The application of the park ride and TOD concepts to develop a new framework that can maximise public transport patronage

This research has aimed at developing a framework applicable to the Australian setting that can facilitate increased passenger patronage of rail based urban transport systems from adjace

THE APPLICATION OF THE PARK & RIDE AND TOD

CONCEPTS TO DEVELOP A NEW FRAMEWORK THAT CAN MAXIMISE PUBLIC TRANSPORT PATRONAGE

By

Simon Ginn BSc (Hons); Dip Mkt Man; Dip Town Planning;

ABSTRACT

With growing concern over the use of the car in our urbanized society, there have emerged a number of lobby groups and professional bodies promoting a return to public transport, walking and cycling, with the urban village as the key driving land use, as a means of making our cities’ transportation systems more sustainable

This research has aimed at developing a framework applicable to the Australian setting that can facilitate increased passenger patronage of rail based urban transport systems from adjacent or associated land uses The framework specifically tested the application of the Park & Ride and Transit Oriented Development (TOD) concepts and their applicability within the cultural, institutional, political and transit operational characteristics of Australian society The researcher found that, although the application of the TOD concept had been limited to small pockets of town houses and mixed use developments around stations, the development industry and emerging groups within the community are posed to embrace the concept and bring with it increased rail patronage The lack of a clear commitment to infrastructure and supporting land uses is a major barrier to the implementation of TODs

The research findings demonstrated significant scope for the size of a TOD to expand to a much greater radius of activity from the public transport interchange, than the commonly quoted 400 to 600 meters, thus incorporating many more residents and potential patrons

The provision of Park & Rides, and associated support facilities like Kiss & Rides, have followed worldwide trends of high patronage demands from the middle and outer car dependent suburbs of our cities The data collection and analysis gathered by the researcher demonstrated that in many cases Park & Rides should form part of a TOD to ensure ease of access to rail stations by all modes and patron types The question, however, remains how best to plan the incorporation of a Park & Ride within a TOD and still maintain those features that attract and promote TODs as a living entity

Chapter 4 – Transit Oriented Developments

4.1 The Emergence of Transit Oriented Developments (TOD) as a Concept 50

4.5 General Opportunities & Barriers for Transit Oriented Developments 75

4.6 Experiences and Opportunities with TODs emerging out of North America 76

4.7 Barriers to Implementing TODs in North America 79

4.8 Summary of Barriers and Opportunities for TODs 82

4.9 The Impact on Transit Systems Patronage from Traditional and Neotraditional

4.10 Joint Ventures around Public Transport Interchanges 84

Chapter 5 – Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure

5.0 Supporting Public Transport with Good Interchange Facilities 86

5.2 The Kiss & Ride Component associated with Park & Rides 87

5.3 Park & Ride Concept, Objectives and Realities 88

5.6 Literature Review of park & Ride Case Studies 97

5.7 Conclusions to Literature Review on Park & Rides 101

5.9 Conclusion to Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure 103

Chapter 6 – Transit Patronage

6.1 Capacity of Transit Systems and Patronage Levels 104

6.3 Access to Stations and Patronage Levels by Distance 107 6.4 Future Patronage Forecasts on Public Transport Systems 111

Chapter 7 – The Influence of Property Values and Growth near Transit Stations as a

Derivative of Patronage Demands

7.1 The Influence of Property Values near Transit Stations

Chapter 8 – Summary of Literature Review and Implications for Hypothesis &

Framework Development

8.2 Key Gaps in Literature Review for Examination

8.3 The Influence of Emerging Technologies on the Hypothesis and Research 122

PART B FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT

Chapter 9 – Establishing a Conceptualized Setting for a New Integrated Planning

Framework to Promote Patronage Levels

9.1 Evidence derived from Decisions with Key Experts and Opinion Leaders 128

9.3 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research

Chapter 10 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting TODs Patronage

Levels

10.1 Ability to Commit to a TOD style of Development and Living

10.5 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives

Chapter 11 – Institutional, Planning and Attitudinal Issues Affecting Park & Rides

Patronage Levels

11.4 Mixing Park & Rides and TODs to Promote Patronage 170 11.5 Combining TODs and Park & Rides and Associated Infrastructure to

11.7 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and

Chapter 12 – How Distance Impacts on Access to Transit – Affecting Patronage Levels

from TODs and Park & Rides

12.1 Empirical Data on the Inter-Relationships between Distance, Mode and Land

Use on Arrival Numbers of patrons at Fixed Guideway Stations 175 12.2 Should TODs and Park & Rides be Mixed Around the same Station /Public

12.4 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and

Chapter 13 – Transit Operational and Station Design Factors Affecting Patronage

Levels from TODs and Park & Rides

13.1 How Transit and Station Design Factors Affect Patronage Levels 196

13.3 Implications of Results for Hypothesis, Specific Research Objectives and

Chapter 14 – The Framework

14.1 The Key Guiding Principles for TODs to Promote Patronage in Australia 205 14.2 The Key Principles for Park & Rides to Promote Patronage 209

Part C THE MODEL APPLICATIONS & CONCLUSIONS

Chapter 15 – Testing the Framework in a Real Application and the Framework’s

Limitations

16.2 Demonstration of the Framework within a 3D Virtual Reality Environment over a

Hypothetical Location in Australia and its Application to China 221

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Practioners Interviewed on Land Use and Transport

