Evaluation of water quality status of wetlands and the implication for ecological health in case of wonchi district , oromia region, ethiopia

Evaluation of water quality Status of wetlands and the implication for Ecological health in case of Wonchi district , Oromia Region, Ethiopia Balew Yibel Zeleke Advisors: Dr.. ADDIS A

Evaluation of water quality Status of wetlands and the implication for Ecological health in case of Wonchi district ,

Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Balew Yibel Zeleke

Advisors: Dr BikilaWarkineh

Dr Seyeum Leta

A Thesis submitted to The Department of Environmental Science

Presented in partial fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

(Environmental Science)

Addis Ababa University

ADDIS ABABA, ETHIOPIA

JUNE, 2017

ADDIS ABABA UNIVERISTY GRADUATE PROGRAMMES

This is to certify that the Thesis prepared by Balew Yibel Zeleke, entitled: Evaluation of water quality Status of wetlands and the implication for Ecological health in case of Wonchi district , Oromia Region, Ethiopia and Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Science (Environmental Science) complies with the regulations of the University and meets the accepted standards with respect to originality and quality

Signed by Examining Board:

Name Signature Date

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AWD Acute Watery Diarrhea

APHA American Public Health Association

BWR Basic water requirement

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

BCWQI British Columbia Water Quality Index

CAPSNAC Capacity Building for Sustainable Natural Resource Management

and Agricultural Productivity under Changing Climate

CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

Chl-a Chlorophyll-a

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

E.C Electro conductivity

DO Dissolved oxygen

FDRE Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia

FAO Food for Agricultural Organization

FWQI Florida Stream Water Quality Index

GWP Global Water Partnership

ICWE International Conference on Water and the Environment

IJAC International Journal of Advances in Chemistry

IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre

MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

NSFQI National Sanitation Foundation of quality Index

OWQI Oregon Water Quality Index

PCA Principal Component Analysis

RDA Redundancy Analysis

Sal Salinity

SD Standard deviation

SRP Soluble reactive phosphorus

TSS Total suspended solid

TDS Total dissolved solid

WQI Water Quality Index

WWAO Wonchi Woreda Agriculture Office

ABSTRACT

Evaluation of water quality Status of wetlands and the implication for Ecological health in case of Wonchi district , Oromia Region, Ethiopia

Balew Yibel Zeleke, MSc Thesis

Addis Ababa University, 2017

In Wonchi district, there are eight wetlands, which include lake, marshes and swamps These Wetlands play great role in providing holistic ecological services for the district, conserving and protecting plants and animal life Recently, these wetlands are highly threaten with anthropogenic activities like overgrazing, cultivation, rim disturbance through infrastructure construction, deforestation, settlements in and near wetlands However, there is no sufficient information that shows water quality status of wetlands Hence, this study aimed to assess the water quality of the wetlands and their ecological implications A total of 126 water samples were collected from eight wetlands from October2016 to May 2017 Water samples for physicochemical, microbial, biological and heavy metals analysis were collected using polyethylene bottles The samples were analysed in the laboratory according to standard methods for water and wastewater analysis Data Analysis was performed by descriptive statistics, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and Multivariate analysis using SPSS IBM 20 and CANOCO for windows 4.5 version soft ware The overall water quality parameters analysis results have been as ranged pH(6.7-8.6), E.C(123-1978) ,Temperature(7.9-29.3 ), Turbidity(0.5-

1124 NTU), DO(2.7-12mg/l) BOD(0.1-5.04), COD (2.5-142),No3-N (0.02-11.9), No2-N (0.002-0.3), SRP(0.01-3.5mg/l), TN(2-54), F-(0.16-3.2), TP(0.05-3.9),TH(22-238), Chloride(14-84.3), TSS(0-4.5mg/l), Fe(0.01-4.6)T.F(0-1165), F.C(0-930) The water quality indices of the wetlands were computed and values ranged from 164 to 640 These results revealed the wetlands water quality status were not good for public health and drinking purpose Nutrient loads and over utilization of the resources in the district were the most significant factors that may have led to the reduction of water quality problem The result of this research can be used for different purposes including assessment of water quality in aquatic ecosystems for the ambient water quality targets in SDGs

Keywords : Wonchi district Wetlands, Physicochemical & Biological parameters, multivariate analysis,

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am heartily thank my Almighty God for his willingness to start and end this work with

power It is my in depth pleasure to provide deepest appreciation to my advisor Dr.Bikila

Warkineh for his wholehearted consistent guidance, finical support, enthusiastic advice,

fast and urgent communication, important document and reference sharing, valuable correction and commenting the thesis throughout the study period, while provided me all the required inputs to accomplish this paper without his help this was not finalized I also

thank my co-advisor Dr Seyeum Leta for his help and intensive advise the paper got

compiled I am deeply grateful to Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity laboratory staff members, Addis Ababa University (the center of Environmental Sciences and Limnology lab ) for their limitless support during laboratory work I also greatly appreciate my friends Eskezi Alemayehu, Getu, Kasahun, Mesifin, Tarekegn, Temesigan, and Mingizam for their kind support in the water quality testing and analysis

I thank CAPSNAC project that provided the financial support for this work

Finally, I would like to express my lovely feeling to my wife, my kids, Father, Mother Brothers, and Sisters for their unreserved collaboration, patience and every day thought about my movement and work effectiveness to end this first challenge line for my future carriers

