies that are deeply embedded in the local culture, which are fundamental for identity formation, therefore as suggested by Adedimeji (cited in Ugbam et al.) ―To be removed from one‘s culture is to be deprived of one‘s identity‖ (p.64)

2.2.1.2.3 Tanzanian Perception

Though there is several writing in the African perspective and some in the Nigeria perspective, there not works on the Tanzanian perception of the global phenomenon Formulating perception from the ground of observation, because of colonialism, there are already Western elements in their culture, even in the giving names to the children They use both the English and the traditional one In the music and in the entertainment sphere

is more evident the influence of the Afro-American hip hop style based on money, girls and cars, sometimes grotesque house

By observation it is clear that Tanzanian, have not such pride on their culture, maybe because of their history of mixture and passage for human movement Even geographically, it confines with eight countries It is the second one after Democratic Republic of Congo, which is literally at the middle of Africa.Also in the case of Wameru,

there is not literature The reason for doing this research relays on this fact There are studies on the challenges of land conservation and management

The ethnographic research is focused on their origin and relation with the neighboring communities such as Waarusha, Chagga of Kilimanjaro and Maasai (Spear, 1997) Again, there is gap in the literature in regard to the interaction between globalization and the local culture Arusha it is an international and cosmopolitan city, where is present the major group of international organization and a station for safaris Despite this centrality, the people who live around the city seem to live a discrete and isolated life It is curious the scarcity of the studies on this favorable and fertile ground This shows the need for an attention on the micro reality and the cultural aspect of it, because it is an important passage for understanding the macro level of interaction among globalization and tradition

2.2.2 Concept of Culture

Culture is one of the terms that are used in ordinary discussions and conversations, but without a comprehensible and univocal definition In the popular context, it has different meanings and can indicate numerous situations Culture is a habitude, a widely accepted form of expression such as music, art It can be connected with fashion, with social status and so on (Rapport & Overing, 2003, p.93)

In the academic context, there is collection of definitions (Spencer, 2012), however the list is long to be considered It takes different and wide aspects of humankind therefore, it is almost impossible to do a synthesis without leaving some element of its meanings Starting from its etymology, it comes from the Latin word

cultura, which means growing, cultivation Initially, it referred to the agricultural activity

of cultivation, but then after the Humanism and the Great Scientific Revolution of sixteenth century, the 'act of cultivation' was intended to the mind of mankind

After this conception, till today it is linked with the intellectual/mental production, that is music, art or scientific model and mechanical constructions According

to anthropologist, culture refers to the total way of life of any society, not simply to those parts of this way which the society regards as higher or more desirable

Considering various definitions of culture, there is a pattern that make simple to refer to it This is the domain, which is the mental production in the ground of social

relation (Griswold, 2013) This element can be divided in two parts The first one is the immaterial production, which is spiritual, philosophical and in general theoretical composition or elaboration, which can be expressed as ideas, knowledge and beliefs The second is the material one that indicates the physical construction, tangible works and in general practices In other words, when the ideas are realized and manifested in some corporeal forms

In this research culture is taken in its three fundamental features, which are its domain, transmission and change In the first place, the domain, as said above, is the mental production The presupposition is that any cultural production is the result of mental activity (Lizardo, 2012) In the second place, the transmission process is called tradition In a sense that any cultural element need to be transmitted, for its survival, from one generation to the other one, by different forms that can be oral or written

In the third place, the cultural change is considered in the relation with other civilizations and the environment The concept is taken in its twofold senses of amelioration and substitution The first process is natural, gradual and it is based on the need for adaptation to the environment or to overcome social challenges The latter process is artificial, radical and based on the abandonment of cultural elements because

of the threat for survival, attraction of the new or for the aggressiveness of the other culture The dimension of the concept that is applied in this research is the local or indigenous culture, which is the heritage of a specific society and environment In this

case is considered the Wameru society

2.2.2.1 Domain of Culture

Culture is, in its broader sense, the full range of learned behavioral patterns, knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills, and habits that are acquired by people

as members of a society It is a holistic process and indivisible status

Looking at this definition and examining the various components the mind is the central element (Kockelman, 2010) Indeed behaviors, knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs, skills and habits are all product of the mind activities Therefore, in this study mind is taken as generator of cultural features and the connector of these all by a philosophical pattern