Appendix 2 World Opinion Leaders (Experts) Surveyed by Email 254 Appendix 3 Questions for World Opinion Leaders by Email 257 Appendix 4 Questions for Meetings with Councils, Developers and Operators 259 Appendix 5 Initial Telephone Survey of Households to Engage in

Appendix 6 Demographic Questions of Households in Main Household Survey 261 Appendix 7 Survey of Scale of Life Style Preferences in Main Household Survey 263 Appendix 8 Main Household Survey Using Questions and Images 264 Appendix 9 Perth Station’s Patronage by Origin, Data Collection Form 281 Appendix 10 Surveyor’s by Perth Station, Date and Start Time 282 Appendix 11 Photo of Test Site for Application of Model to Fitzgibbon 284

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Travel Demand Management Classifications 31

Figure 2: Suggested Mix of Housing Types in a Development to Promote

Figure 3: Population Densities in 1980 per Person per Hectare 46

Figure 4: Total Demand Requirements by Access Mode - Helensvale 89

Figure 6: Patronage Levels in Europe and North America 105

Figure 9: Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable Developments by Gender 140 Figure 10: Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable

Figure 11: Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable

Figure 12: Support for Transit Oriented Sustainable

Figure 15: Preference to Drive to Station Park & Rides,

Figure 16: Preference to Drive to Station Kiss & Ride,

Figure 17: Preference to Provide Park & Rides at Rail Stations 161 Figure 18: Support the Provision of Park & Rides and

Figure 19: Park & Rides are Conveniently Located 163 Figure 20: Free Parking Important at Park & Rides 163 Figure 21: No of Parking Bays Available Important at Park & Rides 164

Figure 22: Park & Rides Provide the Ability to Live Further away

Figure 23: Electronic Information on Freeways to Attract Patrons to Park & Rides 166 Figure 24: Desirable Features to Using a Park & Ride 167 Figure 25: Park & Rides Should be Incorporated within a TOD 172

Figure 31: Distance Traveled to Each Station by Walking Patrons 186

Figure 33: Distance Traveled to Each Station by Patrons when Parking & Riding 188

Figure 35: Distance Traveled by Patrons to Each Station when Kiss & Riding 190

Figure 37: Level of Train Service & Frequency Important at Park & Rides 197

Figure 39: Security is an Issue Affecting Use of Railway Stations 199 Figure 40: Security Alarms at Rail Stations Promote Security 200

Figure 42: Security Important at Park & Rides 201 Figure 43: Security Important at Park & Rides by Suburb 202

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Illustration 3: The TOD Concept Illustrated in Broad Principle 49

Illustration 4: The Framework within the Thesis Structure 126 Illustration 5: The Key TOD Principles& Supporting Factors

Illustration 6: The Key Park & Ride Principles & Supporting

Illustration 7: The Framework Application within the Thesis

LIST OF MAPS

Map 2: Warwick Railway Station Park & Ride Catchment 180 Map 3: Fremantle Railway Station Walkers Catchment 183

STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL

AUTHORSHIP

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted for a degree or diploma

at any tertiary educational institution To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made

Signed:

Date:

PUBLICATIONS ARISING FROM

THIS THESIS

Reports and Journals

Ker I and Ginn S (2003) Myths and Realities in Walkable Catchments: The Case of

Walking and Transit, Road and Transport Research Vol 12 No 2, June 2003

Gilbert D and Ginn S (2001) Transit Oriented Sustainable Developments, Built

Environment Research Unit, Queensland Department of Public Works, August 2001

Ginn S (1998) An Evaluation of the Options for Light Rail within the Australian

Urban Environment, a report presented to and published by the Western Australian

Planning Commission, August 1998

Conferences

Bucolo S and Ginn S (2004) Using Virtual Reality Models to Better Communicate How

Decisions are made to Build Future Cities paper jointly presented at the Planning on the

Edge- National Planning Institute of Australia Conference, Hobart, Australia, February 2004

Ginn S (2003) Determining Future Patronage Demands in New Urban Growth

Corridors and the Implications for TOD and Park & Rides, paper presented at the

Rail-Volution Conference, Atlanta, USA, September 2003

Bucolo S and Ginn S (2003) Using Virtual Reality Models to Better Communicate How

Transit Infrastructure can Interface and Interact with the Built Environment paper

jointly present at 21 st ARRB Transport Research Conference in Cairns, Australia, May 2003

Ginn S and Kerr I (2003) Myths and Realities in Walkable Catchments: The Case of

Walking and Transit paper jointly present at 21 st ARRB Transport Research Conference in

Cairns, Australia, May 2003

Ginn S (1998) Transit Oriented Developments or Park & Ride: Which Land Use will

Promote a More Efficient Demand for Public Transport?, Royal Australian Planning

Institute Conference, Brisbane, July 1998

The collection of the research findings presented is this thesis were supported by the Western Australian Department of Transport, the Queensland Department of Public Works and the Queensland University of Technology

In addition, I would like to express by deepest gratitude and thanks to the family of the late Peter Pritchard without whom the use of cartoon images to present concepts of various urban forms around railway station would have been almost impossible to present

PART A

INTRODUCTION & LITERATURE REVIEW

Part A is the introduction and literature review to this Masters of Applied Science research thesis The first section covers chapter 1 on the following introductory topics:

• Specific Objectives of the Research

• Structure of the Thesis

Chapter 2 covers the research methodologies applied to gather new knowledge

The Framework Chapter 14

Testing & Limitations

Chapter 15

Original Data Intro to Framework

Chapters 12

Operational Factors

Council Attitudes

Conceptualization with Experts

Station Access Survey

The second section covers the main literature review chapters on:

• Land Use and Transport Interactions (Chapter 3)

• Park & Rides and Interchange Support Infrastructure (Chapter 5)

• Transit Patronage (Chapter 6)

• Influence of Property Values near Transit Stations as a Derivative of Patronage Demands (Chapter 7)

Development (Chapter 8)

Chapter 1 – Introduction

1.0 Background

Since the Second World War, humanity’s desire to urbanize increasing proportions of the globe has continued to increase The trend towards very large collectives of people living in close proximity to many others has brought with it numerous benefits; but it also brings increasing limitations that are slowly, and in some cases alarmingly, coming to the forefront with much domestic and international debate

Central too much of this debate is the need for sustainable cities and communities that better manage the use of all natural, non-renewable resources Urban sustainability is the supply of amenities such as water and sewerage, food, transportation, health and housing, in a way that minimizes the use of all non-renewable resources to improve the existing and future living standards of all urban dwellers The aim of sustainability is complicated by the fact that any improvements to make one element more sustainable can, if not carefully managed, impact on the capacity for other elements to achieve sustainability A holistic approach to urban sustainability within our cities and communities is the ideal goal

This research will investigate how to better meet the need for sustainable transport within our cities as a function of urban planning, through seeking to formulate a framework that can promote increased use of rail based or fixed guideway public transport systems The need to achieve a more sustainable focus on urban transport has been largely driven by the continued growth of our cities since the Second World War The expansion of the population into the middle and outer suburbs has been facilitated by cheap and ready access to the private car and the desire to own a large home within easy commuting distance of most cities In the 1950’s and 1960’s, most government agencies happily promoted the development of these new suburban communities, connected by large freeways to the cities, as the answer to the baby boom demand for family housing In the last twenty to thirty years, increasing concern has been expressed on a local, national and international level at the rate of car growth in our cities, and the consequences

of this growth in terms of congestion, air pollution and the contribution of car emissions towards greenhouse gases and global warming

With growing concern over the use of the car in our urbanized society, a number of lobby groups and professional bodies are promoting a return to public transport, walking, cycling and urban villages as a means of making our cities’ transportation systems sustainable It has been recognized that the way urban planners and society design and manage urban development can make a significant contribution towards reducing the magnitude of car based trips A trip is simply the need to connect people or goods with one urban form and another If these urban forms could be brought closer together or made less dependent on road vehicle trips via public transport, cycling or walking, less vehicle trips would occur Whilst recognition exists that there

is a link between reducing car based urban trips and the way we plan our urban development, limited research and development has followed to develop models capable of delivering better outcomes with institutional support

This research is aimed at developing a framework that can facilitate the increased passenger patronage of rail based urban transport systems from adjacent or associated land uses It addresses whether the existing models and frameworks of transit oriented urban developments commonly applied in North America and Europe, and the existing world wide examples of park and ride station facilities, can be applied together or separately in Australia to promote rail based public transport and reduce car dependency in our urban cities

The culmination of these research interests, supported by current literature and communications with key world experts, draws the focus of this research towards developing an understanding of the issues surrounding the introduction of transit oriented developments around rail stations in Australia This research will investigate the scope for a framework to accommodate both a Transit Oriented Development (TOD) and a Park & Ride, or a combination of both configurations, and their suitability and adaptability within the Australian urban, operational and institutional setting

Whilst this work concentrates on the interactions between transport and land use planning with the aim of maximizing public transport patronage, the long term goal is to develop a model concept for planning sustainable transit oriented developments that can incorporate communities that are not only transport efficient, but also aim to minimize pollutants and to maximize energy efficiency in water, waste, building design and telecommunications

1.1 Hypothesis

Testing the application of the Park & Ride and TOD concepts within the Australian setting, allows for the development of a new integrated planning framework that can maximize public transport patronage This new framework examines the best configurations of land uses in association with public transport interchanges to promote public use of fixed guideway systems

1.2 Aim of Research

The primary aim of the research is to formulate and test a new Australian integrated planning framework, looking at the relationships between different forms of fixed guideway systems and changing land use patterns, which can maximize modal shifts towards public transport This new integrated planning framework of urban forms will focus upon a public transport interchange that can maximize patronage demand, rather than let the existing or proposed strategic urban forms derive the demand The framework will specifically evaluate Transit Oriented Developments and Park & Ride facilities around public transport interchanges as a means of increasing public transport patronage

The research aims to answer the question: what are the appropriate transport and land use interactions, within an Australian context, that can facilitate improved patronage onto heavy rail

or light rail transit?