CONTENTS

ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS ii

Abstract iii

Acknowledgement iv

List of Tables vii

List of Figures viii

List of Appendices ix

1 Introduction 1

1.1 Background 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem 6

1.3 Objectives 8

1.3.1 General Objectives 8

1.3.2 Specific Objectives 8

2 Literature Review 9

2.1 Distribution, Status and Importance of wetlands in ethiopia 9

2.1.1.Defintion of Wetlands 9

2.1.2 Wetlands in Ethiopia 10

2.1.3 Types of Wetland in Ethiopia 11

2.2 Importance of Water Quality 14

2.3 Estimation of Water Quality Index (WQI) 20

3.Significance of the study 24

4 Scope and limitation of the study 24

5 Materials and Methods 25

5.1 Study area Discripttion 25

5.2 Climate 27

5.2 Study design and Sampling Sites 29

5.3 Water Sample Collection and Preservation 29

5.4 Analysis of Physicochemical and Biological parameters 30

5.4.1 Physicochemical parameters 30

5.4.2 Biological parameters 31

5.5 Development of Water Quality Index (WQI) 34

5.5 Data Analysis 36

4 Results 38

4.1 Physicochemical parameters of District wetlands 38

4.2 Biological Parameters 48

4.3 Selection of important parameters 51

4.5 Multivariate Water Quality Parameters Analysis 53

4.5.1 Correlation Between Parameters 53

4.5.2.Correlation between Phytoplankton Diversity and Environmental Parameters 55 4.5.3.Relationship between District Wetlands 56

4.6.Water Quality Index 57

5.Discussion 61

5.1 Physicochemical Parametersof district Wetlands 61

5.2 Biological Parameters of district wetlands 70

5.3 Water Quality Index (WQI) Implication 72

5.4 Ecologicalhealth Implication 73

6 Conclusion and Recommendation 76

7 References 79

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Classification and ranges of variation of the WQI based on overall index score 34

Table 2:Physicochemical and Bacteriological parameters of wetlands ( Mean±SD) 40

Table 3: Identified phytoplankton Taxa in Wonchi district wetlands and their abundanc 50

Table 4 : Eigen-values with the nine principal parameters considered for selection 51

Table 5 : Comparison of selected water quality parameters' mean in the wetlands 52

Table 6: Values of Pearson Correlation Coefficient(r) for Various Parameters 54

Table 7 : Weight assigned to each parameters 57

Table 8 : WQI results of Wetlands and their Water pollution Classes 58

Table 9 : WQI results of Sampling sites of Wetlands and their Water pollution Classes 58

Table 10 :Comparison of the physicochemical parameters of Wonchi Wetland 68

Table 11 : Comparison of the physicochemical and biological parameters of Wetlands 69

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 : A map of Study Area 27

Figure 2 : Monthly Distribution Pattern of Rain fall and Temperature Variation 28

Figure 3 : Spatial Variations of physical parameters on Wetlands 39

Figure 4: Physicochemical parameters (pH, E.C and TDS) variations among Wetlands 39

Figure 5:a) Monthly trends of Fluoride on Wetlands B) Spatial variations on Wetlands 41

Figure 6 : Nutrients load variations on Wonchi Wetland Sampling Sites 42

Figure 7 : Nutrient load (Nitrogen Species) variations for Wetlands 42

Figure 8 : Monthly trends of TN in the Wetlands 43

Figure 9: Temporal variations of TN on Wonchi Wetlands 43

Figure 10: Temporal variations of NO3-N on Wonchi Wetlands 44

Figure 11: Phosphorus Species variations on Wetlands 45

Figure 12 : Variations of Iron concentration in the Wetlands 45

Figure 13 : DO, BOD and COD Concentration in respective Sampling Sites 47

Figure 14 : A)Monthly trends of COD in the District Wetlands 47

Figure 15 : Microbial load variations in the Wetlands 48

Figure 16 : Fecal Contamination level in the Wetlands 49

Figure 17: Phytoplankton Abundances in all over the Wetlands 49

Figure 18 : Ordination diagram of Redundancy analysis ( RDA) 55

Figure 19; Clustering of all over district wetlands using Ward's methods 56

Figure 20 : Changes of WQI on all over district Wetlands 59

Figure 21 : Changes of WQI on Wetlands Sampling sites 59

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Sampling Sites of Wonchi District Wetlands 85

Appendix 2 : Mean Values for measured Physicochemical and Bacteriologicalparameters of wetlands 86

Appendix 3 : Mean Values for measured Physicochemical and Bacteriologicalparameters of Wonchi Wetland Sampling Sites 87

Appendix 4 : Mean, Maximum, Minimumand Standard deviationValues for measured Physicochemical and Bacteriologicalparameters of wetlands 88

Appendix 5: Wonchi Wetland WQI Calculation result 89

Appendix 6: Haro Wetland WQI Calculation result 89

Appendix 7 : Harogaliye WQI Calculation and result 90

Appendix 8: Borifitu WQI Calculation result 90

Appendix 9 : Gagure Wetland WQI Calculation result 91

Appendix 10 : Godawebe WQI Calculation and result 91

Appendix 11 : Meti-Waliga WQI Calculation and result 92

Appendix 12 : Waliga Wetland WQI Calculation and result 92

Appendix 13 ; Images of some identified Phytoplankton taxon in the study area 93

Appendix 14 : Field Observation and Practices in the study area 95

Appendix 15: Physicochemical and Biological Mean Values of sampling sites 96

is linked to water Water is a key driver of economic and social development while it also has a basic function in maintaining the integrity of the natural environment However, water is only one of a number of vital natural resources and it is imperative that water issues are not considered in isolation The various uses of water impinge upon its availability in terms of quantity, quality and time for various economic, social and environmental needs The availability of water in large quantities has been considered an essential part of civilization throughout the different periods of roman times and others(WHO,1983)