Concerning the last point, in the case of Bantu speaking people, they have the philosophy of Ubuntu, better known through Zulu culture Notwithstanding, it is present

in different forms and terms in other societies In the context of Wameru (Varwa), they call it Utu Even though, the term is well known among Bantu speaking people, there is not a univocal definition to it (Gade, 2011) Mainly, it has twofold meanings In the first place, it indicates the identity of every member as belonging to a community In other words, ―We affirm our humanity when we acknowledge that of others‖ (David, 2009) Any person cannot define him/herself without referring to the community of membership

In the second place, it expresses the ideal behavior, character or personality of the member of the society It indicates his completeness, gentleness, hospitality and righteousness (Murithi, 2006)

Among scholars, the term is very famous, although academically it has not importance It is one of the traditional philosophies that is neglected but, it has fundamental moral and normative features and values Above all, it is essential to develop, among the members of the community, the sense of duties and responsibilities toward others, family and society The major facts that it is a shared, learned and patterned element, which is determine and fuse every mental production in one body, to

be accepted and practiced by all In other worlds, culture is a set of philosophically standardized mental fabrications (Shinobu & Ayse, 2011)

2.2.2.2 Transmission of Culture and Traditions

Considering the transmission of a culture, it is facilitated by the process of what is called tradition The latter one is not a clear and definite concept; however it is often associated with the process of transmission of cultural heritage from one generation to another one This happens through education and by observation Tradition has also another meaning It is one of the components of a culture (Spear, 1997) It describes cultural element such as usage and customs

In the case of change brought by globalization, what concern to this research it the prospect of extinction of a culture In a sense that the globalization attract mainly the youth, who finding better entrainment and hope for better life in the cities and in the new trends (Petković, 2007)

They have the chance to encounter new concepts and inspiration In this case, the youth do not care about the knowledge and inspiration of the elders This means, the indigenous knowledge, norms and values remain only in the elders mind and they die with them This has as consequence, the fact that the society cannot evolve itself, it depend on external support Therefore, there is the need for conservation of the indigenous knowledge, values and norms, because these heritages are fundamental for the formation of duties, norms and identities, even personal one (Zeigler, 2007)

2.2.2.3 Cultural Change

Culture is the primary adaptive mechanism for humans (Guglielmino, 1995) As above mentioned, the cultural change is the third feature that represents culture It has twofold nature It is a gradual and continuous process of amelioration but, it is also a radical and rapid process of replacement and substitution The study will be focus on the second element, because of the nature of the relation between the cultural dimension of globalization and the indigenous culture Indeed, globalization is aggressive and challenging phenomenon toward local cultures, which cannot compete with the power and availability of instruments

Change is one of the concepts, which is used in the everyday conversation indicating numerous circumstances and events Mostly it is associated with modification

of the status quo (Facchini & Melki, 2011) It implies the existence of before and after, therefore, time play an important role in defining this concept In fact, change indicates the difference of status between the past and the present Even in this research, the concept is taken in this perspective, looking at the past traditional patterns and the present innovation brought by globalization

As mentioned above, change has twofold manifestations, one is gradual and continuous in time, and it is indicated by amelioration (Munoz et al., 2010) Whether the

other is radical and only one time, it is expressed by substitution Even though, naturally,

cultures innovate themselves with continuous adjustments, in the case of globalization, as

a phenomenon has the tendency to substitute the pre-existing culture rather than support

or strengthen the culture

The basis for substitution is the assumption that the heritage is obstacle for change and development All depends on the perception on the value of 'traditions' Whether, they are worthy for the survival of the society or they are obstacle for better condition (Zeigler, 2007) The risks in this debate are the extremes If one go toward the stream that traditions are the only element of better condition then will find him in the marginal and isolated position; maybe facing more challenges than before The society cannot benefit

improve itself condition (Tibbs, 2011)

