Accounts of the visual art classroom catering for artistically talented students

This study addresses this gap in research through an inquiry into the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms, by examining the accounts

Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for

Artistically Talented Students

Fiona Joy Ballantyne Vicig

Masters of Education (Research) School of Learning and Professional Studies Queensland University of Technology

2009

Abstract

Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students

to be met satisfactorily The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown This study addresses this gap in research through an inquiry into the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms, by examining the accounts of a group of students and teachers at one high school in South East Queensland

This study is significant as it provides teachers, parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students with additional means to plan and cater for the educational needs of artistically talented students Teacher and student accounts

of the visual art classroom in this study indicated that identification processes for artistically talented students are unclear and contradictory Furthermore, teacher and student accounts of their experiences presented a wide variety of conceptions of the visual art classroom and point towards an individualised approach to learning for artistically talented students This study also discovered a mismatch between assessment practices in the subject visual art and assessment of art in the ‘real world’ Specifically, this study proposes a renewal of programs for artistically talented students, and recommends a revision of current procedures for the identification of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms

Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet

requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution To the

best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously

published or written by another person except where due reference is made

Signature

Date

Acknowledgements

It is a pleasure to thank the many people who made this thesis possible I would like

to thank Dr Felicity McArdle and Professor Suzanne Carrington for their

encouragement, advice, and support throughout this study You have taught me a lot and your input has been invaluable to the success of this thesis

I am very grateful to the people who helped me conduct my fieldwork Particular

thanks go to those staff and pupils who shared their experiences with me and gave

their time to participate in the study

I wish to thank my family and friends for all the time spent listening to me talking

about the thesis, for the constant advice, encouragement and patience shown

throughout this process

Lastly, I would like to thank my husband, David for supporting, loving and

encouraging me throughout the writing of this thesis I am so grateful for the hours you spent reading drafts, listening to me talk about the latest development and

encouraging me to continue when times got tough I dedicate this thesis to you

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 7 

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 13 

2.1  The arts 13 

2.1.1   Learning in the arts 15  

2.1.2   The arts in schools 17  

2.1.3   Visual art within the arts 20  

2.2  Gifted and talented education 22 

2.2.1   Inclusive education 23  

2.2.2   Intelligence 25  

2.2.3   Gifted and talented education in Australia 27  

2.3  Talent and the arts 28 

2.3.1   Identification of artistic talent 29  

2.3.2   Artistically talented students: Teaching and learning 31  

2.4  Catering for artistically talented students 35 

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 37 

3.1  Conceptual framework 38 

3.2  Research design 42 

3.3  Fieldwork 43 

3.3.1   The site 44  

3.3.2   Stage one – Focus group interviews 44  

3.3.3   Stage two: Semi-structured one-on-one interviews 46  

3.4  Analysis 49 

3.5  Limitations 51 

3.7  Ethics 51 

3.8  Chapter summary 52 

CHAPTER 4: TEACHER ACCOUNTS 54 

4.1  Identification 54 

4.1.1   Identifying high achievers at Knightsbridge College 55  

4.1.2   Characteristics of the artistically talented 58  

4.1.3   Defining artistic talent 62  

4.2  Teacher experiences 66 

4.2.1   Teaching artistically talented students 66  

4.2.2   Programming for artistically talented students 69  

4.2.3   Assessment 72  

4.2.4   Freedom and flexibility 75  

4.3  Chapter summary 78 

CHAPTER 5: STUDENT ACCOUNTS 81 

5.1  Identification 86 

5.1.1   Being identified 86  

5.1.2   Artistic talent 92  

5.2  Student experiences 99 

5.2.1   Making art 99  

5.2.2   Influences 104  

5.2.3   Future aspirations 108  

5.2.4   The classroom environment 113  

5.2.5   Freedom and flexibility 117  

5.3  Chapter summary 122 

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 125 

6.1  Summary of research findings in relation to each research question 126 

6.1.1   How are artistically talented students identified within the visual art classroom? 126  

6.1.2   What accounts do teachers provide of their experiences with artistically talented students in the visual art classroom? 128  

6.1.3   What accounts do artistically talented students give of their experiences in the visual art classroom? 129  

6.1.4   What new understandings can be brought to the teaching and learning of artistically talented students in visual art? 131  

6.2  Significance of the study 135 

6.3  Limitations 135 

6.4  Final concluding comments 136 

REFERENCE LIST 138 

APPENDIX 1 146 

APPENDIX 2 147 

APPENDIX 3 149 

Accounts of the Visual Art Classroom: Catering for

Artistically Talented Students

In 2007 students from Knightsbridge College were involved in a

community art exhibition called “Kaleidoscope” A community art

representative and the curator of the exhibition chose student work from

the grade 12 cohort to represent the school in the exhibition Student

artworks were professionally displayed and exhibited in a prominent

community area The choice of works for this exhibition sparked interest

from teachers and students at Knightsbridge College A number of

student artworks that were chosen by the curators of the exhibition were

not awarded high marks when they were assessed by teachers; however

they were chosen to represent the school in a public forum Similarly,

some works that received high marks when assessed by the teachers were

not chosen for the exhibition It seems that in this case what constituted

quality art in the school setting was different from what constituted

quality art in the “real world”