Farming/agricultural practices and the development of settlements lead to the beginning

of the problem that faces mankind today The importance of quality water bodies has been established for years for different purpose particularly wetlands that are rich in

aquatic life composition and have variety services including ensuring ecological stability

It is believed that wetlands are productive ecosystems that can play an important role for socio-economic development if they are effectively utilized and conserved on a sustainable basis

Wetland can be defined in different ways from their functions and values point of views from countries perspectives Wetlands are defined as land covered by shallow water encompassing lakes, rivers, swamps, floodplains, ponds, aquifers and dams Thesis covers the district „minor‟ wetlands and lake whose ecological and hydrological functions are not often recognized as productive These are mainly swamps, marshlands and floodplains, which are being converted and altered at an alarming rate into what many people consider better alternative uses

Most of the time the term wetland is not clearly recognized because it expresses a narrow range of properties and functions within wet area In practical and reality, it is a transitional zone that exhibit extremely different properties and functions that vary with both space and time Determining the relationship between wetland function and water quality within the context of an ecological system or landscape requires understanding of the range of chemical, physical and biological processes that are likely to occur

While the degradation of water quality (WQ) is almost invariably the result of anthropogenic activities, certain natural phenomena can result in WQ falling below the standard required for particular purposes (World Meteorological Organization, 2013)

WQ is influenced by both non-point source pollution (from farming activities and the surrounding catchment) and point-source pollution (from sewage treatment and industrial

discharge) as principal sources For agriculture, the key pollutants are nutrients, pesticides, sediment and faecal microbes Oxygen consuming substances and hazardous chemicals are more associated with point-source discharges Spatial variation in WQ is one of the main features of different types of water bodies and is largely determined by the hydrodynamic characteristics of the water body

According to (MEA, 2005) wetland ecosystems are degraded and being lost rapidly than other ecosystems globally Similarly Ethiopian wetlands are deteriorating alarmingly across the country (Afework Hailu , 2007) Although , Ethiopia has diverse wetland ecosystems across the country which includes swamps, marshy wetlands, flood plains, natural and human-made lakes, peaty wetlands and swamp forest wetlands These wetlands are highly degraded by agricultural practices through sediment load, drained and used for small scale irrigation but also as intensive a grazing land in dry season and entrance of wet season (Leykun Abunje, 2007) The same time in many cases they serve

as source of drinking water and other domestic purpose for the local communities

Wetland ecosystems provide unlimited ecosystem services throughout the world These include services such as water storage, ground water recharge, and flood control, shoreline stabilization, and water quality control, moderation of climate, flood regulation and hotspots for biodiversity (MEA, 2005) They provide these services when their ecological characters are fully functional Studies on ecological character of wetlands are

at best scanty but mostly lacking in Ethiopia Studies on ecological character of wetlands help us determine the health of wetlands ecosystems and their ability to deliver vital services to the community This study will have valuable advantages on studying wetland

ecosystems in a comprehensive manner in order to address key issues that affecting the health of these ecosystems

Now, there are a lot of chemical as well as biological mechanisms that are in placed in the world to treat point and non point source pollutants /wastes that are discharged to the environment Among them, Wetlands are natural filters and environmentally friend, helping

to improve the quality of runoff water from urban and agricultural lands by trapping pollutants Wetlands are particularly useful because they are generally located between land and open water This allows them to intercept many pollutants before they enter to the river and other water bodies system Wetlands have long been employed for the treatment of point-source wastewaters as well as non-point source pollution (Hammer, 1989) But the management of wetland is very poor and their existence is in doubt in the world and losing their ecological balance/services contribution the same time unbalance of the wetlands ecosystem is expected Having the clear knowledge on their physicochemical and biological character , the species that have socioeconomic advantages , might show/ indicate the management aspect and increase community involvement

In my study area the Wonchi district, there are eight wetlands including lake, marshes and swamps However these wetlands are being highly degraded because of overgrazing, cultivation, rim disturbance through infrastructure construction, deforestation, settlements

in and near wetlands The most well-known water body and relatively studied wetland in the district is Wonchi Crater Lake ( Teressa, 2014,Fasil et al, 2014, Fasil Degefu & Michael Schagerl, 2015) There is no recorded data that show the district wetlands are polluted or not In addition, due to the nature of soils in the district and severe degradation of the natural vegetation because of community awareness, the water quality

of wetlands in the district are thought to be being degraded and polluted

This paper mapped eight wetlands of the district ,identified and classified the wetlands based on their nutrient load, microbial load and other anthropogenic effects using WQI calculation The wetlands in the district are humans as well as naturally influenced due to high population density, knowledge gap and over-utilization of all natural resource types

in the district Looking for the overall situations of wetlands water quality in the district was demanding and helpful to clearly evaluate the wetland water quality status

Water quality issue is very important factor to evaluate environmental changes which has great link between economic and social development Investigation of water quality status for relatively less polluted area/wetland are being critical issues to set proper management systems before losing them However, Expressing water quality issue is not

as easy as expressing water quantity Assessment of the quality is a complex process undertaking multiple and wider parameters which have to show various loads and stress

on over water quality physical, chemical and biology characteristics Understanding on water quality status is highly imperative to the sustainability of ecosystems and upcoming developmental movements

In general, this study aimed to evaluate the Water quality status of the Wetlands and their implication for ecological health in the district

