A9 ASEAN GAP produce quality module

2.2 Quality loss during production2.3 Quality loss at harvest 2.4 Quality loss during postharvest handling 3.6 Harvesting and handling produce 3.7 Traceability and recall 3.8 Training 3.

Interpretive guide for ASEAN GAP

Good agricultural practices for production of fresh fruit and vegetables

in ASEAN countries

PRODUCE QUALITY MODULE

November 2006

Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables Project

ASEAN-Australia Development Cooperation Project

Copyright © ASEAN Secretariat 2006

All rights reserved Reproduction and dissemination of materials from this publication for educational or other non commercial purposes is authorised without any prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged Reproduction of materials in this publication for resale or other commercial purpos-

es is prohibited without written permission of the copyright holders

Disclaimer

The views expressed in this information product are not necessarily those of the ASEAN Secretariat nor does the ASEAN Secretariat vouch for the accuracy of the material No responsibility or liability will therefore be accepted by the ASEAN Secretariat in relation to any use or reliance on the material contained in this publication Reference to any other organisations does not constitute endorsement by the ASEAN Secretariat of those organisations or any associated product or service

2.2 Quality loss during production

2.3 Quality loss at harvest

2.4 Quality loss during postharvest handling

3.6 Harvesting and handling produce

3.7 Traceability and recall

3.8 Training

3.9 Documents and records

3.10 Review of practices

4 Self-assessment checklist – good agricultural practices 27

5 Example quality plan 32

6 Examples of documents and records 37 Appendices

Editors

• Mr Scott Ledger, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia

• Dr Robert Premier, Department of Primary Industries, Victoria, Australia

Working group

This publication was prepared by a working group involving representatives from all ASEAN member countries and the editors of this guide The representatives from the ASEAN countries were:

• Mr Jamalludin Haji Mohd Yusoff, Department of Agriculture, Brunei Darussalam

• Ms Hajjah Aidah binti Hj Hanifah, Department of Agriculture, Brunei Darussalam

• Mr Ly Sereivuth, Dept of Agronomy & Agricultural Land Improvement, Cambodia

• Mr Mean Chetna, Dept of Agronomy & Agricultural Land Improvement, Cambodia

• Ms Dwi Iswari, Directorate of Fruit Crops, Indonesia

• Ms Susiami, Directorate of Fruit, Indonesia

• Mrs Khamphoui Louanglath, Department of Agriculture, Lao PDR

• Mr Kham Sanatem, Department of Agriculture, Lao PDR

• Mr Mohd Khairuddin Mohd Tahir, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia

• Ms Norma Othman, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia

• Mr Mohd Hussin Yunnus, Department of Agriculture, Malaysia

• Mr U Kyaw Win, Myanma Agricultural Service, Myanmar

• Mr Ko Ko, Myanma Agricultural Service, Myanmar

• Mr Gilberto F Layese, Department of Agriculture, Philippines

• Ms Mary Grace Rivere Mandigma, Department of Agriculture, Philippines

• Dr Paul Chiew King Tiong, Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore

• Ms Khoo Gek Hoon, Agri-Food & Veterinary Authority of Singapore

• Dr Supranee Impithuksa, Department of Agriculture, Thailand

• Dr Surmsuk Salakpetch, Department of Agriculture, Thailand

• Mrs Psyanoot Naka, Department of Agriculture, Thailand

• Dr Nguyen Munh Chau, Southern Fruit Research Institute, Viet Nam

• Ms Nguyen Thu Hang, Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development, Viet Nam

Project funding

The development of ASEAN GAP is an activity within the project, Quality Assurance Systems for ASEAN Fruit and Vegetables (QASAFV) The QASAFV project is an initiative under the ASEAN Australia Development Cooperation Program (AADCP)

The AADCP is funded by Australia’s overseas aid agency, AusAID, and Cardno ACIL Pty Ltd is AusAID’s

Australian managing contractor for the program

The QASAFV project is managed by RMIT International Pty Ltd in association with the Department of Primary Industries, Victoria and the Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland The project contact per-son is:

Mr Mick Bell

Project Coordinator – Business Development Division

RMIT International Pty Ltd

Level 5, 225 Bourke Street

Melbourne Victoria 3000 Australia

Tel +61 3 9925 5139 Fax +61 3 9925 5153

mick.bell@rmit.edu.au

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose and scope of guide

ASEAN GAP is a standard for good agricultural practices to control hazards during the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh fruit and vegetables in the ASEAN member countries ASEAN GAP is divided into four modules – 1 Food safety, 2 Environmental management, 3 Worker health, safety and welfare and 4 Produce quality

ASEAN GAP has been developed to enhance the harmonisation of GAP programs amongst the ASEAN member countries It covers the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh fruit and vegetables on farm and postharvest handling in locations where produce is packed for sale

This interpretive guide was designed to assist producers, packers, supply chain businesses, trainers, government representatives and others to understand the practices required for implementing the Produce Quality Module of ASEAN GAP It provides guidance on “what has to be done” to implement the required practices Separate inter-pretive guides are available for the other ASEAN GAP modules

1.2 Guide sections

The guide contains background information on types of quality hazards and causes of quality loss, guidance on implementing the GAP requirements, a self-assessment checklist to review compliance with the requirements, examples of documents and records, a glossary of terms and references and additional information