This experience highlights a number of points of interest with regards to

the identification of excellence in student art and student artists and how

excellence in art is catered for in the school setting This scenario

served as inspiration for this research and informed the design of this

study

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Inclusive education practices call for the diverse and individual needs of all students

to be met satisfactorily The needs and experiences of artistically talented students in Australian visual art classrooms are currently unknown This study addresses this gap in research through the exploration of teaching and learning experiences in one

visual art classroom Students who are talented in visual art are often not catered for

in programs for high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman, 2004) Most schools identify high achieving students through the use

of IQ or standardised tests that are language and logic centric (Gardner, 1993; Wright, 2003) These identification procedures often fail to identify students who are talented in visual art (Crocker, 2000; Gardner, 1993)

Visual art is an important component of school curriculum that incorporates unique and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning experience (Emery, 1998) Visual art is distinguished from other disciplines through its own pedagogical structure and knowledge base (Hurwitz & Day, 2001); it is a visual language that helps students to perceive, express, communicate, interpret and understand the world (Barrett, 1998)

The Queensland Government’s framework for gifted education states that students who excel or have the potential to excel in one or more ability areas require specific educational provisions to engage in learning and develop their abilities (Department

of Education and the Arts, 2004) While there is a considerable amount of literature regarding gifted and talented students in general, there is a paucity of research into the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in regular visual art classrooms Many schools conduct programs for students who are identified as high achievers across a range of subject areas Research has found that students who are talented in visual art are commonly left unidentified and, therefore, are not catered for in specialist programs (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman, 2004) Most research about artistically talented students has been conducted in

America and has explored the characteristics of artistically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 1984, 1988; Zimmerman, 2004), their specific educational needs (Clark, 1987; Hurwitz & Day, 2001), identification processes (Bachtel-Nash, 1988; Brown et al., 2005; Clark, 1989, 1995; Clark & Zimmerman, 1992, 2001, 2004) and the notion of the child prodigy (Golomb, 1995; Winner, 1993; Winner & Martino, 2002)

The majority of literature about artistically talented students has researched students and teachers from exclusive programs specifically designed for the artistically talented This study will investigate the accounts of artistically talented students and their teachers in the regular visual art classroom setting It is essential to investigate the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers within the regular visual art classroom, as this is the most common learning environment for visual art students Furthermore, there is a gap in research addressing artistically talented students and their teachers in Australia in general An investigation into the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers is necessary as it is unknown how high school aged artistically talented students are catered for in visual art classrooms in Australia

Students are commonly identified as high achievers in core curriculum areas such as mathematics and English and schools often provide these students with special programs suited to their specific learning needs In the same way, it is crucial that students who are artistically talented are identified so that their specific educational needs can be assessed and catered for specifically One way to find out about students’ experiences is to include them in an inquiry into the needs and experiences

of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms In addition, the identification procedures used by teachers in Australian high school visual art classrooms require further exploration to determine how artistically talented students are being identified and provided for An investigation into student and teacher experiences will help to inform how best to plan and cater for the educational needs

of artistically talented students

This research addresses a significant gap in the literature as the procedures used to identify artistically talented students and the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in the regular visual art classroom have not been accounted for in the literature so far Accordingly, the aim of this project is to investigate procedures used to identify artistically talented students in visual art classrooms and to explore the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students and teachers at one school in South East Queensland The specific research questions are:

students in the visual art classroom?

visual art classroom?

artistically talented students in visual art?

This research endeavours to provide valuable information for schools as they plan and design educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art Findings may

be used to form new understandings about artistically talented students’ needs and visual art experiences These understandings hold the potential to provide teachers, parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students with additional means to plan and cater for the educational needs of these students

Chapter 2 provides a background to the study through a review of the relevant literature This chapter places the education of artistically talented students firstly within the larger context of arts education and secondly within the larger context of gifted and talented education Chapter 2 highlights the gaps in the literature and concludes by making a case for research that investigates the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in one regular visual art classroom in Australia

To conduct such an inquiry, it is necessary to design an appropriate methodology for the study Chapter 3 outlines the methodological foundation and framework for the thesis and describes the design of the project Chapter 3 outlines the procedure for how the data were generated and analysed, and who the participants were; as well as limitations and ethical considerations

Chapter 4 displays the data and analyses teacher accounts of the process used for identifying artistically talented students and teacher experiences with artistically talented students within the visual art classroom Chapter 4 presents a discussion

of teacher accounts and places them within the literature in this field

Chapter 5 displays the data and analyses student accounts of the process used for identifying artistically talented students and student experiences within the visual art classroom Examples of student work are presented together with student responses Chapter 5 also presents a discussion of student accounts and places them within the literature in this field

Chapter 6 makes comparisons between teacher accounts and student accounts and explores their implications for future practices regarding the education of artistically talented students The limitations of the research are also discussed

This study explores the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers

in visual art classrooms by examining the accounts of a group of students and teachers at one high school in South East Queensland Findings constitute new knowledge in a currently under-researched area providing valuable information for teachers, parents and others involved in the education of artistically talented students

to assist in planning and providing for the educational needs of these students This research provides valuable information for schools as they plan and design educational experiences that foster excellence in visual art

CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

In order to conduct an inquiry focussing on student and teacher accounts of their experiences in the visual art classroom, it is necessary to review several related bodies of literature within the arts and within the school curriculum The first section

of this literature review explores issues around the nature of education within the arts

in general and visual art in particular This is followed by an exploration of gifted and talented education and its relationship with the arts generally and visual art specifically Finally, the literature review explores the teaching and learning issues surrounding artistically talented students’ experiences in the visual art classroom is discussed