It is not the intent of this research to evaluate busways, due to the greater variability in the operation of bus systems, which brings a lack of public and developer certainty as to its reliable delivery

1.3 Influencing Factors

The design and form of land uses in and around the receiving public transport interchange may vary patronage demand, as will the quality of the transit system itself Operational qualities of the transit system in terms of rolling stock, frequency of service, route network, pricing and marketing factors, have a significant impact upon the degree to which the traveling public embraces public transport, no matter what the proposed land use configurations Economic, social, environmental, administrative and institutional arrangements all impact upon patronage outcomes through their influences on land use patterns and their take up, and on the quality of transit systems The potential opportunities and constraints presented by non-fixed guideway and major road based systems will also need to be investigated as controlling factors

1.4 Specific Objectives of the Research

The research will increase the understanding of:

1 The transport and land use inter-relationships present in developing mixed use residential land uses adjacent to public transport interchanges, which can promote the use of public transport systems for trips between centres and encourage the use

of walking and cycling for more local trips;

2 The inter-relationships between land uses and trip ends and modes available to the user, that may or may not promote access to Park & Ride facilities and associated transit services from lower density urban land uses, for part of a trip;

3 What is a reasonable walking and Park & Ride catchment for a rail station to maximize patronage?

4 Developers’, councils’ and consumers’ attitudes to promoting and accessing different transit supportive land uses (including barriers and opportunities);

5 The form and elements of a Transit Oriented Development (TOD) to promote patronage;

6 The form and elements of a Park & Ride facility to promote patronage; and

7 The potential scope for combining both a TOD and Park & Ride facility to maximize patronage from both local and more distant land uses

To develop such an integrated planning framework and test its application, it will be necessary to undertake detailed research into past case studies, as well as to collect new data from all the major interested players and draw on surveys of key worldwide opinion leaders

The third specific research objective is the central and key research objective to proving the hypothesis to maximizing public transport patronage

1.5 What does this research add as new knowledge?

The new integrated planning framework will offer a better understanding of the parameters required to plan for residential land uses around public transport interchanges, within the Australian setting, that may facilitate maximum patronage demands on fixed guideway rail or busway transit systems

The use of Park & Rides and TODs to integrate residential land uses with a transit mode and help maximize transit demands, has been the subject of as much myth-making as robust research to justify a solid policy or modelling background For example, in suburban areas, 400-metre and 600-metre ‘ped sheds’ have been incorporated in many planning documents as a basis for enhancing the ‘liveability’ and sustainability of proposed residential developments These distances roughly equate to 5 and 10 minute walking times In the case of fixed guideway transit systems, a 600-metre catchment is commonly applied to rail stations; however in practice, people are willing to walk significantly further than this to a rail station which provides a good, regular service

The research will evaluate developer and general public attitudes and willingness to encompass new urban land uses like TODs

Whether that land use configuration is as a TOD and/or Park & Ride will be based on case studies and surveys, and then developed as a conceptual integrated framework that could be applied within the Australian urban setting A greater understanding of the potential catchment area that a TOD and/or Park & Ride may take to maximise patronage demands In the case of this latter factor, the actual size and form of a TOD may differ, based on observed patronage catchments, from the currently suggested 400 - 600metre radius around a rail station, to accommodate greater walking distances Finally, whereas Park & Rides are well established in the Australian urban setting, this is not the case with TODs This work will identify the factors needed to facilitate TODs in Australia by over coming barriers and seeking opportunities to maximise patronage demands

1.6 Background on Research Subject

Mitchell and Rapkin’s 1954 publication, ‘Urban Traffic – A Function of Land Use’, pioneered the integration of land use and transport planning Since this report, a new breed of professional has emerged, the transportation planner Transportation planners are interested in the interaction between travel demand and the type and location of activities, as a factor in land use The form and extent of travel demand is determined not only by the kinds of land uses, but also by the varying densities at which these lands are used Land use can be influenced by the level of accessibility and quality of the transportation system

In the last decade, there has been renewed interest in seeking better ways to integrate land use and transport around public transport systems to reduce car dependency and promote public transport In Australia, the concept of the ‘Urban Village’ of intensive land uses configured around public transport interchanges has been strongly promoted by Newman and Kenworthy (1992), building on the ideas of Peter Calthorpe’s ‘Transit Oriented Developments.’ Some authors (Cairns, 1997; Roberts et al., 1996) still advocate more extensive use of Park & Ride style interchange configurations Within the Australian urban setting of lower density housing and dispersed employment nodes, access to a car is still a major requirement for mobility This further aids urban sprawl and promotes vehicle travel Increasing environmental concerns are being expressed about the car’s influence on local air quality and global greenhouse gas warming Urban consolidation is starting to occur in the inner cities; yet the outer suburbs

continue to expand Public transport is failing to halt the trend towards more car-based trips Changing lifestyles, employment patterns, new technology and emerging dispersed non-CBD regional centres are also influencing this car-based trend Better ways of configuring land use may present a key to increasing public transport patronage, if they are associated with appropriated institutional and administrative reforms

1.7 Structure of the Thesis

The Framework Chapter 14

Testing & Limitations

Chapter 15

Conclusions

Original Data Intro to Framework

Chapters 12

Operational Factors

Council Attitudes

Conceptualization with Experts

Australian Case Studies

Station Access Survey

Rail Volution

Transferability & Development

Chapter 16

Chapter 2 – Methodology

2.0 Introduction

The start of the journey towards developing the research topic and methodology for this thesis began in 1996 when the researcher won a Churchill Fellowship to investigate the implement Light Rail Transit (LRT) in Australia, this involved field investigations and meetings over 5 months across North America, Europe and Asia The researcher’s investigation highlighted the strong interaction between land use and transportation to support patronage demands on LRT

2.1 Research Methodologies Applied to Gather New Knowledge

The following research methodologies were used to gather new evidence to support the

hypothesis and specific research objectives:

Station Access Surveys in Perth, Western Australia

The first survey to be conducted was in Perth Western Australia to help better understand the distance patrons are willing to travel to a station and the implications of the findings for a TOD design, radius of impact and design and layout of Park & Rides The survey supports a better understanding of the inter-relationships within mixed-use residential developments and investigates consumer behavior from more immediate adjacent land uses around a public transport interchange that have or could develop TOD characteristics As against those urban developments by apparent distance, which appear more dependent on Park & Ride, Kiss & Ride, bus, taxi or cycle transfer

Perth, Western Australia was chosen by the researcher to examine by survey the impact of distance and types of urban forms in accessing rail stations for its relatively flat terrain characteristics that would not readily impede modal flows to key public transport interchanges

The intent of this survey was to gain an insight into the distance patrons were prepared to travel

by the modes of walking, cycling, Park & Ride, Kiss & Ride, bus and taxi from different urban land uses By deriving an understanding of distance traveled from types of urban forms, some

appreciation could follow of the type of model that a Park & Ride and/or TOD configuration should depict For example:

greater distance?

• Are Park & Ride, bus and Kiss & Ride transfers the domain of lower density urban forms

over 1 km away?

• Should a TOD still try to accommodate Park & Ride patrons?

• What relationships exist, if any, within the quality of transit services, for example time of

peak arrivals?

In order to gain an appreciation of expected patronage on rail based stations from adjacent and neighbouring residential land uses, a study was undertaken in Perth, Western Australia This study was aimed at gauging the distance patrons are prepared to travel by mode to various rail stations from a mix of different residential housing areas It was hoped that an understanding of the distances patrons are prepared to travel by car, walking, bus and cycling modes to a local rail station, would provide further understanding of the model attributes of a potential TOD land configuration or a Park & Ride facility adjacent to rail station or a possible combination of both

The study received funding under a Queensland University of Technology and Industry Collaborative grant with the Western Australian Department of Transport The study commenced

in June 1998 and involved the analysis of mode of access catchments around five stations on the Perth Metropolitan suburban rail network: Currambine, Joondalup, Warwick, Fremantle and Midland stations The outcomes of the study were aimed at assisting the preparation of this Masters of Applied Science and aiding the Western Australian Department of Transport to work

in association with the Western Australian Planning Commission to better plan and model major station land use master plans and large sub-divisions along the proposed new rail corridor extension of the Armadale line down to Rockingham and on to Mandurah, a total new rail corridor of 80 km

The Perth Metropolitan suburban rail network provides a high quality transit service Train services start at 5.30 am and stop at 11.30pm weekdays A reduced service prevails on weekends and public holidays, with special late night services at weekends All suburban trains leave or pass through the Perth central train station Perth has four main train lines traveling to, Fremantle, Midland, Armadale and Currambine

The five stations chosen were selected by the researcher based on the following factors, two site visits to Perth to assess the rail and station network, internal discussions with the Western Australian Department of Transport and the analysis of demographic census data to ensure social mix

The study used a methodology of surrounding each rail station with a large team of surveyors and, from early in the morning to midday, recording the arrival time of each and every patron and determining the point of origin that each arrival had traveled from The survey methodology aimed to capture 100% of all arriving patrons The points of origin of each patron was analyzed using a geographical information system (GIS) to determine the exact distance traveled, the terrain and to cross-tabulate ABS Census social and economic characteristics Although actual street numbers and streets were recorded for walkers, cyclists and bus travelers and extracted from the Western Australian Vehicle Registry for Park & Ride and Kiss & Ride travelers home addresses It was a requirement of the Western Australian Department of Transport that no showing the actual names or exact street number could appear in any published documentation, paper or thesis for reasons of confidentiality On site catchment field surveys around each station were used to fully appreciate the mix of housing types, social and economic conditions and local real estate values The outcomes of these surveys are discussed in chapter 11

To ensure that all 24 surveyors were well familiar with the survey techniques to be applied, a half day of training occurred within the offices of the Western Australian Department of Transport conducted by the researcher prior to the actual survey The researcher had the assistance of a senior professor from QUT to help manage and maintain data integrity during the survey week

Interviews with Practitioners on Land Use and Transport Integration around Rail Stations

In order to gain a better appreciation of the research subject area and its appropriateness, various face to face interviews and site visits were arranged by the researcher with key practitioners overseas in Hong Kong, Singapore, UK and France These outcomes are discussed in chapter 9 Hong Kong and Singapore in particular were chosen as these countries depicting an idea model

to start to appreciate the TOD and Park & Ride processes, yet set within a cultural and population density and transit user profile significantly different to Australia

These discussions followed a more open and less ridge interview basis to help conceptualize the subject matter

World Opinion Leaders (Experts) Survey by Email

Following these conceptual investigations in Asia and Europe, the researcher prepared a more detailed questionnaire to home in on more specific questions about TODs and Park & Rides

In this case the researcher conducted a survey of world opinion leaders (experts) by email The TOD concept and its potential to include or not to include an integrated Park & Ride facility were explored The theme of maximizing patronage through either TODs and/or Park & Rides dominated the discussions The subject of distance walkability was not specifically raised as this has been adequately researched in Perth under chapter 12, evaluating how distance impacts on access to transit affecting patronage levels from TODs and Park & Rides The outputs from this email survey contributed to the findings analysed in chapters 9 – 13 Details of the key experts approached are in appendix 2

