Approaches to learning and learning values an investigation of adult learners in malaysia

APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND LEARNING VALUES: AN INVESTIGATION OF ADULT LEARNERS IN MALAYSIA TAN, PO LI, B.A., MMLS Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree o

APPROACHES TO LEARNING AND LEARNING VALUES:

AN INVESTIGATION OF ADULT LEARNERS IN

MALAYSIA

TAN, PO LI, B.A., MMLS

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the

Degree of Doctor of Philosophy

November 2005

School of Learning and Professional Studies Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education QUEENSLAND UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY

KEYWORDS

Adult Learning, Professional Development, Approaches to Learning, Cultural Values, Asian Values, Cross-Cultural Studies, Cross-Cultural Methodology, Cultural Awareness and Training

ABSTRACT

This research was inspired by a pressing question which formed the main aim of the

current study What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of adult learners in the formal setting in Malaysia? It is hoped that by addressing this

question, insights obtained may be useful for the Malaysian policy makers in attempting

to implement the government’s initiative—Malaysia Vision 2020 The current literature

informs that in order to achieve the desired goals, Malaysian adult learners, must now more than ever be conscious of the effect of learning values and approaches to learning Hence, there is a need to develop a more holistic understanding of the interrelated

dynamics between learning values and approaches to learning

The current study adopts a transdisciplinary, etic/emic approach, using two culturally sensitive questionnaires, Revised Study Process Questionnaires-2 Factors Malaysia (R-SPQ-2FM) and Learning Values Survey (LVS) on 858 Malay and Chinese adult learners

in Malaysia

The study found the significant others can have substantial influence on the ‘face value’ for both Malay and Chinese adult learners generally, but was more pronounced for the Malay adult learners This in turn may encourage Malay adult learners to submit to pressure from others in influencing how they perceive the importance of learning and motivation in learning Because Malay adult learners are constantly driven by external factors to compete with other cultural groups in education or economic achievement, they may tend to avoid challenging tasks such as deeper approaches to learning in order to rapidly achieve their immediate learning goals Engaging with deep approaches and meaningful learning are effortful and the pressure to save face may result in the

likelihood of adopting surface approaches This coupled with the finding that they do not appreciate the middle way principles as much as the Chinese adult learners suggest that they may be less flexible and/or pragmatic learners The findings suggest that practice of middle way principles (such as ‘Willing to compromise one’s own values to suit the

which implies that Malay adult learners may be disadvantaged in the learning settings due to their lack of appreciation of the middle way principles It is also interesting to find that Malay adult learners appreciate time factor more than their Chinese counterparts when engaging with Deep Approaches to learning

In contrast, the middle way principle practiced as a way of life by the Chinese culture has made Chinese adult learners more malleable, resulting in a relatively less face conscious cultural group Being less externally driven and less restrictive, Chinese adult learners are more likely to adopt deep approaches to enhance meaningful learning In addition, the Chinese culturally ingrained learning approach, Understand and Memorization was found

to be more likely to produce positive learning outcome Unlike their Malay counterparts, Chinese adult learners view work experiences more essential in helping them to engage with Deep Approaches to learning

The above findings are novel and add to previous studies on approaches to learning by introducing the effect of learning values While previous research has referred to cultural variable in learning, they have not sufficiently explored the effect of culture Learning values is one significant cultural variable that is considered in the study

The findings underpin the different emphasis placed by the two cultural groups as they engage with professional development activities It is hoped that by identifying values pertinent to learning in this competitive globalized economy, the study has provided insights for Malaysian policy makers to develop holistic future education plans to assist

in achieving Malaysian Vision 2020 Insights gained can also support plans where Malay

can be encouraged to become competent global leaders and workers, capable of

competing in this knowledge economy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