2.1 The arts

The value of the arts is well documented by many researchers As humans we are confronted with the arts on a day-by-day basis through real-life experiences and the media It is essential for school students to access the arts through the school curriculum so that they can decipher meaning from the world around them (Aland, 1998) The arts are understood to provide unique opportunities for “aesthetic and sensory learning, cognitive, physical and social learning” (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001, p 12) The benefit of study in the arts extends, therefore beyond the arts classroom

Engagement in arts education has been found to benefit students as it has the potential to facilitate enhanced learning and outcomes (1999; Gelineau, 2004; Hess, 1991; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000) In addition, a young person’s motivation to learn

and their capacity to achieve at higher levels is increased through participation in the arts (Catterall et al., 1999) Clark and Zimmerman (1994; 2004) recognise that the arts have the power to engage students and develop superior creative thinking, self concept, problem solving, self expression, risk taking and co-operation in students Due to the expressive nature of arts experiences, students can also be seen to benefit emotionally, culturally and socially through involvement with the arts (Aland, 1998; Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Emery, 1998)

Gelineau (2004) makes a strong argument that engagement in an arts-rich curriculum leads to enhanced abilities in all subject and intelligence areas At the same time, Eisner (1998) warns that attempts to justify the arts on the basis of their non-art outcomes may fail to recognise the real benefits and outcomes of arts experiences Aesthetic experiences provided through the arts distinguish them from other learning experiences (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery, 1998) While the arts are often justified by their potential to facilitate success in other subject areas, it is important to focus on the significance of arts experiences for aesthetic reasons (Aland, 1998; Barrett, 1998)

While the arts can be seen to benefit students cognitively, socially and culturally, “it

is the aesthetic domain of the arts that makes them unique and vital to the human

experience” (Ballantyne, 2001, p 1) Aesthetic experiences are intrinsic to arts

experiences where enjoyment and fulfilment is achieved (Emery, 1998) Music, dance, drama, visual art and media each embody unique aesthetic experiences that can’t be obtained in any other way (Emery, 1998) When describing the nature of the arts, the syllabus highlights the aesthetic domain that students value in “the

the human spirit” (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001, p 5) The fulfilment of the aesthetic experiences provided through the arts is what distinguishes them from other learning experiences

2.1.1 Learning in the arts

Whilst there are many facets of teaching and learning that are generic to all subject areas, each subject area requires teaching and learning expertise that is subject specific Due to the unique characteristics of arts experiences, teaching and learning

in the arts requires specific teacher training and expertise (Ballantyne, 2001; Emery, 1998) As a result, student and teacher experiences in the visual art classroom are likely to be different from other subject areas

communication (Smith, 1999) These significant functions that are achieved through the arts are not accessible through any other means or subjects at school and therefore it is imperative that the arts play an important and meaningful part in the

school curriculum (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Smith, 1999)

Abbs’ (1989) comments on arts education highlight the abstract nature of arts pedagogy, while also emphasising some of the distinct characteristics of learning and

teaching that are unique to the arts:

The grammar of the arts therefore cannot be introduced through a

series of prescribed schematic exercises divorced from the

animating energies of feeling, sense, perception and imagination

They must be introduced as a necessary part of expressive activity

that reciprocal play between the repertoire of artistic conventions

inherited through the culture and that innate proclivity in the

individual and group for symbolic expression (Abbs, 1989, p

38-39)

According to The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus document, published by Queensland

Schools Authority, arts pedagogy should be learner-centred (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001) In this approach the teacher adopts the role of the facilitator who guides and scaffolds learning and students learn through the active construction of meaning It is recognised through this approach that knowledge is viewed as continually changing and constructed on prior experiences Students are encouraged to practise critical and creative thinking, problem solving and decision making through the learner-centred approach to pedagogy (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2001) Similarly, Burton (2000) offers an approach to arts pedagogy where students draw on their experiences to engage in the arts as makers and appraisers Burton emphasises the opportunities for complex and real-world meaning making through engagement in the arts when a learner-centred approach to arts pedagogy is used

Teaching and learning in the arts emphasises the value of process as well as product While many subject areas focus on assessing the end product of a student’s work, it

is common for subjects in the arts to use authentic assessment, where the artistic process, exploration of ideas and discovery are seen as integral components of learning (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 2004) Authentic assessment in visual art involves the active engagement of students in learning and instruction, where students play an important part in determining their achievements (Clark &

Zimmerman, 2004) Consequently, authentic assessment in visual art is worthwhile, meaningful and significant for students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Eisner, 1999)

In maths and science, student achievement is primarily assessed through tests, assignments and exams that occur at the end of the learning period Practical assessments in visual art, for example, may require students to keep a visual diary throughout the making experience that details their thoughts, reflections, decisions, research, and artistic processes While the end product (the artwork) is considered in assessing arts outcomes, much of the learning can be seen through the artistic processes (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004) The unique value that the arts give to processes as well as product place the arts in a precarious situation within the school curriculum This is particularly concerning in the current climate of educational accountability through the justification of student outcomes

