An international handbook of tourism education

Recent published titles in this series include: PIKE Destination Marketing Organisations THOMAS Small Firms in Tourism: International Perspectives LUMSDON & PAGE Tourism and Transport KE

AN INTERNATIONAL HANDBOOK OF TOURISM EDUCATION

i

ADVANCES IN TOURISM RESEARCH

Series Editor: Professor Stephen J Page

University of Stirling, U.K.

s.j.page@stir.ac.uk

Advances in Tourism Research series publishes monographs and edited volumes that comprise state-of-the-art research findings, written and edited by leading researchers working in the wider field of tourism studies The series has been designed to provide a cutting edge focus for researchers interested in tourism, particularly the management issues now facing decision-makers, policy analysts and the public sector The audience is much wider than just academics and each book seeks to make a significant contribution to the literature in the field of study by not only reviewing the state of knowledge relating to each topic but also questioning some of the pre- vailing assumptions and research paradigms which currently exist in tourism research The series also aims to provide a platform for further studies in each area by highlighting key research agendas which will stimulate fur- ther debate and interest in the expanding area of tourism research The series is always willing to consider new ideas for innovative and scholarly books, inquiries should be made directly to the Series Editor.

Recent published titles in this series include:

PIKE

Destination Marketing Organisations

THOMAS

Small Firms in Tourism: International Perspectives

LUMSDON & PAGE

Tourism and Transport

KERR

Tourism Public Policy and the Strategic Management of Failure

WILKS & PAGE

Managing Tourist Health and Safety in the New Millennium

Forthcoming titles include:

RYAN & AICKEN

Indigenous Tourism

RYAN, PAGE & AICKEN

Taking Tourism to the Limits

WILKS, PENDERGAST & LEGGAT

Tourism in Turbulent Times

LENNON, SMITH, COCKEREL & TREW

Benchmarking National Tourism Organisations and Agencies

BALDACCHINO

Cold Water Tourism

Related Elsevier Journals — sample copies available on request

Annals of Tourism Research

International Journal of Hospitality Management

Tourism Management

World Development

ii

AN INTERNATIONAL

HANDBOOK OF TOURISM EDUCATION

EDITED BY

DAVID AIREY and JOHN TRIBE

University of Surrey, U.K.

Amsterdam – Boston – Heidelberg – London – New York – OxfordParis – San Diego – San Francisco – Singapore – Sydney – Tokyo

2005

iii

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iv

Introduction

John Tribe and David Airey

5 Curriculum Theory and Practice: A Case in On-line Education 61

Sheryl Elliott and Ginger Smith

6 Curriculum, Development and Conflict: A Case Study of Moldova 77

Brian King and Stephen Craig-Smith

Sérgio Leal and Maria Auxiliadora Padilha

v

Eugenia Wickens and Alastair Forbes

Brian Wheeller

Nina Becket

vi Contents

David Botterill and Tim Gale

Postscript

34 Practical Issues for Design, Delivery, Evaluation and Resourcing of Courses 483

Miriam Moir and Lisa Hodgkins

David Airey and John Tribe

Contents vii

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Maria Auxiliadora Padilha

Faculdades Integradas da Vitória de Santo Antão, Pernambuco, Brazil

x Contributors

Brock University, St Catharines, Ontario, Canada

Tej Vir Singh

Centre for Tourism Research & Development, Indira Nagar, Lucknow, India

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1

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Chapter 1

Introduction

John Tribe and David Airey

Rationale and Aims

For some observers, “tourism higher education” might appear to be a term containingmutually exclusive words Surely tourism cannot merit study at a higher level of educa-tion? Indeed in the UK, tourism degrees are sometimes bundled (particularly by oppor-tunist politicians) into a category of deep disdain under the heading of Mickey MouseDegrees But new courses have often struggled for due recognition in the academy which

is inherently conservative and traditional For example Silver (1990, p 131) reports thatthe UK CNAA (Council for National Academic Awards) board expressed considerableangst about new degree proposals:

I remember housing studies for example, was one of the crunch points as

to whether you could actually make a degree of something of that kind.And then people would point to odd things like paper technology thatsome of the universities had had for years and said, well what’s odd abouthousing studies