2.1.1 Adult Learning Theories and Their Application in Malaysian Context 19

2.1.3 Implicit Learning from Adult Learners’ Perspective 24

2.1.4 Explicit learning in a Formal Environment, the Adult Learners’ Perspective 27

2.1.4.1 Students Approaches to Learning (SAL) and Its Relevance to Adult Learning 28

2.1.4.1.1 A qualitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning 31

2.1.4.1.2 A quantitative paradigm to SAL theory and its relevance to adult learning 33

2.1.5 Biggs’s 3P Model with Malaysian Adult Learners as Context 34

2.1.7.1.1 Conceptions of learning and Approaches to Learning 45

2.2.1 Cultural Factors as an Important Concept in Understanding Learning 53

2.2.3 The Findings of Cross-Cultural Research on Learning 56

2.2.3.2 Inappropriateness of Western Constructs and Models 57

2.2.5 Cross-Cultural Studies on Motivation and its Relevance to Asian Adult Learners 64

2.2.6 The Significance of Values in Cross-Cultural Research 71

2.2.9 The Influence of Confucius Values Today and in Malaysia 81

2.2.10 The Relationships of Confucius Values and Learning 82

2.2.11 The Influence of Social Groups in the Environment 91

2.2.11.1 People with Confucian Heritage as Collectivist Society? 91

2.3.1.3 General Findings did not Differentiate Three Major Cultural Groups 101

3.2.1 Rationale for Selecting Quantitative Approach in the Current Study 113

3.3.1 Some Cross-Cultural Methodological Issues Relevant to the Current Study 119

3.3.1.1 Issues of Cross-Cultural Methodology in Learning 119

3.3.1.5 Culturally Sensitive Instrumentation—Equivalence of Language & Concepts

3.3.2.1 Relevance of Self-Administered Questionnaire to the Current Study 124

3.3.2.2 The Adoption of Self-Administered Questionnaire 126

3.3.2.3 Rationale for Adapting SAL Instrument for Malaysian Adult Learners 127

3.3.2.4 Rationale for Adapting ‘Learning Values Survey’ (LVS) for

3.3.4 Scales Construction for Self-Administered Questionnaire 131

3.4 Details of Scales Construction for the Current Study 137

3.4.1 Section one of the Questionnaire- Demographic Data 137

3.4.2.1 Rationale for Adapting R-SPQ-2FM from SPQ and R-SPQ-2F 138

3.4.2.2 Scale Tailoring for R-SPQ-2FM—Malaysian Adult Learners 139

3.4.2.2.3 Addition of Understanding and Memorizing Subscale 144

3.4.2.2.4 Items relevant to adult learners in Deep Strategy subscale 145

3.4.2.3 Description of Scales for R-SPQ-2FM in Preliminary Study 145

3.4.3.3 Scale Tailoring for LVS—Malaysian Adult Learners 152

3.4.3.3.2 Items related to ‘religious-secular’ influence in LVS 153

3.4.3.6 Translation and Back Translation for Cultural Sensitivity for LVS 155

3.4.3.6.1 Translation 155

3.4.3.6.2 Back-translation of Malay and Chinese Versions of LVS 157

3.4.4 Content Validity and Face Validity Assessment of the Whole Instrument 168

4.1.1 Explanation of Stage One Analysis-Exploratory Factor Analysis &

4.1.2 Explanation of Stage Two Analysis-Confirmatory Factor Analysis 171

4.2.1Sample Used for Stage One Analysis-The Pilot Sample 173

4.2.2 Sample Used for Stage Two Analysis-The Main Sample 173

4.3.1 R-SPQ-2FM 174

4.4 Other Feedback and Observation from the Stage One Pilot Study 181

5.5.2.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference Between Groups

and Difference Between Groups on Each of the Approaches to Learning

5.5.2.2 Results of MANOVA comparing total difference between Groups

and Difference between Groups on Each of the Dependent Variables when

5.2.2.3 Comparing Approaches to Learning of Malay and Chinese

5.2.4.1 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups

and Difference between Groups on Each of the Learning Values Dependent Variables 211

5.2.4.2 Results of MANOVA Comparing Total Difference between Groups

and Difference between Groups on Each of the DV when Loaded with

5.2.4.3 Comparing Learning Values of Malay and Chinese using

5.2.4.1 The Differences in the Relationships of Learning Values and

Approaches to Learning for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners—

6.2.3 The Influence of Others on the Values of Learning for Malay 244

6.2.5 Chinese and the Practice of Middle Way Philosophy 257

6.3 Section 3-Relationships of Learning Values and Approaches to Learning 253

6.3.3 The Relationships of Values of Learning, Qualities of Learning,

Chapter 7: Conclusion 271

7.1.1 Practical Implication Cultural Awareness of Adult Learners 277

List of Tables

Table 1: Similarities and differences of National Schools and Chinese National Type

schools 12

Table 2: Consistency between literatures on cultural values presented by educational psychologists and value items developed by social psychologists 79

Table 3 : Description of scales for R-SPQ-2FM in Preliminary Study 146

Table 4: Language Adaptation for R-SPQ-2FM 148

Table 5: Adaptation of Scoring Scale for R-SPQ-2FM 148

Table 6: Consistency between literature on learning values and value items developed by social psychologists 151

Table 7: Modification of LVS 152

Table 8: Six main scales of the 26 items based on the CVS (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987) and the CCVS (Fan, 2000) 155

Table 9 : Summary of Scales & Items for R-SPQ-2FM (N=101) 175

Table 10 R-SPQ-2FM Factor Values (N=101) 176

Table 11 Summary of Scales & Items for LVS (N=101) 178

Table 12: LVS Factor Values (N=101) 179

Table 13: Demographic Data of Malaysian Malay and Chinese Adult Learners in percentage 188

Table 14: Response Distribution of Malay & Chinese in % 192

Table 15: Independent Samples Test of acquiescence index for Malay and Chinese 195 Table 16: Mean, Standard Deviation, and Mean Ranking of Approaches to Learning for

Table 17: Multivariate Tests for Approaches to Learning 200 Table 18: Effects of Seven Moderating Variables on Factors of Approaches to Learning for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners with MANOVA 202 Table 19: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese R-SPQ-2FM Models 207 Table 20: Mean, Standard Deviation, and Ranking of Learning Values for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners 210 Table 21: Multivariate Tests for Learning Values 212 Table 22: Effects of Seven Moderating Variables on Factors of Learning Values for Malay and Chinese Adult Learners with MANOVA 213 Table 23: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS Models 215 Table 24: Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of R-SPQ-2FM for Malaysian Adult Learners (n=858) 219 Table 25 : The Latent Structure Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of

R-SPQ-2FM for Malay Adult Learners (n=532) 220

Table 26: Correlations between Subscales of LVS and Subscales of R-SPQ-2FM for

Chinese Adult Learners (n=326) 221

Table 27: Testing the Statistical Significance of the Differences between Correlation Coefficient for Malay and Chinese Cultural Groups 223 Table 28: Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Models 229 Table 29: Research Questions, Variables, Sections in Questionnaire and Statistical

Analyzes 324 Table 30 : Comparing Fit Indices for Malay and Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Models before and after respecification 359

List of Figures

Figure 1: An Overview of chapter 2 18

Figure 2: Bigg’s 3P model – With Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia as Context 39

Figure 3: Model 5 postulated by Kember et al (1999) 141

Figure 4: Higher order latent structure of R-SPQ-2FM at scales level 182

Figure 5: Higher order latent structure of LVS at scales level 184

Figure 6: Conceptual Design of Data Analysis 196

Figure 7: Malay/Chinese R-SPQ-2FM higher order latent Structure model The standardized path coefficients and correlation coefficient for Malay are in bold and for Chinese are in parentheses and italised and also in bold 206

Figure 8 : Malay/Chinese LVS higher order latent Structure model The standardized path coefficients and correlation coefficient for Malay are in bold and for Chinese are in parentheses and italised and also in bold 216

Figure 9: Higher order structural model of Malay LVS/R-SPQ-2FM 227

Figure 10: Higher order structural model of Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM 228

Figure 11: Malay LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification 357

Figure 12: Chinese LVS/R-SPQ-2FM Model before respecification 358

Statement of Original authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or

diploma at any other higher education institution To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made

Signed………

Dated………

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Special Thanks:

To Associate Professor Hitendra Pillay and Dr Fiona Spencer Thanks for your constant advice, guidance, encouragement, and extraordinary support Working under your

supervision has been a privilege and pleasure for me

To all my friends and colleagues, who have helped me in my difficult times

To all the adult learners who willingly participated in this study

To University Technology MARA, for funding my study

Finally, to my beloved mother, Madam Tan Kim Hau for her endless support

Most of all, I dedicated this study to my beloved husband, Cheong Kin Seng, my

daughter Phoebe Cheong Hui Dynn and son, Peyton Cheong Phey Denn—for their

undying love and support

Tan, Po Li

School of Professional Studies

Centre for Learning Innovation

Faculty of Education

Queensland University of Technology

2002/2005

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

This chapter first examines major global changes and issues before relating them to some

of the strategies adopted by Malaysia, a developing country, to prepare itself to change and compete in the global market It goes on to examine two major issues which are crucial in shaping Malaysia to become a fully developed country by the year 2020,

enabling it to be one of the major global players These two issues are 1) the neglected adult learners and 2) the differential academic performance of the Malay learners These two issues eventually shape the rationale and objectives of the current study

1.1 The Global Scene

The change in the global scene as a result of the advancement of information technology

is so rapid that it has led to many countries in the world embarking on major discussions about their future Common themes that emerge as a result of these discussions are: the importance of being able to compete, the importance of understanding the knowledge-based economy, and the importance of developing life-long learning capacities The Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development (OECD) (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001) in recognizing the close relationship between knowledge and learning, has reconceptualized the term knowledge-economy to call it learning economy (Falk & Smith, 2002; Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001) Any country which does not want to lose out in this global market will have no choice but to change in order to be able to compete in this daunting but inevitable process of globalization (Martin & Porter, 2000; Sopiee, 2002)

Amidst the discussion on the pertinence of a knowledge and learning economy, it is now recognized that economies are directly based on the production, distribution and use of knowledge and information Technology and knowledge are now the two significant factors of production Although knowledge has long been an important factor in

economic growth, economists are now exploring ways to incorporate knowledge and technology more directly in their theories and models Inevitably, this has affected the

employability of workers Employment in the knowledge-based economy is characterized

by increasing demand for more highly-skilled, multi-skilled workers; individual workers who have global mobility, who are highly competitive, flexible, independent and critical thinkers who can use knowledge as a commodity to survive in the intensified competition

in the global scene (Drucker, 1999; Pillay & Elliott, 2002; Robinson, 2001) When

working for Shell, de Geus studied the common characteristics of the world’s most

enduring corporations, and concluded that these surviving corporations are similar to individual human beings Two of the four major common characteristics for corporate survival are an ‘ability to learn and adapt’, and ‘an awareness of the environment’

(Stephenson, 1999) This intense focus on the importance to learn and adapt inevitably calls for a greater demand for knowledge-workers who see learning as part of their lives Ultimately, it leads to a stronger implication for the value of life-long learning required

by knowledge-workers

A greater demand for knowledge-workers concerns adults, as adults make up the majority

of the productive knowledge-workers Given the fact that the aging population (i.e., the majority of the knowledge-workers) in the world generally has risen as a result of the baby boom phenomenon (Jarvis, 2001), the governments around the world, particularly in developed countries like the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and Finland are taking heed of the demands of this rapid change in employability of these adult knowledge-workers (Jarvis, 2001; Martin & Porter, 2000; Merriam & Caffarella, 1983) It was noted by Jarvis that in the United states, for example, the number of

educational institutions for adults is increasing much more rapidly than the number of schools; third age learning was regarded as one of the major educational issues in the Finnish European Union Presidency Seminar, 1999 With the emergence of a knowledge society and the process of globalization, the nature of education is evolving into a

complex mix of formal and informal education and life-long education This according to Jarvis is a major conceptual shift from education to learning in the past decade

There is also little doubt that the intersection of the globalization of financial markets, and innovation in information and communication technology has a strong influence on

global culture in the world Many multinational companies in the world are

acknowledging the importance of learning to excel in a multicultural world, learning how

to cross the new invisible borders of national culture (Harris & Moran, 1996; Rosen, Digh, Singer, & Phillips, 2000) People are now constantly traveling beyond their home countries, either as tourists or expatriate workers, or to take flight from their countries as refugees, interacting with others from other cultures Hence, there is an urgent need not only to understand adult learners but also to learn to be culturally sensitive and aware of the diversified cultures in the world to facilitate performance Intercultural management researcher Hofstede (1991) remarked that the ability of current managers to cope with cultural diversity is an important survival skill, more so in the borderless world today Such an opinion is echoed by Rosen, a management consultant, when commenting on the borderless economy in a multicultural world He emphasized that ‘not everyone is

equipped to run fast, but some are - and they respond by opening up, soaking up cultural differences in order to maximize their own awareness and learning’ (2000, p 21) Put differently, the outcome of globalization demands knowledge-workers to be highly

sensitive to changes in the environment and to be able to learn and capitalize on changes

in culture This confirms one of the main propositions of surviving corporations

identified in de Geus’ study (Stephenson, 1999)

The need to be culturally sensitive has also undoubtedly been the central discussion for educational programs planners and professional practitioners (Julia, 2000), particularly

on the issue of internationalization of curriculum in institutions of higher learning in the developed countries, where international students are their main clients For example, the issue of cultural diversification of Australian higher education lies at the heart of the goals of an internationalized curriculum (Brendon, 2002; Rizvi & Walsh, 1998; Smith & Smith, 1999b) It was suggested that in order to be ‘client focused’, the internationalized curriculum has to be culturally sensitive and responsive to the needs of the clients

Admittedly, globalization and the emergence of knowledge and the learning society have not only centered the attention on the value of life long learning, but they have has also called for cultural synergy and awareness in the global village

1.2 The Malaysian Scene

As a global player, Malaysia has no choice but to change according to the world

economic climate with the aim of achieving the nine challenges of Vision 2020 (a plan to build Malaysia into a developed country) The nine challenges are (Ahmad, 1998),