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Wetland ecosystem degradation is considered as devastating as complete wetland functional loss since degraded wetlands could lose their ability to perform their valuable wetland functions/services at large At the same time loss of small wetlands would have great environmental impacts on the area Now, the problems intensity is in increasing rate from time to time and caused lose of many marsh, swamp and lakes including harromia lake in Ethiopia However, the impacts of environmental changes on wetland ecosystems (from both natural and human causes) are poorly understood due to our limited knowledge of wetland ecology services with respective to their physicochemical, biological, hydrological and ecological characteristics The first step in interpret the complex ecological processes of wetlands system is to locate or map these areas on the landscape (Whigham, 1999) which will have clear geographical information and provide hint for investigation on problems

Settlement, intensive agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation in close proximity to water bodies at rural area are among the potential cause of changes in water quantity and quality (Habibaw and Seyoum, 2012) Changes of water quality potentially influence values and suitability's' of water bodies for targeted purpose

Wetlands in the Wonchi district, has been playing major socioeconomic and environmental role

in different ways including keeping ecological balance But unfortunately, they are being degraded progressively due to different human activities and natural processes As a result there

is a tremendous influence on the quantity and quality of the ground and surface water , biodiversity and environment The water quality deterioration leads unpredictable problems to the environment components including public health Monitoring on water qualities of the districts' water bodies has been not yet done at all level

In order to develop viable wetland conservation and management plan in the area a great deal of effort has to put in understanding on water quality status at desired scales

There is poor understanding and attitudes on water quality problems consequence in the area that could still lose of ecological and socio-economical service << So that the main problem is becoming understanding on the actual problems of the water chemical and biological character and the problems status to change the community, the stakeholders and responsible bodies attitude towards wetland sustainable management/conservation.>> However, wetlands' advantage have been talked everywhere without showing quantifiable wetlands water quality status level, ground water potential increments capacity and other local unreserved benefits Thus, this study intended to evaluate and reveal the district wetlands water quality status through assessing the physicochemical and biological characteristics of wetlands using WQI development

1.3 OBJECTIVES

1.3.1 General Objectives

The General objectives of this study is to evaluate the water quality status of the eight wetlands as well as their ecological health implication in Wonchi District, South Shiwa Zone, Oromia Region

CHAPTER TWO

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 DISTRIBUTION , STATUS AND IMP ORT ANCE OF WET LANDS IN ETHIOPIA

2.1.1.Defintion of Wetlands and their importance

Wetland can be defined as an ecosystem of which its formation process and characteristics are determined by existence of water Wetlands occur where the water table is at or near the surface of the land, or where the land is covered by shallow water Ramsar uses a broad definition of wetlands, including lakes and rivers, swamps and marshes, wet grasslands and peat lands, oases, estuaries, deltas and tidal flats, near-shore marine areas, man groves and coral reefs, and human-made sites such as fish ponds, rice paddies, reservoirs, and salt pans (Aaron Marti,2011)

Wetlands have significance importance at all level that have contact directly and indirectly particularly for community they have tremendous advantage Hailu (2003) clearly noted , wetlands main uses are social/ceremonial reeds, medicinal plants, thatching reeds used for housing construction and granary roofing, domestic water supplies, dry season grazing land, water for livestock, temporary crop-guarding huts of reeds, cultivation, and craft materials Now, these services are comparatively missing However, Cheffe (Cyperus latifolius) was the dense reed vegetation used for roofing, craft material, fodder for cattle, and as a marketable commodity in a range of ceremonies and celebrations throughout the year (2008)

2.1.2 Wetlands in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has plenty of Water resources that it has been encountered as East Africa water tower in the continent Among this resources, Wetlands have a place to increase the caring capacity of the water resources through their restoration and filtration functions The status of wetlands are not well studied and documented in Ethiopia “while rates of wetland loss are documented for the developed world, there is limited study of these ecosystems in countries like Ethiopia Wetland loss is evident wherever major developments like dams, irrigation schemes, and conversion projects are present in the developing world.” (Aaron Marti,2011) There is a need of efforts to assessing water bodies qualities and quantities that will have multiple implications for its management

On the same time, Ethiopian wetlands are not well investigated, and studied in usable manner However, some authors tried to investigate and show how much wetlands area have coverage in the country, are playing significant role for community in particular and for country at large For instance, Tesfaye (1990) listed 58 major lakes and marshes in Ethiopia (including Eritrea).Hillman (1993)also listed a total of 77 wetlands in Ethiopia and Eritrea, together with locations and He estimated that Ethiopian wetlands covered an area of 13,699 km or 1.14% of the country‟s land surface Here , lake Wonchi is recognized and included in the list but didn't investigate other wetlands in the district that covers 2% of the district

2.1.3 Types of Wetland in Ethiopia

At the macro level, wetlands may be classified according to biomes At the local, and more specific level, wetlands may be grouped according to their habitat type, physical and biological characteristics

Ethiopian wetlands are grouped in to four major categories by biome based on ecological zones, hydrological functions, geomorphologic formations and climatic conditions (Tilahun et al , 1996) These biomes are the Afro-tropical Highlands, the Somali Masai, the Sudan-Guinea and the Sahelian Transition Zone groups I am interested to provide some notes on the first group which is clearly tell the study areas situations

Group I – the Afro-tropical wetland system

The Afro-Tropical Highlands includes the Central, Western and Eastern Highlands of Ethiopia that serve as the prime water catchments and sources of its major rivers and basins The average annual rainfall is more than 2,000 mm Rains are bimodal, with the long rains extending from June to September and short rains between February and May (Tilahun et al, 1996) These areas include most of Ethiopia‟s alpine and fresh water wetland ecosystems The wetlands in this biome include Lakes Tana, Hayk, Ashange, and Wonchi, in the Western Highlands, Gojjeb and Ghibe Whereas Floodplains associated with the biome‟s lakes and rivers are many and needs detail assessment across the country Among these the Fogera and Dembia on the shores of Lake Tana are encountered in many literature