Housing studies is now an established part of higher education, but the question as towhether tourism is a serious or worthy area for study still hangs in the air It is this ques-tion that provides an initial impetus for this book With regard to the maturity of the sub-ject, Hall and Page (2002) note that social science scholarship on tourism can be tracedback to the 1920s in the USA and Europe while in Chapter 2 of this book Airey finds anexample of individual scholarship on tourism dating back to 1891 However, the majorgrowth in the subject has occurred relatively recently since the mid-1980s and this pro-vides the second impetus for the book The time is ripe for a comprehensive description,analysis and evaluation of the state of tourism education at the international level The finalrationale for the book is to provide those involved in tourism education with guidance onhow other people are approaching the task as well as offering some practical tips ondesign, delivery and review of courses

An International Handbook of Tourism Education

Copyright © 2005 by Elsevier Ltd.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISBN: 0-08-044667-1

3

The aims of the book are captured in the section headings First, the introduction offers

a detailed account of the growth and development of the tourism studies and a review ofthe literature on tourism education Second, the crucial issue of curriculum for tourism isunpacked Third, authors from around the world provide the basis for a comparative analy-sis of tourism education by providing commentaries from a variety of national and/orregional contexts Fourth, the “chalk-face” issues of teaching, learning and assessment intourism are reviewed Fifth, issues surrounding resources, progression and quality are dis-cussed and finally the state of the art of tourism education is evaluated and key issues forthe future are identified

The rest of this chapter will provide a more detailed introduction to, and overview of,the issues discussed in the various headings

Introduction

The remainder of the introduction starts with Chapter 2, where David Airey initially chartsthe development of tourism as a distinct area of study and notes three significant develop-ments First, there has been a massive increase in the numbers of students, institutions andteachers of tourism Second, the curriculum has broadened beyond the vocational andtourism has emerged as a subject for study at many different levels of education Third, thisgrowth and change has led to tensions in the development of the curriculum On the onehand, Airey sees the danger of excess vocationalism where tourism education does littlemore than provide a reflection of the world of work On the other, he cautions againsttourism education turning its back on its industry connections as this would jeopardise one

of its key raisons d’etre.

In Chapter 3, John Tribe evaluates the literature on tourism education He initially tifies the size of, and trends in, tourism education research and argues that the growing lit-erature on tourism education (at least 302 articles up to 2001) and the existence of threeeducational journals specific to the field are important indicators of the growing maturity

iden-of tourism as an academic subject Second, he finds that tourism education research hasparticularly focussed on curriculum issues which have accounted for 86 per cent of thetotal Tribe concludes that, for the future a greater attention to methodological issues isrequired and more research into effective learning and assessment is needed Additionally

he notes that progression into tourism education and issues of widening participation areunder-researched and that there is a lack of evaluative and prescriptive literature onresources and quality

Curriculum

The starting point for this section is the critical analysis of the tourism curriculum provided

by John Tribe in Chapter 4 He argues that since curriculum design involves framing in riculum space, and therefore choice, then any curriculum must be contestable The maincontest is about what knowledge should be included, so Tribe analyses the relationship

cur-4 John Tribe and David Airey

between tourism, knowledge and the curriculum He subsequently considers the basic ciples of curriculum design and explores a number of theoretical positions in order to eval-uate a number of proposals that have been made for a tourism curriculum A recurrent theme

prin-in the chapter is that of the schisms that exist prin-in each of the areas of tourism, knowledge andthe curriculum On the one hand, Tribe notes that tourism, knowledge and the curriculummay be bounded by a business and vocationalist view of things But he also holds out theprospect for tourism education as a means for understanding and responsible action in morewidely drawn, complex world of tourism

Chapters 5 and 6 provide case studies in curriculum development In Chapter 5, SherylElliott and Ginger Smith offer a case study on online education that illustrates curriculumtheory and practice Their case study describes the establishment of the AcceleratedMaster’s of Tourism Administration (AMTA) by the Department of Tourism andHospitality Management at George Washington University, Washington, DC Here theydescribe how the degree programme was brought fully online and includes a multimediaanimated audio/visual lecture component In Chapter 6, John Tribe presents a case study,which examines the process and products of a tourism curriculum development and inno-vation project for a University in Moldova Tribe elaborates a method for curriculumdesign and development based on strategic management techniques Specifically hedescribes three aspects of situational analysis that were used a needs analysis, a capa-bility analysis and a force field analysisand outlines the curriculum that was agreedbased on this analysis However, Tribe also offsets this “success” of the project with a crit-ical evaluation and offers an alternative “failure” reading of the outcomes On this latterview, the influence of Western hegemony and neo-colonial development is surfaced andflagged as a particularly poignant issue for countries such as Moldova who have onlyrecently escaped the grip of a strict regime of Soviet ideology Indeed this chapter can alsooffer an interesting critical–reflexive insight into the use of the term “international” in thetitle of this text It reminds us that although this text is international in its content, its over-all outlook is heavily saturated by the situatedness of its editors (country, ethnicity, uni-versity, gender, class, etc.)