1 Establishing a united Malaysian nation with a sense of common and shared

destiny

2 Creating a psychologically liberated, secure, and developed Malaysian society with faith and confidence in itself This Malaysian Society must be distinguished

by pursuit of excellence

3 Fostering and developing a mature democratic society, practicing a form of

consensual, community-oriented Malaysian democracy that can be a model

4 Establishing a fully moral and ethical society, whose citizens are strong in

religious and spiritual values and imbued with the highest of ethical standards

5 Establishing a matured, liberated and tolerant society in which Malaysians of all colors and creeds are free to practice and profess their customs, cultures and religious beliefs and yet feeling that they belong to one nation

6 Establishing a scientific and progressive society that is innovative and looking

forward-7 Establishing a fully caring culture, a social system in which society will come before self

8 Ensuring an economically just society

9 Establishing a prosperous society, with an economy that is fully competitive, dynamic, robust, and resilient

To accomplish these, the Malaysian government has mapped out various strategies The two major strategies are: 1) The creation of a Multimedia Super Corridor (MSC), a new development model designed to catapult the country from the Industrial Age to the

Information Age; and 2) The establishment of a knowledge-based economy (K-economy)

The objectives of the knowledge-based economy are to ensure that the managers or the

‘drivers’ in every sector, need not only to make efforts to learn new skills and techniques

to face new challenges in the ‘global village’, but also to inculcate the values of learning, flexible thinking, self-management of professional and social development to their subordinates

life-long-1.2.1 The Current Educational Policy

Underpinning the above expectation of achieving the nine challenges of Vision 2020 should be the development of an education and training system that suggests the

development of disposition, knowledge and skills and the inculcation of life long learning

to meet the challenges of a knowledge and learning society in the global village

However, the issue is whether the current or future educational policy in Malaysia is adequate and comprehensive in preparing Malaysians, in particular the adult learners in Malaysia, to face the challenges ahead

The current educational policy is very much influenced by the history of the country In the past, Malaysia’s political economy, shaped by colonial capitalism, had created certain patterns of uneven development, economic disparities and social division As a result of British colonialism, the Chinese, who were initially brought in to work in the tin mines, eventually seemed to dominate the banking, small-scale manufacturing, retailing and service areas; the Malay aristocrats were trained for civil service by the colonial state; and the Indians were recruited in the rubber plantations The Malay peasantry, who refused to work in the tin mines and the rubber plantations escaped the harsh conditions

of colonial capitalism but were also locked into a closed subsistence sector On the other hand, the Chinese and the Indian migrants took advantage of gaining upward mobility through commerce and education This created economic disparities and social divisions (Khoo, 2001)

In an attempt to ensure that there is an economically just society in which there is a fair and equitable distribution of the wealth of the country, various economic and educational plans have been developed and implemented by the government through initiatives like

the New Economic Policy (NEP)(1970-1990) in the past to ensure equity Currently, the now-expired NEP has been replaced by the National Development Policy to meet the eighth challenge of Vision 2020; that is to continuously ensure that there is an

economically just society (Ranawana, 2000)

Realizing the importance of education in bridging the economic gap between the

indigenous people and the more successful Chinese (Snodgrass, 1980), the Malaysian government has been allocating a large portion of its national budget to education For example, in the 7th Malaysian Plan, the government spent about 15.4% of the budget on Education and Training (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Malaysia, n.d.), compared to 7.9%

by the Indonesia government and 13.5% by the Australian government (UNESCO, 1999) Since the initiation of the NEP, the Malaysian government has created aggressive training and educational programs to increase the number of qualified indigenous people (i.e., bumiputra or mainly the Malay) (Shamsul, 1999) The funding allocated has also enabled the Malaysian government to send more students overseas for further education and training than any of its regional neighbors (Vitikiotis, 1993, cited in Saibi, 1995)

Ultimately, it is hoped that these affirmative actions will help to narrow the social and economic gap when more professionally trained bumiputra participate in the economic sector

As part of the plan of MSC to bring Malaysia toward the Information Age, there is a introduction of ‘Smart Schools’, with the projection that approximately ten thousand schools in Malaysia will be smart schools by the year 2010 The smart schools concept involves the use of technology as the key enabler in teaching and learning in schools This is in line with the goals of the national philosophy of education, equipping

Malaysians with technological skills necessary in the borderless world (Saibi, 1995)

Despite constant educational reform such as the introduction of Smart Schools, and 30 years of implementation of the NEP to ensure equity, there are still two issues which have not been directly addressed: 1) the lack of attention on the increasing number of adult

learners who engage in learning in institutional environments and, 2) the academic

performance of the Malay learners in Malaysia

1.2.2 The Definition of Adult Learners

Adult learners in Malaysia who are potentially involved in the creation of the based economy and decision making, are adults who are contributing actively in the Malaysian economy This group of adults, according to the literature, are defined on the bases of their socio-cultural roles, status and responsibilities (Alkin, 1992; Jarvis, 1990; Tight, 1996; Tuijnman, 1996) Knowles (1998) stated that, “we become adult

knowledge-psychologically when we arrive at a self-concept of being responsible for our own lives,

of being self-directing” and “ we become adult socially when we start performing adult roles, such as the role of full time worker, spouse, parent, voting citizen, and the like” (p.64) Hence, the ‘functions’ and ‘roles’ of these adults, (not their ‘biological age’), determine the definition of adulthood in the context of the knowledge-based economy in the current study This definition of adult learners is also endorsed by the recent statistics

on the most active participation age group in adult education The age group between 30 and 54 years were found to be the most active adult participants in both Finland (see Blomqvist, Niemi, & Ruuskanen, 1995) and the United States of America (see Merriam

& Caffarella, 1999) Hence, it is highly possible that a similar age range of Malaysian adults (i.e., age between 30 and 54), who have professional work experience, also belong

to the group who are actively seeking continuing professional education or other form of formal education to enhance knowledge and learning in view of the changing scene in the global market

1.2.3 The Neglected Adult Learners in Malaysia

Whilst the Malaysian government has launched Malaysia Vision 2020, with a revelation

that Malaysian workers will become more skilful, more competitive, and more innovative, the same amount of attention is not given to exploring how Malaysian adult learners learn; and whether or not the educational policies are adequate and integrative in nature to cater

to the needs of these adults As pointed out in a study by Merriam and Mohamad (2000)

on Malaysian adult learners:

The country’s priority is on formally educating its youth Even middle-aged adults have little opportunity to pursue formal education; for older adults there are no policies, resources, or support for education Access to higher education and programs such as Eiderhostel, Learning-in-Retirement Institutes, Universities of the Third Age, senior centers, and retirement communities with educational programs are nonexistent in Malaysia (p.10)

Though the above observation was made on older adult learners, similar assumptions is valid for adults who have professional work experience and who are engaging in formal learning in the formal setting such as the university Such neglect is likely as Malaysia has been concentrating on educating its youth and hence most research has been targeted

at school children or fresh undergraduate learners

Establishing a K-economy however concerns the adult learners in Malaysia, as they are the main drivers in the country who make crucial political, economic and social decisions

in navigating the country to achieve Vision 2020 Merriam and Caffarella (1983) have noted that it is important to meet the learning needs of the adults, as they are the decision makers over the next two decades who will shape the Information Society Even though there are no official statistics on the number of adult learners engaging in professional development in Malaysia, judging by the number of MBA courses available now and the mushrooming of part-time courses available for busy adults over the past few years, one can confidently conclude that the number of adults participating in professional

development in Malaysia has increased significantly This trend of participation of the adult learners is also clearly evident in the international scene For instance, it was

reported in the United States of America that adult learners aged 25 or above represented nearly half of the credit students in higher education; and during the past 30 years, adult learners’ enrolment in post secondary education increased dramatically from 2.4 million

in 1970 to 6.5 million in 2000 (Imel, 2001) The participation of adult education in

Finland for 18-64 years old has increased from 32% in 1980 to 48% in 1995 (Blomqvist

et al., 1995) A similar upward trend is also observed in Canada (UNESCO, 2002) This trend is expected to grow as individuals and employers become ever more aware that knowledge becomes obsolete very rapidly in this information age In fact, half of what most professionals know when they finish their formal training will be outdated in less than five years, and could be even less for technology-related jobs (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999)

The increase in adult participation in professional development may be so rapid that educational sectors in Malaysia might not be prepared to meet the needs of these newly emerging adult learners in the formal setting Already there is apprehension in the

educational institutions of the United States of America that they are not responding quickly enough to the changes in the demand for adult education (Imel, 2001; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) Other countries who are experiencing similar surges in adult learning have invested significant resources in trying to understand and harness the potential of their human capital Considering Malaysia’s goal to achieve a developed country status and the increase in the number of adult learners participating in professional development,

a more in-depth understanding of how these adults learn is necessary to facilitate

processes to achieve Vision 2020

Not only does the Malaysian government need to cater to the needs of the adult learners

in navigating the country to the information world, there is also a pressing issue which is the disparate academic performance of Malay learners who comprise about 65% of the Malaysian population

1.2.4 The Academic Performance of the Malay Learners

The issue of academic performance of the Malay learners is not new; it was recently raised again after 30 years of NEP, a policy implemented in an attempt to bridge the social and economic gap Despite large amounts of money spent on education to narrow the social gap, the number of Malay learners who succeeded at universities is not

encouraging (Mohamad, 2001) For instance, it was reported that not many Malay

learners were achieving first class honours from the various public universities except for

‘expected’ fields like ‘Islamic Studies’ and ‘Malay Studies’ ("Lagging behind in the paper chase," 2002) From the above report, senior government officials, including the former Prime Minister, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad, have questioned why Malays were lagging behind in local universities when the education systems, medium of instruction and teachers were the same for both Malays and non-Malay students

It is further noted that 91% of the registered unemployed graduates were Malays, and the highest unemployment rate was found among the Malays, followed by the Indians and the Chinese (Salih & Yusof, 1989) There are more Malay female students than Malay male students in all higher learning institutions in Malaysia and the number of Malay students who succeeded in getting places in universities is also not encouraging

(Mohamad, 2001) Thirty percent of primary school students who dropped out from schools in 2001 were mostly made up of Malay male students (Ministry of Foreign Affairs Malaysia, n.d.) The chairman of MARA (Council of Trust for the Indigenous People), acknowledging the above phenomena, commented that the non-Malays,

especially the Chinese, were coming up top in practically all subjects, including the Malay language ("Scholarships for Bumi are not birthright, says minister," 1999)

A paper reviewing the NEP after 20 years of implementation pointed out that one of the downsides of NEP was the poor quality and performance of the educated Malays it has produced (Salih & Yusof, 1989) Perhaps one should have a more in-depth understanding

of the educational settings in Malaysia to be more critical on the issue of the academic performance of the Malay learners While the government has adopted a differential support mechanism for the provision of educational experiences for all its citizens, there are many commonalities in all the schools in Malaysia For instance, regardless of the difference in the use of the medium of instruction, the same syllabuses are adopted and the same national examinations are administered in all the schools across the nation The teachers and schools’ policy administrators are also trained in similar training centers and universities and sizes of the classrooms in every school are similar i.e., about 35-45

students per class (may be more in a Chinese National Type school as the population is

on the rise each year)

Students in the Chinese and Tamil National Type schools also learn 3 languages, Malay, English, and Chinese or Tamil respectively Further, the Chinese and Tamil National Type schools are often less well equipped in facilities and infrastructure than the National schools as the schools are only partially funded by the government Depending on the funding collected from Parent-Teacher Associations and donations from the public, the classrooms in the Chinese and Tamil National Type schools are also normally less well equipped Furthermore, the most observable difference is that there are more non-Malay teachers (Chinese and Indian) National Type schools Drawing from the above

information, there is a strong indication that culturally-related factors of both types of schools could be the crucial differentiating factor Table 1 summarizes the similarities and differences of the National schools and the Chinese National Type schools