The other view is the stream of that modernity/innovation; therefore, globalization

is the answer for every challenge If one abandon any traditional element to follow the new tendency risk to be alienated from his identity and personality In the case of the study it is taken the possibility which stay in the middle To find out a community that maintains the traditions (good ones) and invite and accommodate the innovation for the

better condition of the society (Zeigler, 2007)

2.2.2.3.1 Cultural Amelioration versus Substitution

Concerning the transformation of culture, Baffoe (2005) expressed the concept as culture ―is not stagnant It is constantly undergoing evolutions based on the changes in the environment in which it exists‖; while, Obiora (2002) asserted the ever changing (in a sense of amelioration) nature of culture but at the same time ―culture continues to give a community a sense of dignity, continuity, security and binds society together‖

Examining the statements, in the first case, the researcher found the suitable definition of the term culture In both affirmations, the other fundamental factor is change

in the sense of transformation In the second case, although culture is altered in some features, in its entirety it remains the ground for identification, security and unity The concern of cultural substitution and not rather transformation, it has a risk It can be the cause of extinction of an entire community because there would be no identity, security and unity but conflict even among the members

The local culture in the relation with cultural globalization risks its extinction because of the radical nature of the latter one The interaction need to be based on the transformation ground and gradual process Otherwise, not only the cultural features would be threatened but also the peace and unity among the community In the discourse,

according Berry (2005), in the cultural replacement event some as individual might again benefit from it Others sustain that it is dangerous and need to be a controlled process, because ti can affect also individually, not only the society (Cohen, 2005) Leaving a part the debate, there are mechanisms, in the local cultures, for the preservation and maintenance of fundamental elements that are necessary for identity formation, social security and unity (Bird & Stevens, 2003)

2.2.3 Relation between Cultures

Cultures are not isolated, independent and self-determined phenomena, rather they are the result of peoples' relation and exchange of ideas, stories and practices Looking at the relation amid cultures, historically, there are three philosophical patterns

or models According to Pieterse (cited in Ritzer, 2010) the world cultures can be

considered either divergent (cultural differentialism) or compatible and similar (cultural convergence), otherwise among cultures can be integration or assimilation (cultural hybridization)

2.2.3.1 Cultural Convergence

Beginning from the fact that human beings are part of the same family, therefore what is created from their relation, which is culture, also is the same or it has similar features Those, who preach the cultural similarity patterns, sustain the idea that cultures respond to the need of the human beings, therefore are similar in substance but, different

in form and practice because they depend on the environment, where they are created If the human civilizations are similar, then their relation brings their convergence and mutual tolerance In the best cases, cultures enrich each other It is a multiculturalist assumption, that cultures are the result of the taking and giving pathos among them This perspective also, professes the idea that there is not a perfect and universal culture, rather the sum of all cultures form the universal one Any civilization is based on the particular aspect of the relationship among the people of the community and this with the environment (Mishra & Kumar, 2014)

2.2.3.2 Cultural Hybridization

In the case of cultural hybridization, one culture is assimilated or integrated by the other one It is the consequence of the cultural convergence However, with the difference that the contending civilizations are not in the same position, rather one is dominant than the other The assimilation can be no to the entire culture rather only some elements In this instance, the exchange can be mutual and the relation convergent and peaceful This

is what happened in the relation amid Wameru (Varwa) and Waarusha When the latter one came to the slope of Meru and the former was already there, Varwa hosted the Waarusha and lived together, influencing mutually