Section 2 Hazards and causes of quality loss

This section provides information about the potential quality hazards and causes of quality loss A quality hazard

is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government lation Produce quality can be lost at any step during production, harvesting and postharvest handling

regu-Section 3 GAP requirements

The good agricultural practices for controlling quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements Each element has background information to explain how quality can be lost Specific information is then provided for each practice

to explain what is required to implement the practice In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together

as the guidance information is the same for both practices

Section 4 Self-assessment checklist

The self-assessment checklist enables the level of compliance with the good agricultural practices contained in the food safety module to be checked The relevance of the practices will depend on the location of the farm or packing business, type of produce, and the systems used for production, harvesting, handling, packing, storage and transport The person assesses whether the practice is done correctly or if attention is needed or if the prac-tice is not relevant If attention is needed, the actions required are identified and recorded

Section 5 Example quality plan

This section contains an example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of goes For each process step, the quality plan describes the quality hazards that may occur, the causes of quality hazards and the good agricultural practices required to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazards occur-ring

man-Section 6 Examples of documents and records

The section contains examples of documents and record forms that are required to implement various practices in the produce quality module The documents and record forms are examples only and other methods and formats can be used ASEAN GAP specifies the information that has to be documented and the records to keep, but does not specify how to document information and keep records

Appendix 1 Glossary of terms

This appendix contains definitions for the abbreviations and terms used in the guide

Appendix 2 References and additional information

This appendix contains references and additional information on control of quality hazards for fresh produce It includes lists of training programs, GAP guidelines, publications, GAP systems and organisations

2 Hazards and causes of quality loss 2.1 Quality hazards

A quality hazard is any characteristic that prevents the produce from meeting the requirements of a customer or government regulation For example the produce quality may not meet the requirement of a customer for size, colour, maturity, external appearance, flavour, or shelf life The produce may also not meet the quarantine regula-tions of an importing country because of the presence of a pest or disease or it may be incorrectly labelled.There are three types of quality characteristics – external appearance, internal quality, and hidden quality

External appearance includes those characteristics that can be seen by the eye Examples are colour, size,

shape, disease, insects, blemishes, and packaging

Internal quality includes those characteristics that can’t be seen from the outside and the produce needs to be

cut or eaten to identify the quality Examples are colour, firmness, texture, flavour, aroma, disease and insects

Hidden quality includes those characteristics that can’t be seen, smelt or tasted Examples are shelf life,

nutri-tional value and genetic modification

There are some basic quality characteristics that customers expect when purchasing fresh produce Examples are:

• Free of major injury, spoilage or blemish likely to affect keeping quality

• Not overripe, excessively soft or wilted

• Free of excessive dirt, unacceptable chemical residues and other foreign matter

• Free of foreign odours and taste

• Free of quarantine pests

Produce quality can be lost at any step during the production, harvesting and postharvest handling of fresh produce

Grading for quality

Not only is the quality of individual pieces important, but the overall quality of the combined saleable unit is also important The buyer will have expectations for the quality of the saleable unit – for example, bundles of leafy veg-etables, a basket, crate or carton of fruit

Many customers require the produce to be uniform in quality within the package This may be uniform colour, size, weight, shape, or some other characteristic To achieve uniformity, the produce is graded for quality either at harvest, packing or during a repacking stage

Grading is usually done by humans, either pickers or packers, although machinery or measurement devices are increasingly being used Accuracy of humans is typically lower than with machinery, but can be improved with suitable training

Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed For example, for a pro-duce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams

Figure 1 Grading tomatoes by colour to satisfy the requirements of different buyers

2.2 Quality loss during production

The inherent quality of produce is determined by the production practices Once produce has been harvested, produce quality can not be improved Production practices affect all types of quality characteristics

External characteristics such as colour, size, and shape are affected by practices that impact on plant growth and crop load such as water and nutrition management, pruning and thinning External appearance can be reduced by disease infection, pest damage and mechanical injury such as wind rub

The internal appearance, eating quality, shelf life and nutritional value of produce is reduced by water stress, equate plant nutrition and excessive crop loads GAP during production is aimed at increasing the inherent quality

inad-of produce at the time inad-of harvest

2.3 Quality loss at harvest

The maturity of produce not only affects the quality at harvest but also the self life of the produce Maturity refers

to the stage of development in the process of growing of the fruit or vegetable Maturation continues until the start

of senescence, leading to the death of the produce

Determining when produce is mature and ready for harvest can be a difficult decision For some crops, maturity indices have been developed to assist in the decision process For other crops, harvesting at the correct time can

be highly subjective

The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death If this produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer If this produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced

Fruit crops undergo a ripening process as part of maturation Ripening involves changes in fruit characteristics that lead to increasing eating acceptability Examples of these changes are softening, decrease in acids and tannins, increase in sugars, development of aroma and changes to skin colour For some fruit such as mango, banana and tomato, these changes continue after the produce is harvested

If fruit is harvested when they are not mature, they may lack the required flavour or texture for the consumer If fruit is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reaches the consumer

Examples of the different types of produce are:

• Stems and leaves – asparagus, celery, lettuce, cabbage

• Flowers – artichoke, broccoli, cauliflower

• Partially developed fruit – cucumber, green bean, okra, sweet corn

• Fully developed fruit – apple, pear, citrus, tomato

• Roots and tubers – carrot, onion, potato

The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market

2.4 Quality loss during postharvest handling

There are many causes of quality loss after harvest Quality loss can be due to the normal biological processes, which can be slowed but not stopped, and can be the result of poor handling practices