Finally, work placement (sandwich year, internship) is a common feature of the lum in tourism programmes and Graham Busby investigates this topic in Chapter 7 Busbyreviews the concept and its implementation and identifies the key attributes and aspects ofgood practice that make for a successful work experience programme The discussion isillustrated with students’ accounts of their experiences during their placements

curricu-International Tourism Education

The section on international tourism education offers insights into provision in 12 tries and regions representing a range of different contexts These chapters consider issuessuch as size and development, government policy and structures, curriculum, teaching andlearning, assessment, research and quality issues

coun-In Chapter 8, Brian King and Stephen Craig-Smith assess the situation in Australasia.Here they offer a picture of a rise in tourism education in both Australia and New Zealand

to a position where the majority of public universities in the two countries now offer

Introduction 5

tourism and/hospitality degree programmes The development and funding of theSustainable Tourism Co-operative Research Centre, a partnership between universities,governments and tourism enterprises is identified as a key factor that has enabled Australia

to compete strongly in the international arena in tourism research King and Craig-Smithalso note that international tourism student enrolments have grown rapidly in both coun-tries largely due to the proximity of the expanding Asian student market and the attrac-tiveness of Australasia as a place to study An interesting point of comparison arises herewith the situation in North America (see Chapter 16), where Simon Hudson describes adecline in international post-graduate enrolment

Chapter 9 provides a contrast where Sérgio Leal and Maria Auxiliadora Padilha ine the situation in Brazil and Latin America They find tourism education and research inthis region to be in its early stages of development There is little attention paid to thedevelopment of qualified professionals working in the sector and only a modest participa-tion of scholars from the region in the international academic community In Brazil how-ever they find that tourism education and research have rapidly expanded, encouraged bythe fast growth of the industry and enabled by the liberalisation of the education sector.The authors note a concomitant growth in the number of specialised publications andresearch degree programmes but point to the lack of a subject association that would sup-port the development of tourism education

exam-For the Caribbean, as Acolla Lewis reminds us in Chapter 10, tourism is the “lifeblood”

of the majority of the islands Despite this, Lewis notes that tourism education and ing has come under intense criticism with respect to the governance and operation of theinstitutions as well as the quality of the programmes However, she sees grounds for opti-mism with initiatives such as the creation of the Association of Caribbean TertiaryInstitutions (ACTI) and the Caribbean Tourism Human Resource Council (CTHRC) Thelatter encourages development of tourism education in the region through its annualTourism Educators Forum, the Scholarship Foundation Programme and the establishment

train-of a Caribbean Tourism Learning System (CTLS), which underwrites a unified core riculum for different levels of certification, a system for transfer of credits between insti-tutions and student exchange programmes Finally, Lewis also notes that the University ofthe West Indies (UWI) is set to assume a more active role in tourism education in theregion

cur-In Chapter 11, Wen Zhang and Xixia Fan offer an introduction to the development oftourism education on the Chinese mainland They identify the three development stages ofChina’s tourism education The first phase from the founding of New China (in 1949) to theimplementation of reform and opening-up (in 1978) was mainly on-job training to front-lineemployees, such as hotel attendants, coach drivers, interpreters and guides The secondphase from 1978 to the mid-1990s saw a strong growth of China’s tourism education and theformation of the tourism educational system In the third phase, from the mid-1990s to thepresent, education in tourism schools and colleges has entered the stage of quality develop-ment Attention is being paid not only to the improvement of quality, facilities for runningprogrammes and educational reform, but also to research on the establishment of the tourismdiscipline, the scientific setup of programmes, co-operation and exchanges with tourisminstitutions abroad and integration with international practice Zhang and Fan also point outthe areas that need improvement