The age set system is one of the cultural elements that the Wameru took from the Arusha but, also the circumcision practice and others In the case of hybridization, it is difficult to identify the dominant one, because it is the natural setting of cultures As it said, culture is the result of co-influence pattern

In other cases, the assimilation process can be so clear and radical that the acculturating civilization pretends the extinction of the counterpart The French colonial assimilation is the best historical case The core of this study is to explore the radical relation between the local culture of Wameru and the cultural dimension of globalization This interaction is better described by the divergent philosophical perspective (Kwok-Bun & Peverelli, 2010)

2.2.3.3 Cultural Differentialism

The divergent conception shows the conflictual and competitive aspects of the relation among cultures, because they are different and not reconcilable This means also the culture that overcome, it will bring the extinction of the other, therefore identity crisis with ultimate consequence of the extinction of the entire society It is, according several African scholars, what happening in Africa; where the local societies, more rural, are threatened by radical and challenging aspects of cultural dimension of globalization (Grebosz & Hak, 2015)

This study, although consider the cultural differentialism perspective, it is based

on the awareness that a given culture is not isolated and self-formed elements, rather it is the result of taking-giving pathos with other cultures It is the result of relationship and influence, most of the time a consequence of adaptation and transformation

In the case of Africa, historically, people did not associate themselves with a particular geographical place Since ancient time human movement was a common phenomenon, but it was accelerated by the raids of slave traders Even though, every population was in relation to the others and there were mutual influence among them (Bakewell & Hein, 2007)

Taking in mind the co-influence of cultures in African context, there were some conscious tentative for dominance that challenged the extinction of previous cultures The case of Amharization of the Oromo region during Emperor Minilik II and Haile Selassie I

is the emblematic one However, this is not a common phenomenon, until the arrival of the Europeans and their imposition of the colonial system over the indigenous population

It became clear then that the African numerous rural cultures are facing a big challenge because of their land The cultural globalization, even though it is more present in the urban areas, it is testing in the radical way the rural areas It is introduced by the increasing relation between cities and country sides, facilitated by the growing intercommunication based on transports and telecommunication (Scheld, 2007)

2.2.4 Relation amid Cultural Globalization and Indigenous Culture

In the case of cultural globalization that can be associated with modernization process, it is not a culture that allows the co-influential pattern of relation among cultures, this because it has a radical and dominant character Of course, it is the result of years of influence and transformation; however it has the tendency to overcome the other culture, since it needs to be influential for economic consumption It has origin on liberalism therefore; it is in dominance to other culture The issue shows that the philosophical backgrounds of the local or indigenous culture and the cultural globalization are divergent and therefore conflictual Indeed, the former has the aggressive propensity for total innovation and revolution It advocates total freedom and liberty; while the latter has conservative nature and ameliorative tendencies The researcher elaborated a scheme based on this assumption and inspired by the expression of Akande (cited in Ugbam et al., 2014) who blamed ―globalization for the extinction of 22,000 indigenous cultures in the last decade and projects that approximately 90 per cent of the world‘s languages will

disappear in the next century as a result of globalization‖(p.67) Not least the prevision of Precious (2010), who affirmed that ―a lost culture is a lost society as well as an invaluable knowledge lost‖ (p.8)

2.3.4.1 Scheme of the relation amid globalization and indigenous culture

The scheme is a tentative effort to describe the relationship amid cultural globalization and local culture, by emphasizing on the effect of the former on the latter's tangible and intangible components The outcome of the interaction would be the historical extinction of an entire society The process is characterized by the total substitution mechanism When rural peoples wear, eat and build with the imported styles and materials, they are choosing to abandon even their values, knowledge and norms

People are substituting their own cultural features with the imported or diffused ideas and items by cultural globalization The concern is not in their voluntary will of dressing, eating and living in the house like Westerners It is their right Nonetheless, by choosing the new tendencies, they are abandoning not only their tangible cultural features but also their abstract and essential element of their identity When, a society has not an identity and therefore aspects that differentiate it among the others, then it is its extinction Even though, some of the practices survive, the society ceases to be an historical authentic civilization