Major causes of quality loss after harvest are

• Acceleration of senescence (aging)

• Water loss

• Mechanical injuries

• Physiological disorders

• Disease infection

• Growth and development

Acceleration of senescence (aging)

All fruits and vegetables are alive and the biological processes continue to be active after harvest Senescence is the process of aging leading to death, and it commences immediately at harvest The rate of senescence has to

be managed to minimise loss of quality Common symptoms of senescence are excessive softening, tissue down, loss of colour, loss of flavour, off-flavours, and tissue discolouration

break-Fruit and vegetables continue to use oxygen and produce carbon dioxide after harvest This process is called piration During respiration, heat is also produced

res-There are two different types of respiration processes – climacteric and non-climacteric With climacteric tion, the produce undergoes a burst of respiration that coincides with the initiation of ripening in fruit After reach-ing a peak, respiration falls again Examples are ripening fruit such as mango, banana, papaya and tomato.With non-climacteric respiration, there is no burst or rapid rise in respiration Examples of non-climacteric produce are vegetables and fruits such as carambola, citrus, and pineapple

Produce varies greatly in the rate of respiration rate The rate of deterioration of produce is related to the tion rate The following table shows four categories of respiration and examples of produce for each category Generally, mature plant parts have low respiration and actively growing plant parts have high respiration

respira-Broccoli, asparagus, sweet corn, mushroom

Very high

The respiration rate is temperature dependent – the higher the temperature, the higher the respiration rate Control of temperature is crucial to minimising loss of quality through senescence

Temperature control starts with rapid cooling after harvest to remove field heat Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing

Figure 2 Effect of temperature on quality of Chinese mustard after 4 days storage

Water loss

All plants undergo water loss through a process called transpiration This process continues after harvest

Produce varies greatly in transpiration rate Generally produce with large surface areas have high transpiration rates and produce with protective skins have low transpiration rates

Symptoms of water loss include shrinking, wilting, shrivelling, softening and loss of crispness and juiciness The level of water loss where symptoms become visible varies between products Some leafy products show symp-toms at about 2% water loss while some fruit do not show symptoms below 6% water loss

The rate of water loss rate is temperature dependent – the higher the temperature, the higher the water loss Air movement across the produce surface can also accelerate water loss For produce with high transpiration rates, protecting produce during storage or transport from excessive air movement is important

Water loss can be reduced by holding the product at reduced temperature and in an environment with high ture content (for example in a plastic bag) Application of a surface coating such as wax can also reduce water loss but is suitable mainly for low respiration products because the coating can impede oxygen and carbon diox-ide movement

mois-Mechanical injuries

Mechanical injuries can occur at any stage of harvesting, grading, packing and transport Injury symptoms can appear externally or internally They may be visible almost as soon as they occur, or they may only become vis-ible at some later time

Mechanical injuries not only cause a loss of appearance, they can also increase water loss, stimulate increased respiration or ethylene production, and allow entry of disease organisms

The major types of injuries are

• Bruising

• Abrasion

• Wounds (cuts and punctures)

• Cracking and splitting

When soft produce are bruised, external symptoms are usually easy to recognise, such as flat spots or shape tortions On produce with firm or hard external surfaces, bruising is frequently not visible The hard surface may

dis-Source: Dr T O’Hare, Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland, Australia

distort and return to normal shape after impact, leaving damaged areas inside that only become visible to the sumer The areas of damage usually appear as translucent or discoloured areas.

con-Bruising can be caused by impact or pressure damage Impact damage can occur from dropping of individual produce or packages or hard knocks on equipment and during transport Pressure damage can occur in product stacked too high or packed in a container unable to support the required weight

Abrasion (rubbing) of surface tissue leads to rupture of cells Loss of water and cell death occurs, leaving dry black or brown areas on the surface Some of this injury may be visible immediately, but frequently takes several days to become visible Symptoms can be severe for fruit which undergo ripening such as banana Common causes of abrasion injury are rubbing of produce against dirty or rough surfaces of containers and equipment and rubbing of loosely packed produce during transport

Heavy impacts to rigid or hard produce can cause cracking or splitting This can occur when a single produce is dropped on to a hard surface, a container of produce is dropped or loose produce bounce against each other during transport

Figure 3 The major types of injuries are bruising, abrasion, cracking and splitting and wounds

• Carbon dioxide damage

• Low oxygen (anaerobic) injury

Heat injury When produce is exposed to high temperatures, some of the quality characteristics are adversely

affected The effect of high temperature is produce specific but generally occurs above 30°C

Cracking and splitting Wounds

Sources of heat can be the sun shining onto packed produce, or onto the side of a transport vehicle Excess heat build-up can also occur in stacks of produce with high respiration rate The heat of respiration causes the produce

to self-heat, particularly if it has not been adequately cooled

Colour changes can be affected, such as inhibition of green colour loss In extreme cases brown areas can appear on the skin Other symptoms include

• Excessive softness

• Off flavours

• Yellowing of leaves

• Wilting

Chilling injury Produce exposed to excessively low temperatures can suffer chilling injury Common symptoms

are surface pitting, discoloured skin areas, darkening of flesh or water soaked areas of flesh Chilling injury can occur during cooling, storage and refrigerated transport

Produce varies greatly in sensitivity to low temperatures For example, climacteric tropical and sub-tropical fruit are affected by temperatures below 12°C while pineapple has been shown to suffer chilling injury at 20°C