6 John Tribe and David Airey

Melphon Mayaka considers tourism education in East Africa in Chapter 12 Mayakaargues that the case for co-operation in the East African sub-region is particularly strongsince the structure and nature of tourism systems is fundamentally similar in the threecountries of Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania In the chapter current progress in tourism andtraining and education is examined and the prospects discussed Mayaka advocates greaterinvolvement at the institutional level based around a range of co-operative arrangementsincluding harmonisation of qualifications, collaborative curriculum development;research; discussions and exchange of ideas; joint publications; information dissemination;

as well as technical and student exchanges

In Chapter 13, Walter Freyer, Michael Hammer and Astrid Piermeier report on the range

of educational programmes in tourism, in Germany They note that vocational training grammes are well established but that tourism education as an academic subject is relatively

pro-new Academic provision currently is dominated by courses at fachhochschulen, which aim to

integrate practical and theoretical content But the authors note that there is still no ent study programme or degree for tourism at universities However they suggest that this islikely to change with increased integration of higher education courses in the European Union.Shalini Singh and Tej Vir Singh present us with a fascinating picture of tourism education

independ-in India independ-in Chapter 14 They examindepend-ine the historical independ-influences of higher education independ-in India, theeffects of colonialism and the distinctive Indian educational philosophy of mind, body andsoul Their starting point is an understanding that education and culture are intimately inter-twined so that the cultural patterns of a society shape its educational system In this way, thephilosophy of Indian education emphasises the holistic development of an individual’s poten-tials for the benefit of the society and the nation Singh and Singh note that recent shifts inpolitical thinking have made way for the introduction of vocational education in Indian uni-versities and educational institutes yet tourism education/training stands out as a classic exam-ple in the conflict between conventional ideology of education and the modern interpretation

of vocational training Their critical examination of three tourism curricula explores their fitwith conventional education philosophy, on the one hand, and the training of manpower forthe industry on the other, and reveals the ideological conflict in tourism education in India.Magiel Venema gives an historical account and broad overview of the Dutch educationsystem in Chapter 15 Venema includes an account of vocational education, at the second-ary and higher levels as well as university education The chapter also considers the sig-nificance of international links, links with industry and competency-based learning

In Chapter 16, Simon Hudson charts the progress of tourism education in North Americafrom its beginnings in 1963 at Michigan State University to its current state He finds thattourism continues to enjoy a growing rate of popularity in educational institutions, both as anarea of instruction and as a field of investigation He produces data which shows that thereare currently a total number of 55,781 students enrolled in tourism and hospitality courses at

176 different institutions in North America In addition, 28 universities offer post-graduatecourses relating to tourism It is instructive to note with Hudson the support which tourismeducation in North America finds from well-established professional associations such as theTravel and Tourism Research Association (TTRA)  the world’s largest travel researchorganisation  and the International Council on Hotel, Restaurant and InstitutionalEducation (CHRIE), as well as newer associations such as the International Society of Traveland Tourism Educators (ISTTE) and the International Academy for the Study of Tourism

Introduction 7

In Chapter 17, Tanja Mihalic
describes tourism studies that are offered in Slovenian

post-secondary educational institutions A particular issue here is their growth and opment as Slovenia has undergone transition becoming an independent, market-orientedstate and a new member of the European Union This prompts an analysis of the role ofstudents and society in creating tourism programmes In the course of her chapter, Mihalic

devel-poses and answers a number of key questions First, how do Slovenian tourism educationinstitutions use different kinds of tourism knowledge? Second, how important is the role

of academic knowledge and how important is the role of industry? Third, do these factorschange according to the time and level of tourism education? Fourth, in which way should

it change and finally, how will the Bologna Accord (A European Union initiative to grate higher education in member states) affect tourism education?

inte-In Chapter 18, Melville Saayman examines tourism education in South Africa Saaymanexplains that tourism in South Africa is growing rapidly and that this growth has led todemand for qualified staff exceeding that which training institutions could supply A majorbottleneck here has been a capacity problem with a lack of skills of the trainers at all thevarious training institutions But Saayman reports that this problem has been dealt with bythe accreditation of courses and trainers Saayman concludes that while much has been done

in the past 10 years to develop quality tourism qualifications, some problems still exist.Finally, David Airey concludes this section on comparative tourism education in Chapter