Another element is the fact that the culture is, in the sense of tradition, broken off Indeed, when the people who preserve the indigenous knowledge die, with them die also the culture, because there is not transmission to the younger generation Meanwhile, the younger generation can suffer the identity crisis because the youths have no the cultural basis on which they can relate with the environment and the society Eventually, this situation can be a fertile reality for generational conflict and separation

In anthropology, the cultural death is expressed by the complete disappearance of

a culture as a result of the total acculturation or the death of all of the people who shared

it The research has its justification in the concern of this possibility or challenge

Chart 2.1: Conceptual Scheme of interaction amid globalization and local culture

Overall, in this study, the researcher looks for the exploration of the three positions and for the synthesis of them In other words, according to the researcher, to take only one position, means to see the question with biased understanding Notwithstanding, by observing the reality and examining the literature there is a clear outcome of the process of globalization and the relation with the local culture The synthesis occurs for the hypothesis of the study, which is the indigenous culture, has the local instruments to defend and preserve part of its component from the invasion of

Cultural Globalization

Indegenous/Local

Culture

Cultural Substitution

in

Abandonment

of Cultural Identity

Disappearance

of the Society

Society

Food Clothing House

globalization Nevertheless, if these mechanisms are neglected then the outcome will be the first position There will be the extinction of the local culture and therefore the homogenization

In this section will be examined the interaction amid globalization and rural or local culture There will be subdivided according to the three theoretical positions toward globalization In this division, the effect of globalization on the indigenous culture will be explored in the three views of cultural features: domain, transmission and change In the first case, it will be seen the challenge of cultural dimension of globalization toward the indigenous knowledge system or philosophy In the second place, the effect of cultural globalization in the tangible cultural practices such as dressing code, food consumption and housing These are also the traditional means for transmission of heritages and conservation of them Finally, it is explored the debate whether the substitution of the tangible elements can affect the conservation and maintenance of indigenous philosophy and in general cultural system

2.3.1 Hyperglobalizers or Globalist and Cultural Homogenization

Globalist is a person who advocates the diffusion and expansion of the liberal system throughout the world societies, who is less known as hyperglobalizers They have

a positive and optimistic view of the globalization as a liberator of peoples from their struggles The group of intellectuals advances the improvement and growth in the economic context, enrichment and increase of knowledge in the cultural sphere One of them is the economist, Nobel prized Amartya Sen (January, 2002), who affirmed that globalization ―has enriched the world scientifically and culturally, and benefited many people economically as well‖ In the same manner, the United Nations has even predicted that the forces of globalization may have the power to eradicate poverty in the 21stcentury

2.3.1.1 Relation amid Cultural Globalization and Local Culture

This group of intellectuals sustain that cultural dimension of the globalization is not a challenge to the local cultural mindset, rather they advocate the beneficial role in liberating people from their obsolete and backward practices In fact in their view, folk philosophies are barriers that limit the social, political and cultural potential of the global

phenomenon (Sindima, 1990) In the African context, those called critical group of the revivalists such as Hountondji (1996), stated that the indigenous heritage need to be abandoned and in their literal expression ―clean break‖ They affirm, therefore, the local culture needs to be destroyed and it will be by the process of cultural globalization All this is thought for the sake of the people, for the improvement of their lives and general development of the society

2.3.1.2 The Challenge of Globalization in the Tangible Cultural Aspects

In this group perspective, cultural globalization is a simple diffusion, all over the world, of good, necessary practices and knowledge that improve the peoples' lives They favorite the consumption mechanism by spreading product such as cloths, fast foods and cement (Alden et al., 2006) Indeed, they firmly believe that there is no way other than this for development In the ideology it is an unstoppable phenomenon, because its tension is toward prosperity (Steger, 2005) Tourism is for them another powerful instrument to attract the rural people to follow the new trends and usages manifesting it

by eating, dressing and building house seeing in the photos Above all, rural tourism is a great opportunity for development and income for the farmers of the developing countries (Dashper, 2014)