2.1.2 The arts in schools

In the last 40 years visual art, drama, music, dance, and media have been commonly

grouped under the umbrella term The Arts When exploring the experiences of

Queensland students and teachers in the art classroom, it is important to investigate the context of the arts within the Queensland school curriculum The arts are identified as one of the eight Key Learning Areas (KLAs) by the Queensland Studies

Authority in the The Arts: Years 1-10 syllabus Visual art, dance, drama, media and

music are recognised as specific disciplines or strands within the arts KLA The arts are commonly taught by generalist teachers in primary schools across Queensland, with the exception of music which is often taught by a specialist teacher The arts

are generally taught as elective studies in high schools by specialist teachers in each discipline

Education in visual art, dance, drama, media and music is usually termed arts

education The individual arts disciplines are united by the common goal of

expression - whether emotions, stories, discourses or ideas (Emery, 1998) Many researchers have identified expressive experiences in the arts as unique to the human condition Barnes (2002) acknowledges that ignoring the arts would be similar to ignoring what makes us human If artistic experiences are fundamental to being human, it is essential that the arts are incorporated into every student’s experience at

school (Barnes, 2002) Emery makes the point that the arts “have become vehicles

of expression so intrinsic to our culture that it would be unthinkable to offer a school

program without them” (Emery, 1998, p 1) Furthermore, Smith (1999) clearly

states that the arts provide insight into significant human ideas and values,

There is a current trend in primary and middle schools in Australia towards integration within the arts Teachers are often responsible for teaching all of the arts

in the generalist primary or middle school classroom Integration can be seen as a superficial way for one teacher to achieve the goal of teaching five very unique and challenging disciplines A different understanding of integration is when the arts are integrated across KLAs such as English and maths Sometimes this integration is seen as a solution to a crowded curriculum and heavy emphasis on literacy and numeracy Aland (1998), Barrett (1998), Boyd (1998) and Emery (1998) warn that authentic integration in the arts is very difficult to achieve satisfactorily Emery

argues that inadequate integration has the potential for reducing the arts to

“meaningless, busying activities” (Emery, 1998, p 8) Barrett (1998) emphasises the importance of a discipline-specific arts curriculum in primary and middle education settings, where each discipline is taught as a discrete and specialised subject area that requires distinct experiences and knowledge

One factor impacting on the position of the arts within schools, and reflected in Australian education systems, is the notion that the arts are not as important as other subject areas Despite the arts recognition as a KLA in the Queensland education curriculum, more weight (as measured by time) is commonly given to subjects such

as English and mathematics Barnes (2002) argues that this lack of value in arts education is due in some regards to the immeasurable qualities that are unique to arts experiences While traditional mathematical/linguistic subjects produce clear results that are easily quantifiable and justifiable, arts subjects rely a great deal on interpretation, reflection and creative expression (Gardner, 1993)

Boyd (1998) highlights some of the community attitudes towards the notion of the artist:

From the point of view of the community the word 'artist' conjures a

vision of a temperamental romantic leading a carefree life- a

bohemian unencumbered by the mundane constraints that beset the

ordinary wage-earner (Boyd, 1998, p 2)

Wright (2003) suggests that the community frequently misunderstands what the arts are and what value they have Boyd (1998) agrees that communities often fail to recognise the worthwhile outcomes that the arts produce and the benefit of the arts to society This ambivalent community attitude towards the arts often flows through to

schools, affecting the way the arts are taught and placed within the school curriculum (Boyd, 1998; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000; Wright, 2003) In an attempt to dispel community attitudes towards the arts, secondary arts departments find themselves continuously defending the value and position of their subjects within the school curriculum Currently, according to Saatchi and Saatchi (2000) the lack of value placed on arts education by parents, students, and administrators impedes students’ subject choices and participation in the arts in Australia

The arts are often appreciated by parents, students and administrators for their entertainment value and put on show regularly to promote the school in the public eye (Boyd, 1998) However, frequently they are marginalised through allocation of time and resources (Boyd, 1998; McArdle & Piscitelli, 2002) In particular, visual art is often sidelined in primary schools, used as a busying activity and called on for decoration in public forums such as fetes or festivals (Boyd, 1998; McArdle & Piscitelli, 2002)

It appears that the under-representation of students talented in visual art in programs for high achievers may be due in some respects to the lack of value placed on arts education in schools (Clark & Zimmerman, 2002; Crocker, 2000; Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000) This issue requires further investigation to determine whether the needs of artistically talented students are being met in Australian schools

2.1.3 Visual art within the arts

While the arts strands are grouped together and positioned equally within The Arts:

of each arts discipline In order to explore the experiences of artistically talented students and visual art teachers, it is necessary to recognise the nature of visual art within the arts

Visual art has its own special pedagogical structure and knowledge base which distinguishes it from the other arts disciplines (Barrett, 1998; Emery, 1998) The justification for including visual art in the school curriculum should be based on the essential contributions that come from studying visual art (Hurwitz & Day, 2001) Visual art provides students with “a fundamental lens of understanding through which they can view and interpret the world in which they live” (Hurwitz & Day,

2001, p 26) Walker (2007) affirms that visual art provides opportunities for unique and important teaching and learning that is not accessible through any other learning experience Art is often described as a visual language, a way of perceiving, expressing, communicating, interpreting and understanding our world (Emery, 1998;

students to become visually literate in past, present and future cultures and societies

display images and objects in visual art that give them satisfaction and enjoyment that cannot be achieved through other means (Barrett, 1998; Boyd, 1998; Queensland