19, where he discusses the case of the United Kingdom Airey estimates that nearly 50,000students are currently studying tourism-related programmes, a number which has grown sub-stantially from the 20 or so students enrolled on the first two programmes in 1972 Airey findsthat while there is great diversity, many of the programmes on offer have a clear vocationalintention and that tensions exist between the vocational and more academic approaches tostudying tourism Airey observes a growth in the support structures for tourism including writ-ten material, associations, organisations and conferences and notes that tourism programmeshave generally been found to offer good quality Finally, he notes that the level and quality ofresearch has come into greater prominence as a result of government research assessment

Teaching, Learning and Assessment

This section opens with Chapter 20, where Dimitrios Stergiou offers an evaluation oftourism teaching in higher education Stergiou devises a framework for the evaluation ofteaching and then provides empirical evidence about the main factors that are associatedwith good teaching in tourism His findings are summarised under two main headings Thefirst is teaching ability where Stergiou suggests that a good teacher should encourage

“Person-Oriented Intellectual Reinforcement” by exploring with students new approachesand meanings, developing students’ capacity to think for themselves and stimulating theirintellectual curiosity A good teacher should also pay attention to the “StructuralOrganization of Knowledge” by announcing the objectives of the lecture at the beginning,explaining to students how their work will be assessed and connecting lectures to reading.The second of Stergiou’s headings encompasses teacher knowledge Here, a good teachershould have a secure base of up-to-date knowledge This would be demonstrated forexample by being abreast of new developments in the field using journals and examples

8 John Tribe and David Airey

from the tourism industry, inviting questions in class, applying concepts and techniquesappropriately and having the confidence to discard themes that are merely fashionable.

In Chapter 21, Eugenia Wickens and Alastair Forbes investigate the student experience

as voiced by a group of first year students through semi-structured interviews Their ings include evidence that students drawn from lower social groups may be disadvantaged.Additionally, many students felt unprepared by their previous educational and social expe-rience for what was to come in higher education The fact that peer-group networks areperceived by students to be of particular importance suggests that peer-support mecha-nisms should be further developed and exploited as part of student support and guidance

find-In Chapter 22, Brian Wheeller paints a vivid picture of teaching under attack Wheellerpresents a powerful argument that ideals in teaching are being eroded by the clamour forfunding, resource constraints, the rigours of assessment, promotion, the demands of the

“immediate” and intense competition with research Wheeller thereby sees a regrettabletransformation from teaching as an educative, liberal and expansive project to a more lim-ited utilitarian and functional one Offering an antidote to this he concludes by re-iteratingthe case for the deployment of contextualisation, imagery and the visual in revitalising andenhancing the teaching and learning experience

Chapters 23 and 24 turn our attention to assessment In Chapter 23, Nina Becket provides

an overview of the key issues and challenges including the use of formative assessment,improving feedback to students, the pressure on staff in assessing large classes, minimisingplagiarism, assessing groupwork, and the marking and grading of student work The chapter

is full of useful practical tips and advice It includes recommendations for development andprovides sources for the reader to follow-up In Chapter 24, Karen Smith investigates the dis-sertation research project Smith evaluates the challenges that the dissertation presents to stu-dents, educators and institutions and finds that the dissertation exerts high demands on bothstaff and student resources Smith argues that support for dissertations should be given toboth staff and students For students, research methods training and support in the use ofresources are crucial For staff, supervisory training and staff development in assessment areimportant Smith believes that the dissertation project has a central role to play in the under-graduate curriculum with its emphasis on independent and deep learning

In Chapter 25, Paul Barron considers cultural issues in learning Based on research thatanalysed the learning style preferences of international students studying hospitality andtourism management in Australia, Baron suggests that a large sub-group of internationalstudents have learning style preferences that are different to those of other internationaland domestic students From this, Baron raises the question whether such students shouldfit into a system which is very different to their prior experience or whether the systemshould be more sensitive and accommodating to their needs

Marianna Sigala reviews the theory, practice, evidence and trends in e-learning and e-assessment in Chapter 26 Her starting point is that e-learning’s benefits in tourism educa-tion are widely agreed However, Sigala points out that e-learning models mainly replicateconventional instruction models rather than transforming and extending them She thereforereviews the literature and discusses best practices in order to explain how knowledge isacquired and how online learning occurs Additionally, Sigala illustrates how e-learning ped-agogy should be designed, considers how e-assessment that can support the curriculum andidentifies the factors that influence the effectiveness of e-learning