In view of all these issues, the Malaysian government has piloted its ‘Vision Schools’ initiative in 2002, where three different types of schools are operated in the same vicinity The three types of schools involved are: the National School, where the medium of instruction is Malay, which is open to all Malaysians; the Chinese National Type School, where the medium of instruction is Chinese, which is open to all; and the Tamil National Type School, where the medium of instruction is Tamil, which is also open to all Both the national type schools (i.e., Chinese and Tamil) adhere strictly to the national

education syllabi even though the medium of instruction is not the national language i.e., Malay By operating these three types of schools in the same vicinity, with different cultural groups interacting with each other, it is hoped that not only can integration of the three major cultural groups in schools be enhanced, but also students can benefit from learning from each other’s philosophies, cultural values, and study habits

Table 1: Similarities and differences of National Schools and Chinese National Type schools

_

Schools _

Training of teachers & Teacher Training College & Teacher Training

universities

Teachers

by the Government

Funding from Parent-teacher Association & Public donation _

The recent report on the increase of more than 10% of non-Chinese (mainly Malay) students in the Chinese National Type schools indicates recognition of the

effectiveness of the Chinese school system by the Malay community Besides, the differential academic achievement of the Malay learners is also happening in a

neighboring country In Singapore, there has been debate about whether a race quota should be re-imposed in Singaporean schools to address the issue of educational under-performance of the Malay students there (Davie, 2002) Thus, judging from the similarities and differences of the National schools and the Chinese National Type Schools; and also building on the enormous amount of literature on the affirmative relationship of Confucian values and the more successful academic performance of the learners from Confucian background across the world (Chan, 1999; Guan &

Dodder, 2001; Li, 2001; Matthews, 2000; Rao, Moely, & Sachs, 2000; Smith & Smith, 1999a; Stevenson & Lee, 1990; Watkins & Biggs, 1996; Zhang, 2000), the question one should raise is whether culturally-related factors are the instrumental driving force for a more successful academic performance of the Chinese learners in Malaysia

Whilst there is evidence to show that the positive discrimination adopted in the New Economic Policy (1970-1990) has many merits, there is also a number of issues that may not be delivering the outcomes intended from such policies (Salih & Yusof, 1989) For instance, there are current arguments for efficient, competitive, flexible, critical, and autonomous learners or workers in the highly competitive knowledge economy These are the skills and attributes pertinent to the emerging new world economy In Malaysia, Malays make up of about 65.1 % of the total population and 15.5% in Singapore (“Ethnologue Languages of the World”, 2002) If these Malay learners’ academic achievements are not as competitive as those of the other races in the respective countries, they might eventually lose out in the creation of a ‘learning society’ and ‘knowledge-based economy’ and may be left behind in the ‘intensified competition’ in the newly emergent workplace Previous senior ministers like the former Prime Minister in Malaysia, Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad have repeatedly emphasized that if the Malay community do not learn to be independent and

autonomous learners or workers, they may in the long run revert to becoming the weaker race ("Non-Malays help build the nation," 2002)

Also, a lack of empirical research in this area seems to influence education planners’ perceptions that tend to blame the structural impediments brought by the colonial British and the immigrant Chinese as a cause for the lower academic performance of the Malays (Snodgrass, 1980) However, cultural hypothesis (Snodgrass, 1980), cross-cultural research and discussions (Mohamad, 1970, 1993; Redding, 1990; Schwartz & Huismans, 1995) suggest that sometimes culturally-related factors are instrumental in obstructing or facilitating progress This probably presents a dilemma for Malaysian educational planners as to how much consideration they ought to give to cultural aspects such as being industrious, persistent, adaptable, and how much to international practices of learning and performance, to ensure the country’s international

competitiveness

In summary, Malaysia’s Vision 2020 can only be attained when Malay, who make up

about 65% of the total population and also adult learners in general, possess a

disposition suited to the 21st century Such a disposition would be Malaysians who are capable of meeting challenges, able to compete without assistance, able to learn and become knowledgeable, sophisticated, honest, disciplined, trustworthy and competent (Shamsul, 1999) The current global situation constantly demands more flexible and independent knowledge-workers who engage in critical life-long learning If the academic achievements of the 65% of the population (the Malay) in Malaysia are not

as competitive, and the learning needs of the Malaysian adult learners are not well thought out, it is then envisaged that the journey to achieve Malaysian Vision 2020 may not be smooth sailing

Four main factors form the bases for this thesis Firstly, there are limited numbers of comprehensive studies on Malaysian adult learners, investigating whether they are equipped with learning approaches which are relevant in the emergent knowledge and learning economy Secondly, there is very limited if any research carried out to

investigate the causes for the lower academic performance of Malay adult learners in Malaysia Thirdly, there is a lack of empirical data on why the Malaysian Chinese adult learners perform better academically Fourthly, there is an absence of studies examining the relationship between cultural values and learning approaches of

learners in Malaysia Hence, the findings of the current study may help educational planners or policy makers to make more accurate decisions over some of the clouded learning issues—regarding how much consideration needs to be given to cultural issues and how much to global practices of learning These are ultimately very crucial issues in preparing adult learners in Malaysia to achieve Vision 2020 In addition, research issues investigated in the current study may also have a broader implication

as other neighboring countries are also experiencing a similar phenomenon

1.3 Aim of the Study and Research Questions

The aim of the current study is to explore the factors underlying the differential

academic performance among the Chinese and Malays adult learners in Malaysia

What factors contribute to the differential academic performance of adult

learners in the formal setting in Malaysia?

To address the question above, two significant issues need to be considered They are: 1) the neglected adult learners and 2) the differential performance of the Malay

learners Investigation of these two issues requires the objectives of the current study

to be broadened These objectives were guided by the literature discussed in chapter 2 They are:

¥ To explore and describe the learning approaches of Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia,

¥ To explore and describe the learning values1 of Malay and Chinese learners

¥ To examine the relationship between learning approaches and learning values

¥ To examine the differences between learning approaches and learning values for Malay and Chinese adult learners

More specifically, the study attempts to answer the following research questions:

1 What are the learning approaches of Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia?

2 Are there any differences between the learning approaches for Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia?

3 What are the learning values of Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia?

4 Are there any differences between the learning values for Malay and Chinese

learners in Malaysia?