Through the above review of the literature, a case has been made for the arts and visual art within the school curriculum and society in general Arts education offers unique and valuable learning experiences that are essential for all human beings and therefore should play a significant and essential role in the school curriculum (Boyd,

1998; Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Wright, 2003) Yet the arts are often marginalised and viewed as optional extras in the school curriculum (Saatchi & Saatchi, 2000) The marginalisation of the arts in school programs and curriculum is

a current and concerning issue and requires further attention in educational research and practice (Barnes, 2002; Wright, 2003) This marginalisation of the arts extends

to gifted and talented education, where the arts are often not considered in programs for gifted and talented students in schools In particular, those students talented in visual art are often left unidentified and therefore are not catered for in programs for high achievers (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004) Consequently, the failure of many school programs for high achievers to recognise talents in visual arts requires further investigation (Winner & Martino, 2002; Zimmerman, 2004)

2.2 Gifted and talented education

In order to explore the views of artistically talented students in visual art classrooms

it is necessary to investigate the current literature surrounding gifted and talented education Scholars offer various definitions, identification processes and teaching philosophies concerning the education of high achieving and exceptional students

An exploration of the literature in this area exposes a variety of differing approaches

to and conceptions of gifted and talented education

There are numerous terms that are used today and have been used in the past to label

very high achieving students The term gifted and talented is currently the most

commonly used in most literature, policy and practice when describing very high

achieving students Recently, the term best and brightest has been used in some

Education Queensland schools with programs aimed at high achieving students (Department of Education and the Arts, 2006) The debate over the terms used to label high achieving students is particularly relevant when considering the labelling

of high achievers in the arts For the purpose of this study, it is necessary for a common understanding of terms and concepts in gifted and talented education to be established so that students can be identified and catered for appropriately

Gagne (2002) proposes a differentiated model of giftedness and talent in an attempt

to clarify the use of the terms gifted and talented Gagne argues that a gift is a

student’s innate potential whereas talents are skills that can be learnt Winner and Martino (2002) suggest that this distinction leads to those who have a high IQ or are exceptional academically being labelled as gifted, whilst those who demonstrate exceptional ability in the arts are labelled as talented This distinction between talent and giftedness is disputed by Winner and Martino who argue that students who are

talented in art can also be defined as gifted This study will use the terms artistically

talented or students talented in visual art to describe students who are capable of

excelling in the visual art discipline When discussing students who are very high

achievers in general, this study will use the term gifted and talented as this is the

most commonly used term in the literature

2.2.1 Inclusive education

Inclusive practices are particularly relevant when considering the education of gifted and talented students Inclusive practices in schools aim to provide experiences where diversity and success for all are valued and celebrated (Department of

identified so that the barriers to their learning can be reduced and their educational

and social outcomes can be maximised (Department of Education and the Arts,

2005) It is also necessary that all students understand and value diversity “so that they have the knowledge and skills for positive participation in a just, equitable and democratic global society” (Department of Education and the Arts, 2005, p 1)

Gifted and talented education has developed out of the need to provide for all students in diverse student populations Gifted and talented students require specific educational provisions to enable them to engage in learning and develop their abilities (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004) Class tasks and goals are often geared towards the average student, with teachers spending the majority of their time helping those students who struggle (Gross, 2004) Often it is the high achievers who are left to their own devices or asked to instruct and help other students Many people expect that gifted and talented students will achieve on their own regardless of their experiences in the classroom (Gross, 2004) As a result, it is common for gifted and talented students to become disengaged at school, even adopting behaviour problems to account for their boredom (Csikszentmihalyi, Rathunde, & Whalen, 1996) This disengagement becomes particularly evident in the middle years of schooling (ages 10-15) (Chaffey, 2005; Csikszentmihalyi et al., 1996)

Schools play a vital role in the promotion of inclusive practices when it comes to the education of gifted and talented students It is important that schools actively nurture individual students’ gifts and talents, providing a supportive environment

where their needs can be met (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004) Schools are required to develop a curriculum that is inclusive and appropriate and caters for the needs of gifted and talented students In order for schools to provide

an appropriate curriculum, understanding, acceptance and recognition of gifted and talented students are required by the school community (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004)

Notions of equity and excellence in art underlie the provision of an art education that

is inclusive of all students with varied abilities and needs (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Smith, 1999; Stewart, 1995) It is necessary for art education to provide for the needs of all students, including those who excel in visual art This is particularly relevant when considering artistically talented students, as they are often not recognised in programs for high achievers (Crocker, 2000; Zimmerman, 2004) High achievement at school is often linked with conceptions of intelligence In order

to further understand the concepts surrounding gifted and talented education an exploration of human notions of intelligence is required

2.2.2 Intelligence

Human intelligence is a social and cultural construct What is viewed as intelligence changes through time and from culture to culture Many scholars have argued that these identification procedures “violate educational equity by consistently excluding large populations of poor and culturally diverse gifted students” (Richert, 2002, p 148) Programs for high achievers in schools predominantly cater only to

intellectually and academically talented students, focussing mainly on students who are identified through standardised and IQ tests (Crocker, 2000; Gardner, 1993, 1999)