Introduction 9

In Chapter 27, Fiona Jordan explores the challenges in linking tourism research andteaching for the benefit of student learning While Wheeller (Chapter 22) argued thatresearch often overshadows teaching Jordan suggests that that there are significant bene-fits to be realised by both staff and students from linking teaching and research These ben-efits stem from staff enthusiasm and their contribution of up-to-date, industry-relatedknowledge in the context of vocational and/or professional programmes The practicalities

of improving the research/teaching nexus include encouraging staff to integrate theirresearch interests into curriculum design and provision of information about the researchand scholarship activities of staff to students

Stroma Cole concludes this section in Chapter 28 by inviting us to consider communityeducation Cole notes that large numbers of villagers in remote communities of less-developedcountries are in the tourism frontline but they have no access to formal education and train-ing At the same time while there exists much educational research on tourism training andundergraduate programmes, there is a dearth of literature about community education pro-grammes Using a case study of villagers in Ngadha, Cole argues the need for community-wide esteem building, cross-cultural understanding as well as education about tourismdevelopment and what tourists want She also suggests that specific education about productdevelopment, marketing, finance and food and hygiene would help communities to developlocal tourism Cole concludes that further research is needed on the methods appropriate todeliver informal community tourism education

Resources, Progression and Quality

In Chapter 29, Marion Stuart-Hoyle points out that tourism teachers are arguably the mostvaluable resource in tourism education After all she says, it is they that develop, deliver,assess and review the subject Her chapter, based on research in the U.K., evaluates the keyfactors that have influenced the motivation and commitment of tourism teachers Stuart-Hoyle initially explores the nature of tourism lecturers in terms of characteristics and traits,motivations and “defining features” and then makes observations about the pressured envi-ronment within which tourism lecturers operate She concludes on an optimistic note thatdespite the increasing demands of the job (to recruit, teach, assess, manage, research andreview) lecturers maintain high levels of commitment and enthusiasm

Lyn Bibbings provides an evaluative guide to learning resources for tourism education inChapter 30 Bibbings begins by describing the change in emphasis in higher education in theU.K which has moved towards rewarding excellent teaching and has encouraged a surge inthe development of learning resources for the subject area Bibbings emphasises the role inthe UK of the Higher Education Academy subject network in supporting lecturers by devel-oping, promoting and disseminating resources, and how this has been enabled by techno-logical developments A number of useful links for resources are included in the chapter

On the employment front, Adele Ladkin reminds us in Chapter 31 of the claims madefor the significance of the tourism industry in generating employment globally She quotesfigures, which estimate world travel and tourism employment to be 241,697,000 jobs, rep-resenting 8.1% of total world employment for 2004 Figures for 2014 estimate a rise in thetotal number of jobs to 259,930,000, which will represent 8.6% of total world employment

10 John Tribe and David Airey

Ladkin’s chapter investigates issues of career development and employment in the tourismindustry She outlines the characteristics of tourism labour markets and tourism jobs andoffers a review of the current understanding of tourism careers and employment Ladkinevaluates the contribution of tourism education to the development of human capital and theprovision of a trained workforce with appropriate skills for tourism jobs and professions.While she notes the popularity of tourism courses, Ladkin draws attention to two key issues.First, she questions how the skills of tourism graduates are used and valued by the tourismindustry and second, she notes a lack of career development and the unattractiveness ofsome occupations in tourism.

In Chapter 32, Derek Robbins considers quality assurance with a particular focus on theU.K Robbins explores the meaning of quality assurance, why it is required and why there

is a need for external independent verification of quality in addition to an institution’sinternal monitoring systems Robbins reviews the process of internal monitoring and eval-uates the largest scale independent assessment of tourism education that took place inEngland subject review In the light of lessons learned from this he describes recentdevelopments in the external review process

Finally in this section, postgraduate and Ph.D education are reviewed by DavidBotterill and Tim Gale in Chapter 33 Botterill and Gale provide a description of thedimensions and profile of postgraduate study in tourism and demonstrate a strong growth

in provision They also note the continued growth in Ph.D completions related to tourism

in the UK rising from 4 in 1990 to 22 in 1999 and 34 in 2002 Botterill and Gale’s sis of Ph.D.s completed since 2000 finds the topics of tourist behaviour, motivation anddemand, and tourism impacts to be the most popular The authors also raise importantquestions about capacity, quality and internationalisation

analy-Postscript

The final part of the book is divided into two chapters Chapter 34 offers practical advice

on the design, delivery; evaluation and resourcing of courses It is divided into two parts