1 Learning values refer to values which have direct link to enhancing the quality of learning outcomes such as ‘being persistence’, ‘able to bear hardship’, and ‘to value education pursuit’ Values which may indirectly impact on learning such as ‘kindness’, ‘patriotism’ are not considered in the current study

As the construct ‘learning values’ is important in the current study, a detailed derivation of learning

5 Are there any associations between learning values and learning approaches for Malaysian adult learners?

6 Are there any differences between the relationship of learning approaches and learning values for Malay and Chinese adult learners in Malaysia?

1.4 Outline of the Study

Chapter 1 described the background and significance of the study It emphasized the importance of two issues: 1) the neglected adult learners and 2) the differential

academic performance of the Malay learners These issues shaped the rationale and objectives of the current study

Chapter 2 reviews the current literature and highlights the gaps of some existing relevant theories and synthesizes two important existing theoretical paradigms—educational psychology and social psychology, into a consolidated and meaningful conceptual framework in order to investigate the objectives of the current study

Chapter 3 describes the methodology of the study It encompasses descriptions of methodological rationale, the formulation and implementation of the research

instruments, the sample, and statistical procedures used in analysis of data It also discusses the limitations of methodology and directions for future research

Chapter 4 presents the validation of the preliminary instrument and the revised

instrument Chapter 5 reports the results of the analyzes according to the six research questions presented in chapter 1 Chapter 6 presents the discussion in an integrative and holistic manner in three sections Chapter 7 summarizes the study with a

conclusion and discusses the implications for practice and research methodology

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Adult learning has been around for a long time However in recent years, it has gained significant importance as a means of support for professional development This chapter begins by establishing the rationale for not adopting conventional adult

learning theories By approaching the issue from a rather different perspective, it considers the significance of other related theories There are three sections in this chapter The first section establishes how issues of adult learning in Malaysia would best be investigated; it critically reviews literature on learning theory in formal

settings with a particular focus on Student Approaches to Learning (SAL) and their implications for adult learners The second section synthesises the literature on

implicit learning, i.e., how studies of human values and the findings of studies on cultural values (such as Confucian values) can be adopted to understand the impact of values on learners’ learning decisions and behaviors in general and in particular on adult learners Section three examines the strengths and weaknesses of some of the previous studies carried out on Malaysian learners and Malaysian work values It concludes by providing a rationalisation as for why and how the current study, using both adapted version of Biggs’ Study Process Questionnaires (SPQ) (1987a) based on his 3P Model, and the Learning Value Survey, can assist in examining the relationship

of implicit and explicit learning Figure 1 summarizes the three sections of this

chapter

Figure 1: An Overview of chapter 2

Studied in relation to Biggs’ 3P Model

Section 1

Explicit Learning

Section 2

Implicit learning

SAL

Findings of Cross-cultural studies

Qualitative

Paradigm

Approaches to Learning/SPQ

of Asian &

Western learners

Inappropriateness

of Western theories in Eastern contexts

Memorization and motivation

Generalization of Malaysian learners Inaccurate/bias study Studies did not differentiate 3 cultural groups

Confucian values and learning

The influence

of social environment

Study on Malaysian Malay and Chinese adult learners adopting etic/emic and trandisciplinary (educational and social

Malaysian learners

Malaysian values

Lack of experts Lack of

comprehensive & follow up research Lack of emic consideration

a linear fashion Rather, the process of learning is complex and happens in

‘multilayered ways’ (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999, p 215) It is then not surprising that there is no single theory which can account for all human learning, in particular adult learning Adult learning can impose another layer, making it more complicated than children’s learning as adults’ lives are more complex, embedded with family life, work life, and multiple social roles Realizing the complexities of adult learners, and the differences between children and adult learners, Knowles (1990) proposed the five principles of adult learning which become the basis of andragogy However,

andragogy was soon criticized for the intense focus on individuals and the ignoring of the socio-historical context of adult learners (Merriam, 2001a) Subsequently, adult learning theories such as workplace learning (Billett, 2001; Fenwick, 2001) and situated cognition (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) have seen higher priorities placed on adult learning contexts such as the workplace More recently, the

proponents of distributed learning theories have added further discussion to this complexity by differentiating elements that may make up the contexts (Pillay & Elliott, 2002)

Not only do adults engage with learning in the workplace, they also constantly feel the need to update and upgrade their professional skills and development through formal systems, citing career or job related reasons as the most important motives, followed

by personal reasons for involvement in professional development (Blomqvist et al., 1995; Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) The professional development of adult learners in Malaysia can happen in two main settings: 1) an institutional setting and 2) a non-institutional setting The first setting involves adults taking courses such as MBA (Masters of Business Administration), ACCA (The Association of Chartered Certified

Accountants), or diplomas and degree courses to upgrade themselves in the

institutions of higher learning such as the universities The second setting more often occurs in the workplace and it usually involves direct guidance by other co-workers who are more senior in the workplace (Billett, 2001)

As Malaysia is a developing country, aiming to be a fully developed country by the year 2020, past and current educational policies have focused on educating the youth

In recent years, adult education has been given more attention with the establishment

of the Department of Professional Development and Continuing Education at

University Putra Malaysia (Merriam & Mohamad, 2000) There is recognition for the need for adult education but the mode of delivery is still at an early stage Thus, despite the recent emphasis on professional development and continuing education, it appears that professional development of Malaysian adult learners occurs mainly in the first setting i.e., in the institutions Such pattern is congruent with the recent

finding on the conceptions of adult learning study by Pillay, Boulton-Lewis, and Wilss (2003) They investigated the conceptions of learning and work of older

workers in Australia and found that of the five conceptions of learning, the conception

‘taking formal courses’ was mentioned by the largest number of older workers,

indicating that explicit learning in a formal setting is still popular and effective for them

Learning in a formal setting may become a preferred mode of professional

development due to the many downsides associated with learning in the workplace Recent evidence presented by Cornford (2000) suggested that the “workplace is often

a far from satisfactory learning environment even for skills which are directly related

to occupational performance” (p.79) It is then not surprising that most Malaysian adult learners would seek formal, accredited courses, ones that have certificates issued

at the end, to enhance professional development when workplace learning is not systematically carried out in Malaysia