Main Household Survey

The next step in the gathering of new knowledge was to gauge the general level of public acceptance towards: living in a Transit Oriented Development, using Park & Rides and general factors affecting patronage of rail based transport systems; a survey was conducted by the researcher of households north of the Brisbane River in South East Queensland Funding for this research was provided by the Queensland Department of Public Works with the support of the

Queensland Government’s Statisticians Office and the Queensland University of Technology A study area north of the Brisbane River was chosen from the Port of Brisbane in the east to Taringa in the west, then north to town centre of Caboolture This area included the northern sector of Brisbane City, all of Pine Rivers Shire, Redcliffe City and the southern part of Caboolture Shire excluding Bribe Island A total of an estimated 140,000 homes prevailed in the study area

To develop an appropriate survey sample frame to conduct the survey, the Queensland Government’s Statisticians Office was approached by the researcher to help derive the sample frame and give a level of confidence to the research findings The Queensland Government’s Statisticians Office provided direct input from senior statistician to develop an appropriate sample frame and suggest questionnaire design and survey techniques to minimize potential bias

The survey sample frame was derived from 6,208 telephone numbers, randomly selected by Telephone Exchange Random Number Dial, in the Greater Northern suburbs of Brisbane After calling 4,623 telephone numbers, 321 households agreed to the survey (1,024 numbers called were disconnected, 1,202 no answer, 260 business numbers, 261 fax machine, 131 engaged, 73 Answer phone, 458 unknown, 893 refused, 321 agreed)

The actual process of getting from 6,208 telephone numbers selected randomly by computer down to 321 agreed home visits to conduct interviews, involved the Queensland Government’s Statisticians office training 10 telephone call staff over 12 week day evenings to place the 6,208 calls A copy of the initial questions asked on a successfully answered telephone call is shown in appendix 5 The staff actually engaged and trained to make the telephone calls, were final year planning students from Queensland University of Technology (QUT), paid out of a grant from the Department of Public Works

Upon receiving a statistically agreed quote of 321 households willing to take part in a face to face interview for 1.5 hours, a team of surveyors was chosen By agreement between the Queensland Department of Public Works and the QUT‘s School of Planning, the fourth year final year planning students were chosen to conduct the household survey The students received

2 days of training in interview techniques by the researcher and with assistance from the Queensland Government’s Statisticians Office to minimize any potential bias in the conducting

of the questionnaire survey The students were provided with transport and paid for their time in the field, plus allowed as to the survey result for their own class studies on land use and transport integration The students also benefit from directly the knowledge gained by 10 of their own fellow students, being those who conducted the initial telephone sample selection

As part of the training and knowledge transfer to the students conducting the survey, a number of class session occurred surrounded the actual design of the questionnaire Most of the questionnaire design was under taken by the researcher with input from the student mainly from

a point of ownership

Prior to the main survey of 321 households commencing, each group of two students were given

a pilot of 6 household surveys to conduct to help improve the questionnaire techniques of administration and content

Through out the main survey each group of students had mobile phone contact with the researcher should any queries develop in the field In addition, each householder prior to conducting the interview received an official letter from QUT explaining the aim of the survey and the researcher’s contact number for points of clarification

The actual household surveys were conducted over 2 weeks with each group of two students visiting up to five households per day, with the average interview lasting 1 hour and 45 minutes

Following the completion of 241 successful interviews, the survey forms were returned to QUT School of Planning and forwarded to the researcher The researcher then spent a number of weeks coding the responses in SPSS and occasionally doing very limited follow up phone calls

to survey households, where fields of information was either missing, conflicting or not clear

Out of the original 321 households agreeing to be part of a 45-50 minute home based survey, only 241 were successfully completed

The survey technique used an initial demographic profile to determine each household’s characteristics, followed by a Stated Preference survey using statements on travel and living characteristics This initial use of demographic and stated preference techniques were used to gain an understanding of peoples general travel and living characteristics before moving into specific questions The main part of the questionnaire used an image-based survey where the TOD and Park & Ride concepts were introduced amidst general questions about car use and public transport use plus features of their neighbourhoods Whilst some of the more general questions were aimed at not leading the respondent towards the specifics of TODs and Park & Rides, others covered related issues like safety at railway stations The results of this main household survey are described and analysed in chapters 10, 11, 12 & 13

Interviews with key councils, developers and transit operators

At around the same time period that the main household survey was being conducted, face to face discussions were held by the researcher with key councils, developers and transit operators

to gauge their opinions as to the barriers and opportunities surrounding the introduction of TODs into Australia This was also to determine what, if any, approach had been taken by these agencies to incorporate or work with Park & Rides as part of a wider travel demand management strategy and their incorporation with a TOD

The nature of these meetings and discussions with such a mix of agencies with different agendas did not prelude to a fixed style of questionnaire The discussions were kept fluid to gain the trust and openness of the agency representative Appendix X provides an example of the questions asked

Discussions were held with: Maroochy Shire Council (QLD); Pine Rivers (QLD);Gold Coast City Council (QLD); South Sydney City Council (NSW); Liverpool City Council (NSW); Energy Victoria (VIC); Moreland City Council (VIC); Department of Infrastructure (VIC); Bayside City Council (VIC); The Stafford Group (NSW); Urban Renewal Taskforce – Brisbane (QLD); Delfin Property Group Limited – Varsity Lakes (QLD); Miller Property Corporation (QLD); Lend Lease – Northlakes (QLD); Lend Lease – Head Office (NSW); Westfield – Head