Some of the important wetlands of the Central Highlands are Wonchi district wetlands from Wonchi rim to Woliso plan line based wetlands following Waliga river in upper Omo Gibe basin, the Borkena and Dillu swamps in the Upper Awash Basin, and the

Chomoga-Yeda floodplains around Debre Markos in Choka water shade The numerous alpine lakes of the Bale Mountains and the swamps of Arsi and Alemaya are important wetlands in the Eastern Highlands There might be others which need further investigation

In other perspectives wetlands are grouped into 30 categorized and nine man made ones based on their habitat type and basic physical and biological characteristics Dugan(1990) using the Directory of African Wetlands as a basis, Ethiopian wetlands are classified into ten major groups, lakes being included (Hughs and Hughs, 1992) This classification is based mainly on rivers and lakes drainage systems The classification is not complete and will need revision Because they are so numerous, not all Ethiopian wetlands are listed The classification scheme is, however, able to show the diversity of wetland types in the country It is not able to cope with the many different forms of wetland e.g alkaline, fresh or seasonal It includes those wetlands previously excluded by Hughs and Hughs (1992), but excludes tidal and coastal wetlands because Ethiopia has no access to the sea According to Afework Hailu (2007) Ethiopian wetlands are currently being lost or altered their ecosystem functions and structures by unregulated over-utilization, water quality deterioration through water diversion for agricultural intensification, urbanization and settlement , pollution and other anthropogenic interventions This is true in Wonchi district that clearly show there is great human influences on diversified wetlands Among anthropogenic activities, There is structural modification and reduction in size on their many parts, change of chemistry and biology of water bodies, loss of plenty services to community and aquatic ecosystems and so on There was no focus dealing on the problems in the area/ Wonchi district wetlands, while Wonchi lake has relatively got

focus to show the magnitude of its socio economic importance, Zooplankton and phytoplankton diversity composition as a base line and partial physicochemical characters through some gentile men like Fasile Degefu

The district is known by Wonchi creator lake that has growing tourism investment and made one of vulnerable area for pollution and unwise use of resources because of existence of growing intensive agricultural practices, settlement and tourist loge waste generation and doubt of owner ship right for the lake and the rim ( Negassa, 2014)

Negassa Fufa ( 2014)also studied their nutrient level and expressed as the lake is at oliga otrophic conditions with ammonium being the primary nitrogen form in the lake, however, this is done nutrient level is increasing rate ( Degefu,2015).Increments of population, expansion of farming lands, intensive practice of overgrazing , rim and sloppy land disturbance and destruction, resulting land use land cover change and deteriorating of wetlands water quality However socioeconomic importance and eco-tourism values were not investigated at local, regional as well as at national and international level

According to the study made by Fasil Degefu ( 2015 )which is entitled by "The phytoplankton community of tropical high-mountain crater lake Wonchi, Ethiopia" categorized the existing phytoplankton community in to 53taxaand lined in five taxonomic divisions which include health risk responsible micro alga organisms Detail micro-cyist species identification was not investigated to define health implication Further his study revealed as Nutrient levels indicated oligotrophic conditions with ammonium being the primary nitrogen form

Studies conducted on challenges and prospects of Wonchi creator lake showed that there

is question of sustainable ecotourism development because of conflict of interest on the ownership of the lake, illegal land marketing, lack of basic ecotourism facilities, disempowerment of women, unfair benefit sharing, institutional challenges ,

environmental degradation and understanding of pollution status gap (Teressa Derera,

2015)Rather than Wonchi lake, other wetlands situation were not investigated and no

baseline information about their social, economical , environmental role and their values

to the community All these challenges are the result of anthropogenic out puts which are poorly managed at all level particularly at community level the owner of the resource Scientific findings was not organized and disseminated to the community and governmental offices at desired and usable form to change awareness status at all level

2.2 IMPORT ANCE OF WATER QUALITY

Ethiopian water resource policy clearly recognizes water as an economic good that requires proper protection, conservation and management The strategy also indicates the management and conservation activities lined at basin scale while the developmental issues are completely owned by regional level Beside this, Ethiopia clearly set on the SDG , ambient water quality as one goal to achieve the three basic goals: end poverty reduction, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all

Mean while, Ensuring the health of water bodies is essential for maintaining viable, abundance and diverse communities of organisms in aquatic ecosystems People have specific water quality requirements for their drinking, recreation, irrigation and other purposes, however the requirements are vary based on their usage Deterioration of water

quality affect the availabilities of water for consumption human as well as ecosystems, increase treatment cost, increase prevalence of disease and others These aquatic ecosystem changes could be linked with basic water quality parameters like nutrient load, temperature changes, DO level fluctuation, E.C,PH and Sediment load, (WHO, 2003) Human beings has been responsible for a number of drastic changes and events observed

in the terrestrial and aquatic environments The major consequences of man‟s activities

on the environment are habitat degradation, water pollution, air pollution and the resultant deterioration of the aquatic ecosystem Different Anthropogenic activities are the major Water pollution problem in our world Larry (2005) This water pollution occurs when the pollutants/contaminants are discharged directly or indirectly into water body without adequate treatment

Water is a universal solvent that makes it more vulnerable to be polluted whatever exposures upfront According to WHO (1996) Water is generally considered polluted when it gets changed either of in its quality or composition or impaired by anthropogenic contaminants because of the problems come from anthropogenic activities or natural so

as to become less suitable for drinking, domestic, hydropower, irrigation, industrial, wildlife, recreational and other functions for which it would have been otherwise suitable

in its natural or modified state (EPA 2007) on the same time(WHO, 1996) clearly put as Water quality is a term used to defined the suitability of water to deliver various uses in terms of chemical, biological , physical, and radioactive characters or processes Water is affected dominantly through anthropogenic activities and in some case natural processes