2.3.1.3 Substitution for Development

They are for the substitution of tangible cultural features for development of the society Development means not a gradual and continuous amelioration, but a radical and rapid substitutive process (Steger, 2005) Fundamentally, according to them local societies will be marginalized and they cannot benefit from the process if they do not follow the globalization The substitution of pre-existing culture has as result the homogenization, but is it seen as a positive element because it facilitate the communication and therefore the advancement of any given society

2.3.2 Political Sceptics or Traditionalist and Cultural Heterogenization

Traditionalists or political skeptics are a group of intellectuals They are critical of the globalist group They advocate the maintenance and perpetuation of traditions,

especially so as to resist change and progress brought by globalization Their main argument is that what is affirmed or promised by the liberalist or globalist is not true (Chang, 2010) In the specific case of political skeptics, they sustain that there is not such globalization in the political context because the nation-states are the main category in the international relation arena

According to Stiglitz (2002) and Chang (2003) the global phenomenon has a negative economic and cultural impact on the local societies It is indeed, source of inequality, injustice and impoverishment They gave an extensive account of the failure

of the globalist promises such as Chang (2010) in his work on capitalism Several African scholars, as well, sustain that it is challenging and affecting the local cultures in Africa, because of its radical, aggressive and destructive nature (Kasongo, 2010; Ibrahim, 2013; Yankuzo, 2014; Yeboah, 2016) An extensive account on the failures of development and modernization is denounce by both Western and African intellectuals

In particular, in the work of Ohuabunwa (cited in Ibrahim, 2013) is shown that globalization, in its cultural dimension, is rather changing the structure of local cultures

―breaking down‖ traditional elements, which are considered as obstacle for the human progress (p.85) Even in the case of identity formation, the idols and inspiring principles come from the global phenomenon (Lewellen, 2002) Some other sustain that globalization is another form of colonialism, marginalizing the peripheral zones They believe in the existence of an alternative to the global capitalist system but, there is the need for revolution

2.3.2.1 Indigenous Philosophy in Relation with Globalization

The cultural dimension of the globalization is too much dangerous for the local culture that there is the need for not taking everything which comes through and from it

In this context the battle is at the philosophical level Indeed, the liberal one is threatening the indigenous knowledge system and above all, the local traditional philosophy In the African context, the traditions, as cultural elements, are very important for the historical account and existence of the society They are fundamental for identification process of

the members of the community and for the survival of the population within the environment

Historically, the Black continent was affected by the Western culture and religion since the period of Atlantic slave trade At that time African peoples was acquainted with earlier form of capitalism and Christianity by missionaries, traders and explorers Meanwhile, Europeans, during colonialism period, brought their political, social and educational system, threading forcefully the existing traditions and values Despite the fact that all African countries are independent and self-governed for more than 30 years, the Western influence is still present

Looking on the cause of the preference of the African societies over globalization,

it is an attractive phenomenon that in contrast to the traditions seems that it gives major liberty and freedom of expression In fact the existing system is based on the social duties, responsibilities and accountability by the social connection and personal respect (Nonceba, 2011) Likewise, Wiredu (cited in Precious, 2010) affirmed that ―Part of the weakness of the traditional African culture is that it is authoritarian [ ] traditional culture lacks the habit of exactness, and rigor in thinking, the pursuit of systematic coherence and the experimental approach‖ (p.5)

The author of the article suggested, however, the traditional patterns are fundamental for ―cultural renaissance‖, because ―a lost culture is a lost society as well as

an invaluable knowledge lost‖ (p.8) Ubuntu philosophy is taken in this perspective, in a sense that, as matter of fact, traditions still have an importance regarding collective and individual social security and identification (Yeboah, 2016, p.5) Furthermore, as sustained by Kasongo (2010) ―Every African people (tribe) has its own body of myths, stories, legends and oral history that most of the time are used as public policy or rule of wisdom in resolving social conflicts‖ (p.317)