Many notions of intelligence in Australia are essentially constructed from a Western view of intelligence Over time human intelligence has been tested and researched

by many scholars In 1869, Galton observed a hereditary basis for above average intelligence according to his tests of visual and auditory acuity, tactile sensitivity and

scholars, including Binet, Goddard, Simon and Terman, searched for ways to measure intelligence through tests These investigations lead to Terman’s production

of the Stanford-Binet intelligence test and scale (Colangelo & Davis, 2002) Although there have been many studies contesting the aptness of this test, it is still used widely today to identify and evaluate intelligence levels Other significant studies in history investigated the emotional needs of highly intelligent children (Hollingworth, 1926) and the instigation of acceleration practices for gifted and talented students in America (Colangelo & Davis, 2002)

The arts are identified as a unique area of expertise in many notions of intelligence, giftedness and talent Although most research has explored gifted and talented education in a generic way, researchers such as Gardner (1993), have made a case for viewing talent and giftedness in the arts as a discrete set of intelligences Gardner’s argument is premised on the idea that all people possess multiple intelligences – knowledge and skills in different areas The arts embody knowledge and skills that are evident across many of Gardner’s intelligence areas The arts are

intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and spatial intelligence (Gardner, 1993, 1999) Gardner states that while society and schools focus mostly on linguistic and logical-mathematical intelligence, equal importance should be placed on individuals who excel in other intelligence areas Gardner argues that many students who show gifts in musical intelligence, bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence and spatial intelligence may be labelled as underachievers when their unique ways of thinking and learning are not recognised (Gardner, 1993, 1999)

Students talented in visual art are also among those excluded from programs for high achievers through the use of IQ and standardised tests which are language and logic centric (Gardner, 1993, 1999) Wright (2003) highlights the biases in IQ tests towards language and logic, suggesting that the arts are marginalised through the use

of IQ tests as a measure of intelligence Gardner (1993, 1999) criticised the unequal weight given to language and logic in IQ tests and proposed eight equally significant multiple intelligences While the arts are evident in many of Gardner’s (1993) multiple intelligences, Wright recognises that musical intelligence, spatial intelligence and bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence are most evident in the arts IQ tests do not measure musical, spatial and body-kinaesthetic intelligence sufficiently, and therefore cannot adequately identify students who show ability in these areas (Gardner, 1993)

2.2.3 Gifted and talented education in Australia

There is very little research available regarding the education of artistically talented students in Australia The majority of research into artistically talented students’

education has been undertaken in North America by Zimmerman (1984-2006), Clark (1984-2006) and Winner (1989-2002) Although research has been conducted in Australia, this research has concentrated on the education of academically gifted students, without focussing on those who are artistically gifted

One longitudinal study into gifted and talented education in Australia was conducted

by Gross (2004) This research followed 15 exceptionally gifted students over 10 years (1993-2003), focussing on their experiences in secondary schools in Australia Her study reported the identification procedures, pedagogy and models used in the education programs for these students Gross’s research supported the academic and social benefits of acceleration and ability grouping in Australia and highlighted the lack of research and educational support for gifted and talented students in Australia Egalitarian Australian values were identified as one of the reasons for this general lack of support and research in the education of the gifted and talented in Australia

In addition, Gross’s study presented a case for further Australian based research in the area of gifted and talented education

2.3 Talent and the arts

In 2004, the Queensland framework for gifted education included talent in visual arts

as a distinct ability within the broader definition of gifted and talented students:

Students who are gifted and talented excel, or are capable of

excelling, in one or more areas such as general intelligence, specific

academic studies, visual and performing arts, physical ability,

creative thinking, interpersonal and intrapersonal skills

(Department of Education and the Arts, 2004, p 1)

This definition places gifts and talents in visual arts as distinct from other areas, suggesting students who are talented in visual art should receive special educational services to cater for their unique capabilities (Department of Education and the Arts, 2004) While it is heartening to see giftedness in the arts recognised, this definition separates giftedness in the arts from all other forms of giftedness While many of the other areas of giftedness listed run across subject areas and focus on general skills or abilities, visual and performing arts are isolated This definition could be seen to suggest that gifts in the arts are not common across subject or intelligence areas This does not sit well with Wright’s assertion that the arts encompass a much broader and essential part of human existence which extends beyond the boundaries of a subject area into real life experiences (Wright, 2003)

2.3.1 Identification of artistic talent

Artistic talent is easy to identify when considering the notion of the child prodigy The child prodigy is defined as “a child who, before the age of ten, performs at the level of a highly trained adult in some cognitively demanding domain” (Morelock & Feldman, 2000, p 227) Picasso and Mozart are both well known prodigies of their art forms The notion of the child prodigy invites a debate of nature versus nurture (Evans, Bickel, & Pendarvis, 2000) It is often argued that child prodigies inherit or are born with innate talents that allow them to master skills in their field at an early age (Evans et al., 2000) Conversely, it can also be argued that talents can be mastered by any child who has been encouraged, practices regularly and is surrounded by a nurturing environment (Shanks, 1999)

A case in point is the development of children’s drawings seen to vary across cultures Winner and Martino (2002) consider the example of young Chinese students who are taught skills and techniques to draw realistic and adult-like images

from an early age The term artistically talented may include those who are

exceptionally gifted or prodigies of visual arts, however it also includes those who have the potential to achieve very high standards in visual art through hard work, dedication and being taught This presents a dilemma when identification of artistically talented students is required, and arts education is irregular, or in some cases, non-existent