Office (NSW); Landcom (NSW); Land Management Corporation – Mawson Lakes (SA); Queensland Rail (QLD) and State Transit (NSW) Findings from these face to face interviews are reviewed in chapters 10 & 11

Evidence gather on Australian Case Studies by Interview

To help add credibility to the researcher’s findings and emerging findings various face to face interviews were conducted by the researcher with key transit and urban planners across Australia, to better understand the barriers and opportunities that prevail for TODs These interviews examined case studies in Sydney, Perth, Adelaide and Brisbane, described in chapter

10

Attendance at the RailVolution Conference

To conclude the researcher’s analysis of the subject and finalise emerging findings, information was directly obtained from presentations and in discussions with delegates at the RailVolution conference held in Atlanta, USA in September 2003 and Salt Lake City, USA in September 2005 that evaluated implementational issues with TODs and the association or lack of with Park & Rides These presentations and discussions helped formulate the concluding sections of this thesis

What successes and failures have occurred in configuring land use and transport integration to maximize transit patronage demands? Is the transferability of this knowledge base appropriate,

or does it require modification for a new integrated framework to drive transit patronage demands within the Australian urban setting?

3.1 Changing Travel Patterns and Impacts

In 1923, Henry Ford produced the first of many mass produced model T Ford passenger vehicles aimed at the general USA household market Today, average car ownership in the USA exceeds one car per household, with many households having two or three cars Similar patterns prevail around the developed world, with many emerging nations soon to achieve similar car ownership levels The advent of the car has seen patronage of public transport fall to single percentage figures, whilst car based trips commonly exceed 70 percent

‘Urbanisation, which has reshaped the world’s geography since the Second World War, invariably means more vehicles and more travel Within a metropolis, population density tends

to decline as trip distances become longer By contrast, in poor countries, an increase of one million population means an additional 350,000-400,000 public transport trips per day, according

to an Asian Development Bank estimate in 1989’ (The Economist, 1998) The problem is as a country’s population becomes more prosperous, the first thing people desire is a car ‘The income elasticity of car ownership is roughly two: each 1% increase in average household income means a 2% increase in the number of cars … in Mexico, the number of private vehicles has risen by 30% since 1991’ (The Economist, 1998)

Glazebrook (1993) cites Newman and Kenworthy’s work in 1991, stating that in the twenty years from 1961 to 1981 Australian capital cities have seen:

• car ownership per capita double;

• public transport usage per capita cut in half;

• fuel consumption (petrol) increase 74 percent; and

• average urban densities fall from 19 to 14 persons per hectare

This later factor shows how difficult it may be to introduce and apply a new integrated land use model to maximize transit patronage demands, when it goes against the attitudinal and institutional trend of 14 persons per hectare, within the Australian setting, whilst aiming for densities potentially greater than 50 persons per hectare

According to Zitter (1998), transit must improve its attraction and use by identifying what cars are doing and keeping up with new technology He quotes ‘statistics confirm that Americans travel almost 90% of the time by car and only 2 to 3% by public transit, no doubt because mass transit is notoriously rigid The old joke is that transit carries people from where they used to live to where they used to work.’ The significant point made is that the car takes people to the new urban sprawl homes in the suburbs, the 7-Eleven stores and shopping malls, whilst transit serves the urban ‘ghost towns’ of the past

The West Edmonton Shopping Mall in Edmonton, Canada, is considered the largest in the world The shopping mall is approximately 10 km from the CBD and is designed specifically for car accessibility by new outer urban suburbs The CBD, with its fixed guideway light rail system serving mainly older suburbs, provides no linkages to the new shopping mall The outcomes of this situation are the collapse of most major department stores and retail businesses in Edmonton’s CBD to competition from the West Edmonton Shopping Mall, and the effective ghost town effect prevailing in the CBD outside of office hours

Zitter (1998) sees one option for transit: cities, suburbs and neighbourhoods must be more transit oriented Effectively this translates to making transit more accessible Accepting, however, that the political, administrative and policy changes needed to concentrate urban forms around transit nodes with higher densities, will be difficult to sell the public and politicians Even with changes

to urban living and work activities around transit nodes, transit needs to address the major growth area in transport demand, namely the leisure, shopping and personal business market The question still remains as to how transit is to take people from their home around transit nodes (if achievable in large numbers) to such a diverse number of locations for leisure, shopping, work and personal business

Zitter (1998) points out that transit requires better technology to reposition itself “We’ve got to have more kiosks and computer terminals offering more information before and during trips We need to give riders the ability to pay by cashless means, utilizing smart card technology It all has to be quick, easy and accurate We’ve also got to evolve the same way the automobile is – we’ve got to be noise free, emission-free and more energy-conscious.” Whilst Wach (1996) comments that “it makes it ever more difficult to serve the needs of the future with the traditional forms of public transportation that we’ve imaged.” Wach (1996) maintains that technological changes in the future may allow transit to “mimic the automobile, which goes to many places, and at different times, on demand.”