Professional development in the second setting, in non-institutions in Malaysian such

as in the workplace may not have the Malaysian policy makers’ direct involvement as

is the case with ANTA (Australian National Training Authority) in Australia The

often sponsored and organized by the individual employers in the workplaces and hence they are often not standardized and are ‘ad hoc’ Also, most of such training very often involves indirect guidance from senior co-workers without the obvious involvement of the employers Such non-standardized and indirect guided workplace learning in Malaysia is not accredited as in the case of workplace learning developed

by ANTA in Australia, and thus is often not recognized by many employers in

Malaysia Consequently, most adult learners in Malaysia prefer to engage in

professional development in the institutional setting (e.g., in the universities) where skills are accredited and paper qualifications are issued to participants Such formal and explicit acknowledgment are highly appreciated and recognized by the employers for job promotions or job search

In sum, Malaysian adult learners prefer to engage in professional development in the institutional setting where learning is accredited and recognized, unlike the situation

in more developed countries such as Australia This poses two major issues for the investigation of adult learning issues in Malaysia Firstly, there is a lack of

understanding of specific theory on adult learning which focuses on theorizing the process of adult learning in the institutions, a more formalized way of learning For instance, Merriam (2001a) and Merriam and Caffarella (1999) have observed that while literature on adult learning has flourished in exploring some of the definitional and philosophical issues which provides guides to practice, little is known about individuals’ cognitive developmental processes of adult learning, how adults go about learning, and the cognitive processes of learning Research exploring cognitive

learning processes has been predominantly carried out with children and adolescents

as in other research traditions on learning Though there have been attempts

examining self-directedness of adult learners such as Grow’s (1994) Staged Directed Learning (SSDL) model and Guglielmino’s (1977) Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS), there are claims and counterclaims regarding the basic reliability and validity of these instruments (see Merriam & Caffarella, 1999)

Self-Additionally, measurements of self-directedness do not deal directly with cognitive learning processes The lack of focus on adult cognitive learning theory in the

institutional setting is evident in most learning theories which either focus on

situational aspects of learning such as the workplace learning for adult learners or focus on the cognitive-motive processes of younger learners in institutional learning

Secondly, adult learning theories which emerged as a result of dissatisfaction with andragogy, have focused on workplace learning such as situated cognition (Brown et al., 1989), workplace learning (Billett, 2001) and transformational learning (Mezirow, 1981) These theories have mainly downplayed the individual learners as a crucial moderating variable despite acknowledging their importance in workplace learning (Billett, 2001) Very often, such theories examine organizational culture and work practices and its impact on adult learning Little is known about the influence of personal or cultural values on adult learners

Paradoxically, some of these theories not only recognize that situational factors such

as workplace culture and organisational culture affect learning, but also recognize that

it is ultimately the individuals in the workplace who decide how and what they learn Individual adults carry with them different experiences, socio-historical backgrounds, and values; therefore what they learn, and how they learn are influenced by their decisions made based on their values and past knowledge and experiences (Billett, 2001) What seem to be downplayed and uncertain are the kinds of values or

experiences which can enhance learning processes or even inhibit learning processes Researchers like Merriam (2001a) and Hussin (1997) have recognized that certain experiences and values of adult learners can either enhance or hinder learning

processes, but little has been done to understand and clarify the relationships of values and learning processes of adult learners (as evident in the criticism of Self-Directed Learning Readiness model proposed by Guglielmino, 1977) Investigation of such relationships is more significant to adult learners in Malaysia as it has been

established in chapter 1 that Malaysia is a multi-ethnic, multi-cultural country

Information on the relationships of values and learning processes may help identify the learning values which can facilitate learning and help to accelerate the process of establishing a knowledge-economy in Malaysia A similar call is also echoed by Merriam and Caffarella (1999) and Merriam (2001a) who advocated that studies are needed to explore a more direct relationship of definitive personal attributes that typify learners who are self-directed, as current studies have not succeeded in

clarifying adequately what these personal attributes and values are

The establishment of a knowledge-economy in Malaysia needs to consider two main

adult learners are exposed to ‘non-routine activities’, and more challenging and new learning tasks Such tasks constantly require adult learners to be flexible, to unlearn previous knowledge or to be able to integrate current and past knowledge with new knowledge experienced in their learning environments such as the universities or workplaces Adult learners now would not be able to anticipate what future

knowledge or skills will be required as knowledge is so versatile and fluid in the knowledge-economy What is learned now may become obsolete more quickly than before (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) Consequently, acquiring effective values to become life long learners is of paramount importance to Malaysian adult learners to assist them to cope in this knowledge economy Secondly, higher order thinking abilities may be constantly demanded of knowledge workers who need to survive in a more competitive economy At ‘The Future of Work’ conference in Sydney,

Buchanan and others (2001) called for rethinking the cognitive abilities of future workers Though these cognitive abilities were not defined, if, as assumed, future workers need to constantly unlearn or relearn and to integrate new knowledge to old knowledge, higher order cognitive skills such as a Deep Approach may be highly valued A Deep Approach according to Biggs (1987a) involves the synergy of new knowledge and old knowledge, relating learning to different contexts, and the

cognitive abilities to constantly reflect on what is learned It is plausible that the recent calls to realign cognitive abilities may be related to Deep Approaches to

Learning Consequently, acquiring suitable cognitive approaches and displaying suitable values to learn appear to be more critical than the acquiring of skills, content

or knowledge in Malaysian adult learners’ learning environments, either in

institutional or non-institutional settings

Current adult learning theories and models do not deal directly with the above

learning constructs such as approaches to learning and learning values which are important in Malaysian adult learning contexts The Malaysian learning and socio-economic context established above highlights the significance of investigating

cognitive learning processes—the approaches to learning and cultural values related

to learning Whilst adult learning theories have flourished, learning approaches (the cognitive learning processes) and cultural values related to the learning of adult

learners have not been dealt with directly Merriam and Caffarella (1999) have

proposed that future adult learning research should take a more holistic approach,