In order to prevent and minimize the problems associated with water, there are national

and international standards or guidelines to be followed for water quality suitable for different purposes (drinking, personal hygiene, irrigation, etc)

From this perspectives, pollutant of Water can be defined as a physical, chemical, or biological factor causing aesthetic or detrimental effects on aquatic life, public and on those who consume the water In some case, pollution may be derived from natural processes such as weathering of rocks , decay of forest product, and soil through erosion and any contact In most cases, however, deteriorate of water quality is either directly or indirectly the result of Anthropogenic activities The major sources of wastes for water bodies which are located far from urban area is rural agricultural practices, free or over grazing practices, misuse of the resources and open defecation practices However, Municipal wastewater consists of waterborne wastes originating primarily from residence, commercial areas, and institutions are critical issues which contains about 99%

of water and 1% of solids Of these solids, 70% are organic and 30% are inorganic in nature (unknown published date) In most cases municipal wastewaters are generally discharged as such in the untreated, treated, or potentially treated form into nearby water bodies like rivers, lakes etc where it can cause severe sanitary and water pollution problems The major problems associated with wastewater are production of odors and spread of enteric diseases, besides organic pollution which leads to oxygen depletion and kill of benthic organisms

The quality of water is highly imperative component to understand the healthiness of a water body and it is a critical factor affecting human health and welfare (Al-Gahwari, 2007) Studies showed that approximately 3.1% of deaths (1.7 million) and 3.7% of

disability adjusted- life-years (DALYs) (54.2 million) worldwide are attributable to unsafe water, poor sanitation and hygiene (WHO, 2005)

Surface water bodies are recognized to be more vulnerable to pollution and contamination because of poor sanitary and unwise solid and liquid waste disposal in the

area (Kistemann et al.2002) The most common risk to public health associated with the

discharge of sewage, runoff and domestic wastewater released into surface waters arises because of pathogenic organisms (Manahan, 1991) The pathogens, which cause serious diarrheal diseases such as amoebic dysentery, cholera, and typhoid fever (Revenga and Mock, 2000) on the people living in the vicinity of the Lake originate from water polluted with human and/or animal excrement

Most outbreaks are related with water quality problems which is not protected and safe for use For instance, out breaks in the Crowded lake community was associated with

swimming practices in the lake (Ackman et al., 1997),on contaminated drinking water (Olsen et al., 2002) as well as on surface water (Effler et al.,2001)

The major sources of contamination of surface water are settlement and farm runoffs, discharges from sewage treatment facilities, failing septic systems, wildlife, farm animals

and direct fecal contamination by humans and animals (Okafo et al., 2003)

According to Fasil Degefu and his collogues point out threats for wetlands in the district like unsustainable tourism, shoreline and crater rim modifications, water abstraction and land grabbing Particularly, These threats are being up fronting problems for Lake Wonchi however itis less disturbed creator lake in the central highlands of the country

WHO guideline lists nearly 200 chemicals, ranging from naturally occurring arsenic and fluoride to synthetic chemicals found only in industrial settings Fortunately only a relatively small number are likely to pose real threats in drinking water WHO has developed a useful classification system based on classes of contaminant sources, rather than chemical characteristics, which we will follow here:

 Naturally occurring

 Industrial sources and human dwellings

 Agricultural activities

 Water treatment or materials in contact with drinking water

 Pesticides used in water for public health purposes

 Cyano-bacterial toxins

According to WHO( 2006) It is very important investigating, identifying, assessing and managing drinking water quality risks in surface water catchments because it serves as raw water sources which called '' source water' that includes Ground water , rain water, and various surface water like rivers, lakes , wetlands, ponds, irrigation channels and others The proportion of drinking water supplies relying on surface water is extremely variable regionally and nationally, but globally It is estimated to cover about 50 % of its need from surface water(UNSECO, 2004 ) By now Population numbers, needs are at increasing rate which is increasingly apparent for the issues of water quality which cannot be managed in isolation manner that requires entire water cycle starts from pollution sources to manage our limited fresh water sources and to protect public health

Food insecurity and the attendant agricultural development in Ethiopia have demanded the widespread use by farmers of fertilizers and pesticides The fertilizers and pesticides applied on agricultural lands eventually find their ways into nearby water bodies and pollute them The most common consequence of enrichments of water bodies with algal

nutrients (eutrophication) originating from farm plots is the massive growth of algae in

lakes and reservoirs (Lampert and Sommer, 1997), one of the commonest water quality problem, which has attracted public attention in Ethiopia The development of toxic

blooms of the cyanobacterium Microcystis aeruginosa in Lake Chammo (Amha Belay

and Wood, 1982) and Koka Reservoir (www.aljazeera.net/english people and power Green Lake 17/02/09; Yeshiemebet Major, 2016) has been responsible for the death of a large number of domestic and wild animals and/or production of offensive odour and undesirable taste of the lake waters, which have always been used as drinking water supply source by local inhabitants

Environmental degradation of water bodies influences the species composition and primary production of phytoplankton, which determine the pelagic food web structure and fish production in water bodies In other words, the anthropogenic impact on water quality and the ecological functioning of the system is reflected in the trophic state of a

lake (Cunha et al 2013), an index that can assist in decisions about risks of algal blooms

as well as the control of eutrophication that has become a global concern to decision

makers (Brito et al 2011, Cunha et al 2013, Liu et al 2014) Some ecological races of

organisms inhabiting water bodies may even come to extinction before we even know they exist and the loss of an ecological race of a species represents the loss of a gene pool