Figure 4 Bananas (grey skin) can suffer chilling injury below 12°C and pineapples (flesh browning and blackening) below 20°C

Ethylene damage Ethylene is a hormone that is involved in plant growth, development, ripening and

senes-cence Climacteric fruit experience an increase in ethylene production rate that coincides with ripening These fruit release ethylene during ripening Non-climacteric produce generally have a low ethylene production rate

Ethylene in the air around produce can have both a positive and negative effect The positive effect is the use

of ethylene to control the ripening of climacteric fruit such as banana and tomato However if unwanted ethylene builds up in the air around sensitive produce, it can induce or increase the rate of ripening and water loss and cause injuries

Symptoms of ethylene damage include surface pitting, increased disease incidence, yellowing, and increased softening Ethylene damage is typically caused by the mixing of ethylene producing and ethylene sensitive pro-duce during storage and transport

Carbon dioxide damage Carbon dioxide produced by respiration can build up in situations where ventilation

is inadequate For example, plastic bags can be used to create a modified atmosphere to extend the life of the product Carbon dioxide can build up and be difficult to manage, particularly when temperature control is below optimum

Some leafy products such as lettuce and chinese cabbage are sensitive to 2% carbon dioxide, suffering brown spots or brown vascular tissue Carbon dioxide injury in fruit usually appears as skin discolouration and internal discolouration and possibly with water-soaked appearance

Low oxygen injury Produce, particularly fruit, held at atmospheres below 2% oxygen can suffer injury Normal

respiration fails and the product undergoes anaerobic respiration This can occur when controlled or modified atmosphere storage and transport is incorrectly managed The most common symptom is the formation of

off-flavours

Disease infection

Infection by disease organisms, mostly bacteria and fungi, is a major cause of quality loss in many fruit and etables Infection can occur in the field during growth, or during postharvest handling Spoilage organisms can be spread in wash water, particularly when the water is not is not changed frequently

veg-The susceptibility of produce varies considerably and is affected by several factors One important factor is mechanical injury, where bruises, abrasions, cracks and cuts allow the organism to enter the produce

Subjecting produce to stress such as excessively high or low temperatures, high or low humidity or unsuitable atmospheres can allow infection to occur or can increase disease development Disease develops quickly in produce in an advanced stage of senescence

Figure 5 Mechanical injury increases the susceptibility of produce to disease infection Bruises, abrasions, cracks and wounds allow disease organisms to enter the produce

Disease symptoms may range from small surface lesions that degrade appearance to severe infections with external and internal breakdown of a substantial part of the produce Symptoms of moderate severity commonly appear as areas of excessive softness, off-colour or off-flavour

Growth and development

Some types of produce continue growing after harvest This can detract from the appearance of the produce and also cause quality deterioration internally as the produce uses its reserves to support the growth

Sprouting of potatoes, shooting of onions, and elongating and changing shape of asparagus are examples of tinued growth after harvest Formation of fibres can also occur in some produce

con-3 GAP requirements

The good agricultural practices for controlling produce quality hazards are grouped into 10 elements For the first element, “Quality plan”, the method for developing a quality plan is described For the other elements, potential causes for quality loss are described and specific information is then provided for each practice to explain what is required to implement the practice In some cases, two or more practices are grouped together as the guidance information is the same for both practices

3.1 Quality plan

The good agricultural practices required to control produce quality hazards vary with the type of produce and how

it is grown, harvested, handled, packed and transported Each farmer or employer must identify the practices that are critical to managing quality and document them in a quality plan

A quality plan contains the following information:

Process steps What steps are involved in growing, harvesting and postharvest handling?

Quality hazards What quality loss can happen if something goes wrong during the process?Causes of quality loss What can go wrong during the process to cause the quality loss?

Good agricultural practices What control measures, monitoring activities and record keeping are needed to prevent or minimise the risk of the quality hazard occurring?

An example of a quality plan for production, harvesting and postharvest handling of mangoes is described in section 5

3.2 Planting material

It is important that the crop variety selected to be grown is acceptable to the customers who purchase the

produce There are often many varieties available from which to select The best way to identify the preferred varieties is to read industry publications and talk to customers such as traders, wholesalers and retailers

The health of the planting material will directly affect the growth of the crop, which impacts on the quality of the produce Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life

To ensure that the planting material is healthy when obtained from another farm or nursery, the farmer should request the supplier to provide a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality

3.3 Fertilisers and soil additives

Fertilisers are used to provide nutrients for plant growth and soil additives are used to improve soil structure Some examples of soil additives are gypsum, animal and plant manures, sawdust and coconut pulp Adequate nutrition

is essential to ensure healthy plant growth Unhealthy plants are more susceptible to pest and disease attack and disorders such as misshapen produce, and produce is typically smaller in size and has reduced shelf life

Excessive fertiliser use can cause excessive plant growth, which can lead to quality loss such as poor colour, deformities, internal disorders and reduced shelf life

Practice 1 Practices that are critical to managing produce quality during production, harvesting and harvest handling are identified in a quality plan for the crop grown.

post-Practice 2 Crop varieties are selected to satisfy market requirements.

Practice 3 If planting material is obtained from another farm or nursery, either a recognised plant health certificate or a guarantee that the material is good quality is provided by the supplier.

Nutrient requirements vary depending on the type of produce grown, the production method, the soil type and characteristics, and the previous application of fertilisers and soil additives Nutrient application must be based on the nutritional requirements of the crop and recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing.