2.3.1.1 Creativity

Creativity is often featured in literature surrounding the identification of artistic talent and ability Kaufman and Sternberg (2007) suggest that creativity an important and significant aspect of education Creativity can be defined as an idea that is “new, good and relevant” (Kaufman & Sternberg, 2007, p 55) and can be used to describe people, processes, products and environments Clark and Zimmerman (2004) establish that the concept of creativity is often poorly defined and misunderstood Consequently, the validity of procedures that focus on the identification or assessment of creativity in students as a tool for identifying artistically talented students has been questioned (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004)

While talents in other areas have been successfully assessed through the use of tests, there is no widely used test for assessing talent in visual art Creativity and drawing tests have been developed to assess students’ abilities in visual art with some success (Clark, 1995; Torrance & Ball, 1984) However, Crocker (2000) identifies three

implemented First, the lack of agreed definitions for talent and creativity in visual

art (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Cooney & J, 2004) has led to criticism of the existing tests Second, as far as is known, no comprehensive test has yet been able to effectively assess talent across the range of studio areas in visual art Third, there is

no evidence that these tests can predict future accomplishments in visual art As a result, combinations of informal approaches such as teacher, parent and peer nominations have been adopted to identify talented students in visual art (Crocker, 2000; Hurwitz & Day, 2001) It is necessary for identification procedures to be investigated further so that we can fully understand how artistically talented students are being identified within Australian visual art classrooms

2.3.2 Artistically talented students: Teaching and learning

The similarities and differences between academically and artistically talented students have been researched by a number of scholars Winner and Martino (2002) argue that artistically talented students are similar to academically talented students

in three ways: (i) they learn at a faster pace than others at their age; (ii) they are intensely motivated to create large volumes of work and master their skills; and (iii) they learn and solve problems in a different way, requiring very little adult input Research has found that artistically talented students are not necessarily identified through the use of standardised and IQ tests, whereas these tests often accurately identify academically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 1992; Crocker, 2000; Hurwitz & Day, 2001; Zimmerman, 2004) Clark and Zimmerman found that students who are talented in the arts also excelled in other subject areas (Clark & Zimmerman, 1988), whereas Getzels and Csikszentmihalyi (1976) and Hurwitz and

Day (2001) suggest that students talented in art may not be as successful in other subjects at school These contradictory findings highlight some of the inconsistencies in the literature about artistically talented students There is a need for further research in this area in order to investigate some of the inconsistencies and expand existing knowledge, building a strong foundation for future research about artistically talented students

Artistically talented students have unique characteristics that set them apart from other students in the way they produce artwork Hurwitz and Day (2001) construct a profile of children talented in visual art:

A child gifted in art observes acutely and has a vivid memory, is

adept at handling problems requiring imagination, and, although

open to new experiences, prefers to delve deeply into a limited area

The child takes art seriously and derives great personal satisfaction

from the work, is persistent, and spends much time making and

learning about art Indeed, the gifted child may sometimes be

obsessive or compulsive about artwork, neglecting other areas of

study for it (p 92)

Another characteristic of artistically talented students is that their artworks differ from average students’ artworks Millbrath’s (1998) longitudinal and cross-sectional study of talented young artists found that these students’ drawings were not only more advanced but qualitatively different from other students’ drawings at the same developmental stage While Hurwitz and Day (2001) described various developmental stages of drawing in detail, Winner (2002) highlighted that developmental stages are not necessarily universal and that they may be determined differently across cultures Millbrath (1998) found that artistically talented western

younger age than typical children Hurwitz and Day (2001) identified visual fluency, complexity and elaboration, sensitivity to art media, random improvisation and verisimilitude as distinctive abilities that are observable in artistically talented students’ artwork These special abilities could be fostered and enhanced through quality education of artistically talented students

Visual art teachers play an important role in fostering and catering for the special needs of artistically talented students (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004) Cooney (2004) suggests three roles for teachers of artistically talented students Each role is aimed

at catering for student needs at different stages in the development of artistically talented students First, according to Cooney, teachers should aim to instil a love of art through enjoyment and play Second, teachers should provide students with special instruction and guidance Third, teachers should take on the role of a mentor Clark and Zimmerman (2004) also highlight the importance of quality teaching in programs for artistically talented students This literature does not take into account the experiences of visual art teachers of artistically talented students in the regular classroom Visual art teachers play a significant role in identifying artistically talented students and providing for their needs within the regular visual art classroom (Clark & Zimmerman, 2004; Cooney & J, 2004) The experiences of visual art teachers of artistically talented students in the art classroom setting in Australia are currently unknown, and therefore are worthy of investigation

Clark and Zimmerman (1988) collected data through interviews to provide a description of the perceptions and characteristics of twenty artistically talented students The research focussed on artistically talented student views of self, family background and school They compared their findings with findings in other relevant

research in an attempt to disperse some of the misconceptions surrounding the characteristics and education of artistically talented students Clark and Zimmerman (1988) found that most students in their study were aware of their talents and were interested in improving their abilities The research also found that most students were generally supported and encouraged to maintain their interest in art by parents and family members, however they were not influenced by their parents’ or friends’ artistic abilities Clark and Zimmerman found that students talented in visual art considered ability grouping to be a positive experience both socially and educationally Clark and Zimmerman use the comparison of their data with the findings of other relevant research to expand existing knowledge about artistically talented students and build a foundation for future research in the area This study endeavours to add to the research in this field, with the aim of further clarifying some

of the misconceptions about artistically talented students

It is important to seek stakeholders’ perspectives when conducting research in any field Stakeholders are generally the beneficiaries of any ethical research undertaking The benefits of listening to student voice for education reform are well documented Carrington (2007) highlights the positive outcomes of engaging students as active citizens and encouraging an active student voice in schools In this study, the students along with teachers are the participants, as it is their accounts of educational experiences in the art classroom that inform the research This study will give students the opportunity to have a say about their education, and play some part in research that aims to inform, review and reform