Any type of activity in catchment of a water bodies that changes the existing land will have a direct impact on its water quality characteristics Littoral zone modifications for various purposes including irrigation practices, and settlement lead to increased turbidity and altered water biology and chemistry, which contribute to the degradation of the pristine qualities of wetlands It is, therefore, imperative to give prompt and careful attention to the hitherto neglected and threatened water bodies in Ethiopia

2.3 ESTIMATION OF WATER QUALITY INDEX (WQI)

Water Quality Index (WQI) is a tool that indicates the water quality level of fresh water bodies including lakes and wetlands It is calculated through using selected Biological parameters like thermo-tolerant coli-forms and physicochemical parameters that are DO, NO3 −N, TP, BOD, water temperature, pH, turbidity, and TSS (Bucci, et al., 2015) According to (IJAC,2015), categorization of water quality started in the mid-twentieth century by Horton in 1965 following categorization general Water quality index (WQI)

has been developed by Brown et al.(1970) followed Bascaran (1979) which provided a

global value for water conditions and incorporates weighted individual values from a series of physical, chemical, or biological parameters measured in the field or laboratory

Steinhart et al (1982) applied a novel environmental quality index to sum up technical

information on the status and trends in Great Lakes ecosystem

WQI is taken as a single digit in compressive and systematic way to represent the status

of water quality resolving lengthy, multi-parameter and water analysis reports into single digit scores This, in turn, is essential for comparing the water quality of different sources and in monitoring the changes in the water quality of a given source as a function of time and other influencing factors Time of the sampling also significantly influences water quality parameters and hence the index value However, it is extremely difficult to develop a universally acceptable general water quality index But researchers may develop region and source specific water quality index Most of the developed water quality indices are surface water specific NSF WQI, CCME WQI and WQI are water quality indices which are frequently used for water quality assessment

According to Brown et al.(1970) NSF WQI is one of the first and effective water quality

indices that tell the status of water bodies and water can be classified for various purposes based on WQI result WQI results have been served for different institutions to assess water bodies quality and showed the pollution status and trends The index was applied for water quality assessment of Dokan lake in Kurdistan Region, Iran from 1976 to 2000

(Alobaidy et al 2010)

The index is estimated using a number ranging from 0 to 300 (Ramakrishnaiah et al.,

2009) Parameters have different weight according to its relative importance in the calculation of the index These parameters are indicative of the water quality and have been established by the National Sanitation Foundation (USA) for the development of the index to classify water quality

General WQI is an efficient one but parameters should be carefully selected depending

on the source and time Smith‟s index gives a better aggregation of datasets The main

drawback of NSFQI is the eclipsing effect Due to this affect one or more parameters which have values above permissible limit are masked if rest of the parameters are within the limits

US National Sanitation Foundation WQI, NSFWQI, Florida Stream Water Quality Index, FWQI, British Columbia Water Quality Index, BCWQI, Oregon Water Quality Index, OWQI and the Canadian Water Quality Index (Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment (CCME) were frequently used in the public domain These Index have beenserving to know the pollution status and for monitoring purpose in developed countries, while using for developed world , there has been the biggest challenge to develop cost effective pollution control strategies because of fund restriction Researchers suggested evaluating water bodies with critical water quality parameters must be in considered for limited finance (Ongley, 1998 ) Now many researchers are using it to represent the quality status with post monitoring and analysis

Understanding of water quality status trend is very important for government , community and concerned bodies to take actions and become a base for the community to have early warning alarm not to use directly for drink and related purpose WQ index becomes a tool to show the status One of the most effective methods to assess water quality is using appropriate indices (Dwivedi, 2007) Water quality Indices are based on the values of various physicochemical and biological parameters in a water sample The use of indices in monitoring programs have been very useful for assessment of ecosystem health and also can be used as a benchmark for appropriate and successful assessment in management strategies for improving water quality (Rickwood and Carr, 2009) WQI can

be used to collect data on water quality parameters at different times and places and to

translate the information into a single value based on certain period of time and spatial unit (Shultz, 2001) Based on the results of WQI, water can be classified for various purposes (Brown, 1970) Pesce and Wunderlin (2000) used water quality indices to assess the water quality of the Suquia River in Argentina (Pesce and Wunderlin, 2000) (Fathi et tal,2016)

This study aimed to evaluate the WQ status and ecological implication of wetlands using WQI which in turn is computed based on fourteen water quality variables measured on samples collected from the eight district wetlands

3.SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The study serves for the district's eight wetlands environment /ecological services/ and development actors as well as policy makers at regional and local levels of government in showing the existing problems that cause actual water quality and quantity deterioration and predict future situation It would contribute towards the effort of assessment of water quality in aquatic ecosystems for the ambient water quality targets in sustainable development goals and poverty reduction in related to health based target and would also serve as input to attain ecological sustainable development in the area This study showed the level of the problems related to wetlands physicochemical and bacteriological character and also provides an initial overview and supplementary information for researchers who would like to see the problem in the area differently

4 SCOPE AND LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The study covered eight wetlands in the district, their water quality status of general physicochemical and biological character of the wetlands and ecological health implications Wetlands' resources challenges/opportunities at Catchment level and their tributaries surely require commitment of large resources and time to generate data on each of the key natural resources quality as well as quantity Time constraint might affected the study in some instance not to see more trends For example, detail periodical/temporal data was difficult to collect for the wetlands that would be used to express the early warning Purpose based detail sampling and analysis might be covered

by other researchers

CHAPTER THREE

5 MATERIALS AND MET HODS

5.1 STUDY AREA DISC RIPTTION

Wonchi District is found in the upper catchment of Omo Gibe basin in South West Shewa Zone of Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia The district is located at 8°41′N latitude and 37°53′E longitude The altitude of the area ranged from 2000 to3400 m a.s.l from the Crater rim in the North to the highly dissected landscape along the southern slope of the