Recommendations for fertiliser application are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as exten-sion officers, consultants and resellers Before using an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence Examples of proof are qualifications from an education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate

Advisers can also provide advice on soil and plant testing Soil testing is done to check the availability of nutrients

in the soil while leaf or sap testing is done to check the level of nutrients in the plant

Faulty operation of equipment may lead to insufficient or excessive application of fertilisers and soil additives Equipment must be checked by a technically competent person at least annually to ensure that application rates are within the acceptable range A technically competent person can be the farmer or a worker who is skilled in operating the equipment or an adviser such as a representative from the equipment supplier

Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of ease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources Compost areas and facilities need to be constructed with barriers, drainage systems, and covers to prevent contamination of produce from plant diseases

dis-Figure 6 Rainfall runoff from compost made from plant materials, particularly old crop residues, may be a source of disease if the compost heap is located close to production sites and water sources

Practice 4 Nutrient application is based on recommendations from a competent authority or on soil or leaf or sap testing and the nutritional requirements for the crop grown.

Practice 5 Equipment used to apply fertilisers and soil additives is maintained in working condition and checked for effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person.

Practice 6 Areas and facilities for composting of organic materials are located, constructed and

maintained to prevent contamination of crops by diseases.

Practice 7 The application of fertilisers and soil additives is recorded, detailing the name of the product

or material, date, treatment location, application rate and method, and operator name.

A record of fertilisers and soil additives applied must be kept to help guide the nutrient application for the crop grown and for future crops The history of fertiliser application on the site is an important factor when determining the nutritional requirements of a crop If problems occur with produce quality, the fertiliser and soil additive record may help determine if poor nutrition is the cause of the problem.

The record of the application of fertilisers and soil additives can be recorded in a log book or on a record form An example of a record form is contained in Section 6 Examples of documents and records

The need for irrigation varies with each type of produce grown and the location and production method

The important factors to consider are crop water requirements, water availability and soil moisture levels

Recommendations for irrigation use are typically available in industry publications produced by competent

authorities such as the Department of Agriculture

Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers Before using

an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence Examples of proof are qualifications from an

education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate

Water for irrigation may be available from a range of sources – for example, farm dams, underground bores, ers and watercourses, irrigation schemes A range of irrigation systems are available and selection depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances Irrigation systems vary from low volume, efficient systems such as trickle irrigation to high volume systems such

riv-as spray and flood irrigation

Soil moisture levels can be measured by a simple method such as digging a hole in the soil or by using

equipment such as tensiometers and soil moisture probes

Figure 7 Selection of irrigation systems depends on how much water is available, the type of produce grown, production system, availability of labour and finances

A record of irrigation use helps plan the application of water for crop growth If problems occur with produce ity, the irrigation record may also help determine if water stress or excessive irrigation is the cause of the problem The record should detail the crop, date of irrigation and location of the production site and either the volume of

qual-Practice 8 Irrigation use is based on crop water requirements, water availability, and soil moisture levels.

Practice 9 A record of irrigation use is kept, detailing the crop, date, location, and volume of water applied or duration of irrigation.

Spray irrigation Trickle irrigation

water applied or the duration of irrigation Some irrigation systems are automated and work on a set time ule In this case the duration and volume of irrigation is set so only the crop, date of irrigation and location has to

sched-be recorded A record of rainfall should also sched-be kept

The record of irrigation use can be recorded in a log book or on a record form An example of a record form is contained in Section 6 Examples of documents and records

3.5 Chemicals

Agrochemicals

Chemicals are used during the production of fresh produce for control of pests (insects, disease, weeds), tion of growth and thinning of crops, and after harvest for treating produce for disease and insect control, applying surface coatings to reduce moisture loss or improve appearance, and for sanitising water and equipment surfac-

regula-es To ensure that chemicals are used effectively to prevent or minimise quality loss, chemicals must be approved for use on the type of produce grown and must be applied according to label or permit instructions

Integrated pest management systems are recommended where possible to reduce the risk of chemical resistance and excessive residues and the impact of chemicals on the environment

Incorrect selection, mixing, and application of chemicals can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce Training is important to ensure that employ-ers and workers have the appropriate level of knowledge and skills, which varies with area of responsibility For example, the person who has overall responsibility for chemical use must have knowledge about all aspects and

be able to train workers A worker who applies the chemical must have knowledge and skills on preparing the spray mix and the operation of equipment

Evidence is required to show that people have been trained to the appropriate level This may vary from a cate from a formal training course to a note in a log book The information to record is the person’s name, date of training and topics covered

certifi-Figure 8 Employers and workers must be trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical use

The crop protection measures required vary with the type of produce grown, the production system, pest pressure and environmental conditions Recommendations for crop protection are typically available in industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture

Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers, consultants and resellers Before using

an adviser, request them to show proof of their competence Examples of proof are qualifications from an

education institution, statement of knowledge and experience from a competent authority, and a training course certificate

Practice 10 Employers and workers have been trained to a level appropriate to their area of responsibility for chemical application.

Practice 11 Crop protection measures are appropriate for the control of pests.

Source: Mr S Menon, QA Plus Asia-Pacific Sdn Bhd., Malaysia

Practice 12 Integrated pest management systems are used where possible.