2.3.2.2 The Challenge of Cultural Globalization on the Traditions

Currently, international organizations, NGOs as well as tourists are injecting the cultural features of liberalism within the rural societies By this process they are affecting drastically the traditions and therefore, bringing social problems such as identity crisis In

other terms, globalization is introduced by projects with the aim to solve economic problems, such as poverty or low agricultural incomes (Madulu, 2005)

Both cultural globalization and traditions are ways for transmission of cultural features respectively from one place to another or from one generation to another There

is a huge difference between the two in terms of resources, knowledge and attractiveness The cultural dimension of globalization was elaborated and formed for the consumption, therefore, it need to be attractive and pleasing (Steger, 2005) In the case of manners and means of diffusion, they are numerous and easy to be used such as phones, TV, radio and internet, which are applied for the research of knowledge and spread of it

The risk that scholars denounced is the extinction of cultures and therefore societies, if the traditional way is not applied Indeed according anthropologist the non-existence of a culture is determined by the fact that heritages are not transferred to the younger generation When the people, who has the knowledge and conserve the local practices, die also their culture die with them What is happening in the current reality is similar Youth because of the entrainment of the city and attractiveness of the city, they leave their villages and go to the city There they abandon their traditional cloths, foods and houses (UN, 2003) The elders cannot transfer the heritages and practices because there is not a generation to whom passes on (Alden et al., 2006)

2.3.2.3 Cultural Substitution as a Threat for Indigenous Philosophy

The traditionalists suggest the natural and gradual change of the cultural set In the case of development, it is seen as very dangerous factor, because it brings radical changes The nature of globalization is the substitution of the existing one with the new one When a culture is totally replaced then even the society cannot survive in the environment, because that culture was formed in accordance of the surrounding reality

Seeing the cultural impacts of globalization on the African traditions then Jeremy (cited in Yeboah, 2016) affirmed that ―globalization is a declaration of war upon all other cultures‖ (p.6) and it implies social carelessness and selfishness (Ugbam et al., 2014, p.66) Likewise, Kasongo (2010) opined that when external culture attempts to overcame the existing one provokes ―social frustration and generates maladjustment of group members to this new system which leads to the ―demise‖ of the traditional society‖

(pp.315~516) In the same manner he concluded that the global phenomenon affects even

―the spirituality of the people involved‖ (idem) In addition, Precious (2010) stated that

―the Africans do not only eat the western food, wear western clothes, speak western language, but also eat like westerners, dress like westerners, and speak like westerners‖ (p.6)

2.3.3 Transformationalists and Cultural Hybridization

By the definition of Martell (2007) transformationalist or post-skeptical such as Scholte (2005) are intellectuals that admit the globalized reality but at the same time advocate the fact that it is not as the globalist define it They are somewhere in the middle They are the compromise of the debate Yes the world is going toward more interconnected and supranational level but, there are societies that are marginalized and they are not benefiting from it Among this group, the African intellectuals are few

2.3.3.1 Cultural Globalization in Relation with Indigenous Culture

Inferring from their discourses, the relation amid the cultural dimension of globalization and the local culture can be ground for the creation of new cultures or hybridization In the first case, in accordance with anthropologists, there are new cultures, which are the combination of globalization and local culture Some scholars called them cosmopolitan societies The process of new creation is called ethnogenesis They suggest the cultural convergence perspective The cultural nature of the globalization is not predetermined Indeed, even though, the cultural globalization seems an Americanization

or Westernization Some argue that it is not because when the global phenomenon encounter other cultures take something from them, transforming it continuously (Osterhammel & Petersson, 2005); however the basic nature of the globalization is liberalism (Alden, 2006)