2.4 Catering for artistically talented students

This review of the literature has established the arts and visual art as integral and important parts of the school curriculum Evidence suggests that engagement in meaningful arts education programs is beneficial to all students In addition to the value of the arts being included in the curriculum, the arts provide students with unique opportunities for learning and knowing that cannot be provided through any other means While the value of arts education is well documented, the arts still hold

a relatively precarious position within many schools, as measured by time and space accorded to them in timetables, reporting mechanisms, and awards

A review of the literature has also examined previous research into the nature of gifted and talented education and its relationship with the arts Through an investigation into terms, practices and identification procedures in the gifted and talented literature, it has been established that the current practices in gifted and talented education in many cases fail to recognise or cater for artistically talented students in programs for high achievers This is due in some respects to the bias towards linguistic and mathematical intelligences and the use of IQ tests to identify gifted and talented students

The research in the field of artistically talented students in this area is relatively scarce when compared with research about students who are talented in areas such as maths and English There are significant gaps and misconceptions in the literature about artistically talented students This chapter has argued that findings in the current literature are often inconsistent or contradictory There is an urgent need for

further research in this area to expand knowledge and disperse current contradictions and inconsistencies in the literature

Little is known about the processes for identification of artistically talented students There is also little research into artistically talented students’ and their teachers’ experiences in the regular visual art classroom More specifically, there is a paucity

of research about the processes used for identifying artistically talented students and the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in Australia This research undertaking explores the processes used for identifying artistically talented students and investigates the experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in regular visual art classrooms in Australia

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY

In order to address the gaps in the literature established in Chapter 2, there is a need

to design a study that captures artistically talented students’ and their teachers’ accounts of the visual art classroom

The broad aim of this research project is to examine the accounts of four artistically talented students and five of their teachers in one high school’s visual art classrooms More specifically, this study investigates procedures used to identify artistically talented students in visual art classrooms and explores experiences of artistically talented students and their teachers in visual art classrooms This study aims to provide new understandings about artistically talented students’ needs and visual art experiences This study will do this by generating the accounts of a group of students and teachers at one school and subjecting them to analysis The research questions that frame the study are:

classroom?

talented students in the visual art classroom?

visual art classroom?

artistically talented students in visual art?

3.1 Conceptual framework

This study explores the experiences of teachers and artistically talented students in the art classroom This study is couched within a constructivist epistemology In accordance with this overarching framework, there is an assumption in this study that knowledge is

…contingent upon human practices, being constructed in and

out of interaction between human beings and their world, and

developed and transmitted within an essentially social context

(Crotty, 1998, p 42)

The accounts that students and teachers provide of their experiences in the arts classroom are filtered through their historical, cultural and social contexts (see Figure 1)

This study also takes into account the understanding that learning is constructed through experience, drawing on the original work of John Dewey (1934) and later writers, such as Greene (1996) Dewey (1934) and Greene (1996) suggest that one role for education is to assist in the construction of knowledge Within this understanding of learning, the school curriculum can enable the construction of new knowledge through experiences in a range of subject areas In the same way, learning in the arts can facilitate the construction of new knowledge through arts experiences

This research design draws on an interpretivist approach to inquiry (Crotty, 1998), seeking student and teacher accounts of their experiences within a broad cultural, social and historical context Schwandt (2001) defines the interpretivist approach to

inquiry as ‘a method of the human sciences, that assume the meaning of human action is inherent in that action’ (p 134) As such, the task of the researcher in an interpretivist inquiry is to expose the meaning inherent in human actions (Schwandt, 2001) Using the interpretivist approach, it is understood that teachers and students

in this study may interpret the same knowledge in different ways according to the inherent cultural, historical or social context of their experiences

The interpretivist approach is reflected in theories of Vygotsky’s social constructivism, where knowledge and learning is seen to be constructed through the interaction between the learner and society (Vygotsky, 1978) Vygotsky’s perspective on education is based on a number of core beliefs Firstly, education plays a vital role in the development of students’ personality and creative potential Secondly, students should be actively involved in learning in order to learn effectively Thirdly, learning and teaching are most effective where there is a collaborative relationship between teachers and students; where teachers scaffold and direct learning without forcing their own will on students Fourthly, effective methods for teaching and learning cannot be uniform due to the individual nature of each student’s character and development Lastly, schools should provide the tools that enable students to participate in the cultural world around them (McInerney &

McInerney, 1998; Vygotsky, 1978)

Notions of intelligence also frame this inquiry In Chapter 2 (see 2.3.4), the literature shows that understandings of intelligence have been constructed in many ways Current researchers claim that visual intelligence and/or spatial intelligence are both quantitatively and qualitatively distinct and therefore can be measured and explored