An integrated pest management (IPM) system integrates multiple strategies for managing pests to minimise the use of synthetic pesticides The strategies include encouraging beneficial insects and microorganisms to flourish, good crop hygiene and plant health, regular monitoring of crops for pests, using biological control agents, and selective use of synthetic pesticides

Evidence is required to show that an IPM system is used Examples of evidence are records of crop protection practices such as pest monitoring results, use of biological control agents, and spray application

Chemicals obtained from unlicensed suppliers may be incorrectly identified or not true to the label contents or may contain impurities This can lead to inadequate pest control, spray burn, residues exceeding the MRL or visible chemical residues on the produce

The use of approved chemicals is not only important for food safety but also to ensure that the chemicals are effective for the purpose and produce quality is maximised Most countries have authorities responsible for regis-tering the use of chemicals on farms Approval to use the chemical may be listed on the label or a permit may be issued for its use

Chemicals are typically approved for a particular purpose for specified crops The approved use and MRL must be confirmed for not only for the country where the produce is grown but also for where the produce is intended to

be traded It is possible that a chemical may be approved with a particular MRL in the country where the produce

is grown but is banned or has a different MRL where the produce is to be traded Biopesticides, which are made from biological sources, must also be approved for use on the produce grown

Documented lists of approved chemicals and MRLs can be obtained from publications or downloaded from sites or direct contact with the appropriate authorities The Codex Alimentarius Commission (www.codexalimen-tarius.net) provides standards for MRLs that many countries have adopted

web-To ensure that chemicals are effective for the purpose, chemicals must be applied according to the label or permit directions Ineffective use can occur if mixing is incorrect or the application rate is too low or high Labels that are written in a foreign language must be translated accurately to ensure that mixing and application rates are correct

Practice 14 Chemicals used on crops are approved by a competent authority in the country where the crop is grown and intended to be traded, and documentation is available to confirm approval Practice 13 Chemicals are only obtained from licensed suppliers.

Practice 15 Chemicals are applied according to label directions or a permit issued by a competent

Continuous use of the same chemical may lead to pest resistance and loss of quality through pest damage A chemical rotation strategy and the use of integrated pest management strategies reduce the risk of pest resis-tance to chemicals.

Faulty equipment may lead to incorrect application rates, either too low or too high During each use, the

equipment should be checked for leaks and faulty nozzles At least annually, the equipment should be calibrated

to check that the volume of spray delivered is correct The calibration must be done by a technically competent person This can be the farm owner, a farm worker, an advisor, or an equipment representative as long as they have been appropriately trained

A record of the calibration should be kept The information to record includes the name of person who did thecalibration and the date and results of the calibration The information can be recorded in a log book or on a record form

A record of chemicals applied must be kept to show that chemicals have been applied correctly and for ity in the event of unacceptable quality loss occurring due to pest damage The records enable possible causes of pest damage to be investigated

traceabil-The information required can be recorded separately or together in a log book or on a record form Examples of records for applying chemicals are contained in Section 6 Examples of documents and records

3.6 Harvesting and handling produce

Quality can be lost during the harvesting operation, during handling and packing of produce and during storage and transport of produce to the customer Good agricultural practices are aimed at preventing or minimising qual-ity loss through optimising maturity at harvest, handling produce carefully, grading produce to customer require-ments, and effective control of temperature and moisture loss

The optimum maturity for harvest is when the plant has completed sufficient growth and development to ensure that produce quality and shelf is acceptable to the consumer Most produce start to senescence once harvested, eventually leading to death If produce is harvested too mature, senescence may occur before the produce reach-

es the consumer If produce is harvested immature, quality characteristics such as colour, size, shape, flavour and texture will be reduced

The methods for measuring maturity must be simple, as it may need to be assessed in different places such as in the field or packing shed or in the market The best methods are those that are objective rather than subjective The following examples of maturity indices can be used separately or in combination depending on the fruit or vegetable

Practice 19 An appropriate maturity index is used to determine when to harvest produce.

Practice 18 The application of chemicals is recorded for each crop, detailing the chemical used, reason for application, treatment location, date, rate and method of application, weather conditions, and operator name.

Practice 17 Equipment used to apply chemicals is maintained in working condition and checked for

effective operation at least annually by a technically competent person.

• Days from flowering

• Mean heat units – calculated from weather data

• Development of abscission layer – visual or force of separation

• Surface structure – visual appearance

• Size – length or diameter

• Specific gravity – floatation techniques

• Shape – dimensions, ratio charts

• Solidity – feel, bulk density, x-rays, near infrared (NIR)

• Textural properties – firmness, tenderness, toughness

• Colour – external, internal – use of colour charts

• Internal structure – visual, NIR

• Compositional factors such as content of sugar, starch, acid, juice and oil

Figure 10 Some maturity indices are non-destructive such as skin colour of lychee while others are

destructive such as measuring the sugar content of melons with a refractometer

Mechanical injuries during harvesting can be caused by unsuitable harvesting methods and rough handling by workers To prevent mechanical injury, the harvest technique must be appropriate for the produce and workers trained in correct methods Dirty equipment and tools can be a source of disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required

The harvesting technique will vary depending on the type of produce, the availability and cost of workers, and the size of farm The method can be simple such as hand picking into baskets or more complex such as using har-vesting aids with conveyors for transferring produce into bulk containers

Rough handling can occur when the produce is removed from the plant and placed into a container Some duce is removed by hand while others are removed by cutting with a knife or secateurs Dropping produce from excessive heights into the harvest container will caused impact damage The softer the produce, the more sus-ceptible it is to impact damage

pro-Practice 20 An appropriate technique is used for harvesting of produce.