2.3.3.2 Hybridization of Cultural Transmission

According to the post-skeptical, the cultural internal (traditional or generational) and external (global and spatial) transmission is balanced People maintain their culture and values but at the same time introduce new element which come from the globalization (Berry, 2005) In other cases, some society make as a new culture with

some mixture with the tradition In the case of Mc Donald‘s in Japan The Japanese view

of the culture is different from the general one Indeed, generally it is considered as fast food, but in the case of the Japanese it is a place for relaxation and family reunion At the same time they maintain and conserve their heritage by practices and new forms of application of the culture; for instance, the Japanese have a new culture based on the commercialization of anime, which are based on the myths of ninja and samurai

2.3.3.3 Substitution for New Creation

Post-skepticals stay in the midway of the debate on the development or amelioration of culture Inferring from their position, if the people follow only the globalization will be alienation as suggested by the traditionalist At the same time, if the people follow only their culture that they will be marginalized For the survival both of their culture and for gaining the benefits of the globalization, some societies excogitated the way of accommodating and maintaining their traditions They are reformist and suggest for the gradual transformation, therefore for the amelioration However, in the case of substitution, they see it as a favorable factor for new creation

Overall, in the case of the study, the last position is considered as a ground for the hypothesis The assumption is among Wameru, they have the cultural instruments and mechanism that permit them to have a balanced reality between their culture and the globalization one The philosophical understandings are some of them In the other case, also the traditionalists view is considered as a base for the discussion on the radical effect

of globalization on the local culture Finally, the globalist perspective will be applied as

to define the real nature of globalization as a universalistic phenomenon and tendentious toward homogeneity

2.4 Background of Wameru

2.4.1 Historical Background of Wameru

Wameru or Varwa are a Bantu speaking population They live to the slope of Mount Meru, in Arusha region, in Tanzania In the context of their origin there is a debate between the oral local historians and the Western historians and researchers (Fox, 2012)

In the oral tradition of Wameru, it is accounted that three brothers (whose name change

based on the versions) decided to lead a journey from Usumbura following the Ruvu River, searching for its source They arrive in Mount Meru that they call Mountain Varwa, therefore they gave the name Varwa to themselves, but the Tanzanians call them Meru or Wameru in Kiswahili While, the two brothers remain on the southern slope of

Mt Meru, the other known as Machame went to Mt Kilimanjaro, known also as Mt Uchiru (Butovskaya et al., 2016)

In the account of Western historians, because of linguistic and historical similarity with the Chagga of Mt Kilimanjaro, they sustain that Varwa came from the western slope

of the mountain sometimes in the Seventeenth Century When Wameru arrive to the slope

of Mt Meru, it was inhabited by small group of Bakoningo These were a gatherers population that lived in the forest of the Mountain (Spear,1997)

hunter-2.4.2 Social and Economic Organization

Varwa's social and economic organization was based on the 'moral economy' (Spear, 1997) This philosophical understanding was inspired by the right that any person has to possess land necessary for the survival of the household or homestead On their arrival to the slope, there was already clan division The distribution on the territory was casual or historically not accounted, except the Kaaya and Mbise one However, currently are 26 clans who live distributed on the Western slope (Butovskaya et al., 2016)

The former went to the western slope and the latter to the eastern arid part, among the caves They are mountain farmers, and they used to cultivate bananas and keep small cattle Indeed, banana plantations were used as confine between one homestead and another Any homestead was based on the patrilineal and patriarchal system In the words

of Spear (1997), ―The men who held it [land], the women who worked it, the children who would inherit it and the morality that sustained it‖ This is the synthesis of the socio-cultural and economic organization of Varwa

2.4.3 Political Organization

Before the abolition of chiefdom by Nyerere policy, there was chief system The

chief known as Mangi was from the clan of Kaaya, who claim the position because they

advocated that they are descendent of the Usumbura warrior named Shambaa By the influence of Arusha, later coming, the age-set warriors substitute the Mangi authority