Mt Wonchi and the undulating foot slopes to the Woliso plain The district covers 1.13million km2area from this grazing land accounts 604.95 km2, cultivation 278.17 km2and forest 46.39 km2(WWAOR(Wonchi Woreda Agriculture Office Report), 2016) According to Oromiya Livelihood Zone Report (2006), Wonchi district is one of the most densely populated areas of South West Shewa Zone with a population of119,736 from these males and females are contributed 49% (56,059) and 51 % (63,677), respectively There are around eight wetlands in the district namely Wonchi, Haro, Borifitu, Godawebe, Waliga, Metiwaliga, Gagure and Harogaliye All these wetlands are bounded

in four Kebeles which are Miti-Waliga, Belbela-Bulbulo, Dimtu-Godeti, and Wonchi (Fig 1)

Haro-The district is endowed in various natural resources that needs attention to deal and interrelate with its advantage at large and community level According to WWAOR,(2006) the district has three types of soil which accounts red 48 %, Veri-soil 12% and brown soil 40%

Regarding health of district population, top ten diseases were identified, ranked and set in order from high prevalence to lower These are acute febrile illness, acute upper respiratory infections pneumonia, diarrhea , trauma , disease of musculoskeletal system and connective tissue, dyspepsia, urinary tract infection, diarrhea with blood and unspecified infection and parasitic diseases, respectively(District Health Office, 2016) Among these the fourth, ninth and tenth are water related disease that showed the prevalence rate of water related diseases are still problem and higher prevalence rate in the wetland regimes

According to the District Water Office, the water supply coverage is 56.8 % within 1 km radius which is supplied by improved source that implies 67 developed spring, 52 shallow well, dang well and 4 bore hole The left 43.2 % of the community use drinking water either from open source including wetlands or by moving above 1 km radius from their village to improved sources

Figure 1 : A map of Study Area

5.2 CLIMATE

The annual rainfall of the area ranges from 10to1142 mm The rain fall pattern tells as

there is low pricpitation at January and Feburary , and gradualy riches at the maximum

peak at Julyto September then go down from November The climate in the wonch

district is characterized by two seasons namely Dry and Wet The mean monthly

maximum and minimum temperature of the district is 22.70C and 11.90C, respectively

The mean annual temperature of the area is 16.90C and with slight variation from year to year (Figure2)

Figure 2 : Monthly Distribution Pattern of Rain fall and Temperature Variation (Ethiopian National Meteorological Agency (ENMA), 2015 Year of Publication)

5.2 STUDY DESIGN AND SAMP LING SITES

Cross-sectional study design was used in this study and a total of twenty one sampling sites were selected from eight wetlands; Wonchi wetland( eight), Haro (three), Harogaliye(three), Metiwaliga (three), Gagure (one), Godawebe(one), Borifitu (one) and Waliga (one) sampling sites based on exposure of anthropogenic activities and the wetlands representative features like the inlets, open water and outlets were considered Samples were taken with three replication and made composite samples

5.3 WATER SAMPLE COLLECT ION AND PRESERVATION

A total of 126 water samples were collected from 21 sampling sites from October/ 2016

to May/ 2017 The composite water samples from three replicates were collected using 1 liter sized polyethylene bottles for chemical analysis (nutrients) and biological analysis

on the wetlands (30-50cm depth) from each sampling sites and transported using Ice box

A 0.5 liter water samples for heavy metals analysis were collected from each sites and preserved by nitric acid 300ml water sample was also collected for bacteriological analysis at each sampling sites using bottles containing sodium thiosulfate One liter of samples for phytoplankton and another 1 liter composite samples for chlorophyll-a analysis were collected from sampling sites according to APHA(1998) The phytoplankton samples were preserved by logous solution as soon as samples collected and transported using Ice Box like other parameters

5.4 ANALYSIS OF PHYSICOCHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PARAM ETERS

5.4.1 Physicochemical parameters

Physicochemical parameters like Conductivity (E.C), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Temperature, Salinity, Turbidity and Dissolved Oxygen(DO) were measured in-situ using multi-meter probe(Hanna model No.Hl98195) Turbidity was also measured using Turbidity meter

Whereas NO3-N, NO2-N, Phosphate (PO4), fluoride, and SO4-2 were analyzed in the laboratory using spectrophotometer (DR/2008 HACH, Loveland, USA) according to HACH instructions Spadns Method (Method 8029), Cadmium Reduction Method (Method 8039), Diazotization Method (method 8507) and SulfaVer 4 Method(Method 8051) Methods were in used for Fluoride, NO3-N, No2-N, Phosphate (PO4), Cl-, SO4-2, respectively

Kjeldahl Nitrogen Standard Method( Method 8075) Nessler Method, Reactor Digestion Method (Method 8000) and Acid Per-sulfate Digestion method (method 8190) were used for TN, COD, and TP analysis, respectively using HACH DR/2400 Biological oxygen demand (BOD5) was measured after five day incubation using 100ml sample and diluted with 200 ml tap water which DO value was known The initial and final DO measurement were determined to calculate the factor for BOD calculation

Calcium and Magnesium Chlorophosphonazo method( Hach, Method 8374) was used for total Hardness ,Ca and Mg Titration methods were used for analysis of chloride and Alkalinity using titrant silver nitrate and HCL and Bromocrosol and HCL respectively