Practice 21 Equipment and tools are suitable for harvesting and are checked for cleanliness before use and cleaned as required.

Practice 22 Containers are suitable for harvesting of produce and are not overfilled.

Practice 23 Liners are used to protect produce if containers have rough surfaces.

Practice 24 Containers are covered to reduce moisture loss and exposure to the sun.

Visual appearance Destructive test

The type of harvest containers and the packing method can be a source of quality loss Sharp and rough surfaces

on the inside of the container can cause wounds and rub damage Overfilling the container with produce packed too high can cause pressure damage Dirty containers can cause rub damage and disease infection Produce that

is susceptible to moisture loss, such as leafy vegetables, can lose moisture quickly if left exposed in the container.Liners can be used to protect produce if the containers have rough surfaces Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper, and straw The liner must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoil-age organism Moisture and exposure to the sun can be reduced by covering containers with materials such as banana leaves, paper, hessian bags, and plastic Containers should be checked before use for soundness and cleanliness and cleaned or discarded as required

Figure 11 Liners will protect produce if harvesting containers have rough surfaces

The process of senescence, aging leading to death, commences immediately at harvest The higher the ture and the longer the produce is held at high temperatures, the faster the rate of senescence To minimise the effect of high temperature, particularly for produce that deteriorates quickly, harvest during the coolest time of the day, cover harvest containers, remove produce from the field as quickly as possible and place harvested produce

tempera-in the shade if there are long delays before removtempera-ing from the field

If produce is harvested in the rain, it may remain wet for a long period and provide a favourable environment for disease development Disease will develop quickly if produce such as leafy vegetables remain wet at high

temperature Harvesting during rain is best avoided

Figure 12 Removed produce from the field as quickly as possible or place in the shade if there are long delays before removing from the field

Practice 26 Produce is harvested in the coolest time of the day and harvesting in the rain is avoided if possible.

Practice 27 Produce is removed from the field as quickly as possible.

Practice 28 Harvested produce is placed in the shade if long delays occur before transport.

Practice 25 Containers are checked for soundness and cleanliness before use and cleaned or discarded

as required.

Source: Dr Vong Nguyen, Department of Primary Industries, NSW Australia

Mechanical injury can occur if containers are stacked on top of each other and the container is not designed to support the weight above Examples are using open top baskets, boxes and crates The container must have sufficient stacking strength and either have a lid or stacking device to allow the container above to placed on top without causing pressure damage Shelves or raised floors can be used in the transport vehicle to allow multiple layers of open top containers to be stacked.

Containers must be secured during transport to prevent rub damage from excessive vibration or impact damage from containers bouncing or falling over Different methods of securing the containers can be used such as ropes, straps or canvas covers

Figure 13 Shelves can be used in the transport vehicle to allow prevent pressure damage when stacking multiple layers of open top containers

Handling and packing produce

Produce may be prepared for marketing either in the field or in a separate packing area or shed Quality loss ing handling and packing can be caused by:

• Growth and development

Excessive drops and impacts can occur when produce is removed from harvest containers and placed onto benches or tables for packing or onto grading and packing equipment They can also occur at points along the grading and packing equipment and at the end when produce drops into packing bins or packages Appropriate equipment design and training of workers are needed to minimise physical injury

Dirty equipment, containers and packaging materials can cause rub damage and disease infection and should be checked before use and cleaned as required

Practice 29 Packed containers are not stacked on top of each other unless they are designed to support the container and minimise mechanical damage.

Practice 30 Containers are secured during transport to minimise mechanical damage.

Practice 31 Equipment is constructed to minimise excessive drops and impacts.

Practice 32 Equipment, containers and materials that contact produce are regularly cleaned and maintained

to minimise mechanical damage.

Pests such as rats, mice, birds and cockroaches can chew and eat produce while produce is being held in dling, packing and storage areas The presence of pests can be minimised with physical barriers or chemical treatments Examples of control measures are:

han-• Use baits and traps to control rodents

• Use blinds or fixtures over openings in walls (doors and windows) to prevent entry of birds

• Regularly dispose of waste from areas where produce is packed, handled and stored

• Store containers and materials off the ground or floor and keep them dry, ventilated and covered

Some produce can be treated after harvest to minimise disease development The treatment can be a chemical treatment such as dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature

Figure 14 Disease development can be reduce by dipping or spraying with a fungicide or a physical

treatment such has hot water or storage at a low temperature

Water used after harvest for handling, washing and produce treatment can be a source of spoilage organisms The water must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating system is used where water runs to waste

Figure 15 To avoid a build of spoilage organisms, water used to wash produce must be either changed frequently or treated with a sanitiser or a non-recirculating spray system is used where water runs to waste

There are a number of chemical and non-chemical sanitising methods that can be used to treat water for spoilage

Practice 33 Measures are taken to prevent the presence of pests in and around handling, packing and storage areas.

Practice 34 Where required, produce is treated to minimise disease development and loss of quality.