Zitter (1998) refers to a new station car technology being trialed in San Francisco and New Jersey This system integrates mass transit and the personal automobile by supplying small electric cars for local use at rail transit stations A train user coming home from work collects a

small electric car at their destination station to take home The next morning they return the car

to the local station, where it is then available for others for local shopping and business trips

Cervero (1996a) examines the issue of accessibility He predicts that ecologically sustainable cities of the future would emphasize compactness, walk ability, and telecommuting for work and shopping, as schemes that promote transit use as alternatives to the car McGlynn, Newman and Kenworthy (1991) state, “Systems built around public transport (especially rail-based transport), walking and cycling, will encourage more compact development Car-based systems, on the other hand, will dissipate the city into the sprawling suburbia so common in America, and increasingly familiar in Australia.” Newman and Kenworthy (1992a) go on to suggest that the answer to the problems of urban sprawl in Australia and North America is a return to the pre-car society, where urban cities focused on walking to public transport rail stations and tram stops for travel beyond the immediate local areas, and walking dominated all local based trips

In Holland, accessibility is built into local urban planning legislation by allocating an accessibility category to different types of commercial and service activities (Westerman 1998) Entities like offices and schools/universities are seen as potentially highly attractive for users to access by public transport and are given an A type categorization; whereas, a car panel beaters depot is given a C type as it is highly dependent on car access Category B indicates a situation where a mix of both public transport and car access may prevail, for example a cinema or shopping centre With these industry and institutional categories in place, new developments are encouraged to locate around areas in Dutch cities zoned for types A, B, or C, dependent on access to public transport and road infrastructure

In recent years, significant amounts of money have been spent making our roads and cars more intelligent, further pushing automobile dependency in the 21st Century and also aiding urban sprawl (Cervero 1996a) Current trends in Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) are largely based

on road congestion reductions to enable car drivers to obtain faster, safer access to their destinations The very nature of such ITS road-based systems is to encourage more vehicles to enter the network and hence further enhance the modal shift towards the car A more desirable

outcome would use ITS adjacent to major road corridors to promote modal shifts towards public transport through the use of quality Park & Ride facilities and public transport service delivery

Mackett and Edwards (1998) cite lifestyle issues as the driving force behind growth in car usage, rather than urban density This results from the outcome of decisions by individual households

to increase the range of opportunities available to them by purchasing a mode that is faster and more flexible than the alternative public transport modes The availability of a car means that they have a wider choice of employment, shopping and leisure facilities within a given travel time.’ The downside to this trend, according to Whitelegg (1993), is that cities which have adapted to motorised transport are cities that discriminate against poor people

One solution for Australian cities trying to come to grips with density and lifestyle issues promoting the car rather than transit may emerge from Kenworthy and Newman (1994), who see that as Australia becomes a more multicultural nation, Asian immigration from cities of high density and transit use may bring with it habits that could help drive higher density and transit use in Australia The European immigration component, one must also assume, may include a higher built-in propensity to use transit It should, however, not be forgotten that many migrants come to Australia on the attraction of wide open spaces which may contrast to densities in excess

of 50 persons per hectare left behind These migrants may desire to live on a quarter-acre block

in the outer urban sprawl suburbs and run two cars or more per household

In a historical account of urban rail systems, Brindle (1992) believes it unfair to blame the car for the influence that urban form is having on today’s travel patterns He emphasizes that urban rail systems have historically been just as responsible for continuing urban sprawl as freeways He quotes the example of how the tram in the 1930’s in Los Angeles was a major contribution to urban sprawl, and that ‘Toronto seems to bear out long-term experience in many cities that extensive rail systems permit urban fringe and ex-urban development just as surely as do freeways.’ Meyer and Gomez-Ibanez (1981) state that the higher demand for transit on Toronto’s subway system was not due to the impact of high density development around its stations, but various local social and economic issues, including high levels of European immigration

Hensher and Hooper (1991) indicated that those higher residential and commercial nodes that have concentrated around the subway stations are due primarily to zoning incentives and attractive lease options and are limited in their relationship to the attraction factor of rail Hutchinson and Kumar (1987) point out that higher residential density has not automatically seen greater transport efficiency, with the main demand following to only three employment zones, which equates to 30 percent of the region’s work force

This principle was demonstrated in Australia with the electrification of the northern railway line

to Caboolture, 50 km north of Brisbane, in the mid 1980’s Massive road infrastructure upgrades have since followed, in order to support the resulting low cost urban housing sprawl north of the North Pine River

To move car-based trips to public transport, the supply and demand for parking must be addressed Ginn (1996a) states that any city proposal introducing light rail, needs to seriously review its parking policies to support transit, as part of a whole package of travel demand measures In North America, the use of the car is still a predominant factor working against achieving high levels of patronage on all forms of public transport systems Light rail transit (LRT) operators in North America face the constant problem of cheap ‘early bird’ parking being provided in city centres continuing to attract workers by car Parking charges downtown are typically between $5.00 and $12.00 a day, and between $50 and $120 per month (based on 2005 prices) In downtown Calgary, the main shopping centre offers $1 parking for 4hrs on Saturdays, and free parking all day Sunday and evenings Such features discourage transit use The problem

of cheap parking in North America is further compounded by the low cost of the typical medium size family car In Canada, this cost is approximately $22,000, with the average salary being between $35,000 and $45,000 (based on 2006 prices)

In Grenoble, France, a political decision was made to retain significant free parking near the CBD even with the advent of the Tramway, although in some cities like Strasbourg, the policy has been to restrict parking to further support LRT In Portland, USA, to encourage greater use

of LRT and bus services into the CBD, limits are set for the amount of parking permitted for new