Practice 35 Water used after harvest for handling, washing, and produce treatment is treated or changed regularly to minimise contamination from spoilage organism.

organisms Chemical sanitisers must be approved for use by a competent authority Technical advice should be sought to ensure that the best option is used Common options are:

Once produce is harvested, it should not be placed in direct contact, particularly the cut surfaces, with the ground

or the floor of handling, packing and storage areas Soil and dirty floors can be a source of spoilage organisms The cut surfaces of produce can provide entry points and nutrients for growth of spoilage organisms

Materials such as paper, plastic and timber can be placed on the ground or floor to prevent contact of harvested produce with dirt and other matter The materials should be clean to prevent them being a source of

Achieving perfect uniformity is rarely possible so some level of variability has to be allowed Decisions have to be made about what range of attribute between the lower limit and upper limit will be allowed For example, for a produce weight requirement of 250 grams with an allowance of 10%, the weight range would be 225 to 275 grams

Practice 36 Produce is packed and stored in covered areas.

Practice 37 Produce is not placed in direct contact with soil or the floor of handling, packing or storage areas.

Practice 38 Produce is graded and packed according to customer or market requirements.

Figure 17 Grading citrus for size The sizing rings increase in diameter along the machine and fruit from small to large drop through into different bins for packing.

Rough surfaces on the inside of the container must be covered with protective materials to prevent wounds and rub damage Examples of protective materials are banana leaves, paper, straw and bubble plastic The material must be clean to ensure it is not a source of food safety hazards and spoilage organism

If produce susceptible to moisture loss is packed in open top containers or in containers with excessive ventilation

in the sides, liners may be required to reduce moisture loss Examples of liners are banana leaves, paper and plastic film and bags

Figure 18 Lettuce in this open package is susceptible to both mechanical damage and moisture loss

The rate of senescence, moisture loss and disease development is dependent on temperature The higher the temperature of the produce, the higher is the rate of deterioration Removing field heat from the produce mini-mises quality deterioration

Practice 39 Protective materials are used where required to protect produce from rough surfaces of

containers and excessive moisture loss.

Practice 40 Field heat is removed using appropriate cooling methods.

The need to cool produce depends on the type of produce and the time from harvest to consumption For ple, produce that is sold at a local market within 1 day of harvest or produce with a low rate of senescence and moisture loss usually do not require cooling Produce with moderate to high rates of deterioration that are trans-ported long distances or held for long periods should be cooled to reduce quality loss Common methods used to cool produce include cooling with air, water, and package icing.

exam-Two methods are used for air cooling – room cooling or forced air cooling Room cooling is where cool air is swept passed stacks of produce or packed containers Space is required around containers for airflow and cool-ing is typically slow and uneven Forced air cooling is where cool air is pulled through packed containers The containers must be vented to allow air flow past each piece of produce Cooling is fast and uniform

Cooling with water is called hydrocooling Produce is immersed in or showered with cold water The produce and containers must be able to tolerate water Cooling is very fast and even

Top icing is where ice is placed on top of produce or an ice slurry is injected in the the container Produce must be able to tolerate ice Cooling is slow if ice is just placed on top of the container

Figure 19 Field heat can be removed from produce by cooling with air, water or ice

Storage and transport

Packed produce may be transported directly to the customer, the next business in the supply chain, or held for a duration before transport Quality loss during storage and transport can be caused by:

• Acceleration of senescence, water loss, disease infection

• Mechanical injuries

• Physiological disorders

If produce is held for long periods before or during transport, it should be held at the lowest temperature able to the produce Holding produce at high temperature will accelerate senescence, moisture loss and disease development The recommended temperature for storing and transporting produce varies with the type of pro-duce Most leafy vegetables can be held at 0°C while tropical and sub-tropical fruit are best stored at between 10

suit-to 13°C Ssuit-toring at lower temperatures will cause chilling injury

Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load

Recommendations for storage and transport of produce are typically available in industry publications produced

by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture Further advice can be obtained from advisers such as extension officers and consultants

Practice 41 For long delays before transport, produce is held at the lowest suitable temperature available Practice 42 Transport vehicles are covered and appropriate temperature conditions are used to minimise quality loss.

Figure 20 Covering the transport vehicle reduces the heating of produce from the surrounding air and the direct impact of the sun and also minimises air flow through the load.

Dirty transport vehicles can be a source of pest infestation and disease infection and mechanical damage when produce is stacked loose in the vehicle The vehicle should be checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects and pest infestation and cleaned as required

Incompatibility of produce during transport can occur if produce of different sensitivity to low temperature is transported together or if ethylene producing produce is mixed with ethylene sensitive produce For example if bananas are transported with lettuce at temperatures below 10°C and if ripening tomatoes are transported with cucumbers

Advice on mixing of produce during transport can be obtained from industry publications produced by competent authorities such as the Department of Agriculture or from advisers

A delay in the transport of produce to the customer increases the risk of quality loss, particularly when the duce has not been cooled and the transport is not refrigerated

pro-3.7 Traceability and recall

An effective system for identifying and tracing produce is needed to investigate causes of quality loss when it occurs and to prevent re-occurrence of the problem The essential requirements for an effective system are:

• each production site is identified by a name or code,

• each batch of packed containers is clearly marked with an identification code,

• a record is kept of the batch identification, date of supply, source and destination, and

• records of farm operations are kept

A batch is defined as all produce harvested and packed on the same day from the same source, which has been treated in the same way

Practice 44 Mixing of non-compatible produce during transport is avoided.

Practice 45 Produce is transported quickly to the destination.

Practice 43 Transport vehicles are checked before use for cleanliness, foreign objects, and pest infestation, and cleaned if there is a significant risk of mechanical damage and contamination from spoilage organisms.

Practice 46 Each separate production site is identified by a name or code The name or code is placed on the site and recorded on a property map The site name or code is recorded on all documents and records that refer to the site.