In the first part, Miriam Moir provides frameworks for procedures for three areas of vision based on her experience as a registrar The three areas are programme approval fromthe initial idea through to institutional endorsement; running a module on a course frompreparation of assessment to evaluation of the module’s operation, and the annual moni-toring process used to evaluate quality and standards In the second part, Lisa Hodgkinsoffers advice for the effective management of learning resources for tourism studentsbased on her experience as a librarian

pro-The book concludes with Chapter 35, where the editors offer a review of the state ofplay of tourism education and identify key issues for further development and research

References

Hall, C M., & Page, S (2002) The geography of tourism and recreation: Space, place and

envi-ronment London: Routledge.

Silver, H (1990) A higher education Brighton: The Falmer Press.

Introduction 11

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12

Background to Development

It is now more than 40 years since tourism first appeared as a distinct area of study.Arguably its history goes back far longer than this in that the study of some of its compo-nent sectors, notably hotel operations and catering, or component activities such as leisureand recreation can trace their origins to before World War II Also those specialising in aca-demic disciplines, notably geographers and economists have paid attention to the role oftourism in, for example, regional studies or foreign trade studies over an even longerperiod The works of Brunner (1945) and Norval (1936) Ogilvie (1933) and Pimlott (1947)provide some early examples of serious scholarship in tourism and even earlier Rae (1891)had provided an account of the burgeoning travel trade of Victorian England However,these earlier developments are relatively fragmented either by sector or by individualscholars It really awaited the 1960s and a number of key changes in tourism, in highereducation and in society more generally for tourism to emerge both as a clear area of study

in its own right and as a subject for study up to diploma and degree level and for research.The difference between the changes brought by the 1960s and what had happened previ-ously is that the basis was established for a new and fairly discrete subject and an associ-ated community of scholars One outcome of this change has been a fairly phenomenal rate

of growth In the UK, for example, from about 20 students of tourism in higher education

An International Handbook of Tourism Education

Copyright © 2005 by Elsevier Ltd.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISBN: 0-08-044667-1

13

in 1972 the figure had reached more than 4,000 new student enrolments each year by theend of the century (Airey, 2002) There are also many tens of thousands of such students

in the UK in further, technical and school education (Airey & Johnson, 1999)

In some ways the driver behind this change is fairly obvious Tourism as an activityhas shown almost continuous growth since 1945 World Tourism Organization (2004)tables indicate 25 million international arrivals worldwide in 1950 growing to 700 mil-lion in 2002 At the same time, the organisations involved in meeting the needs oftourists have expanded with the emergence of some major companies, from airlines tohotel corporations to tour operators This growth, combined with the increasing profes-sionalisation of the tourism suppliers, has played its part in prompting educational insti-tutions to meet the demands and opportunities created by tourism employers The strongvocational emphasis of the early programmes in tourism bear witness to the extent towhich they were brought into being in response to employment opportunities Also thislevel of tourism growth has brought with it a complex array of issues from economicbenefits to social and environmental problems These challenges presented by tourismhave added and fuelled the sustained interest by scholars, particularly in higher educa-tion, in their attempts to understand and explain aspects of an important worldwide phe-nomenon

Yet the growth of tourism itself does not provide the complete explanation for theexpansion of tourism education programmes Annual growth in international tourismarrivals worldwide from the early 1970s to 2000 has averaged about 5% Over the sameperiod the growth of new enrolments onto tourism programmes at university level in the

UK has been more than 700% Similar rapid rates of growth, albeit with different ing dates, are evident at other levels of education and in other parts of the world Forexample, in Italy all the 14 tourism courses in universities up to 1996 had been intro-duced since 1992 (Dipartimento del Turismo, 1996) Clearly, there are a range of otherfactors that have fuelled this remarkable expansion Airey (1995) has suggested otherdrivers He points to the substantial expansion in the numbers enrolling for further andhigher education programmes generally As evidence for this Dearing (NationalCommittee of Enquiry into Higher Education, 1997) referred to the number of students

start-in higher education start-in the UK doublstart-ing between 1977 and 1997, and for the tion rate for the under-30s rising from 30% to more than 45% Tourism programmeshave also developed within the context of the general development of vocational educa-tion This has been one of the key themes underlying educational developmentsthroughout the Western World during the past 50 years It has been prompted, in partic-ular, by the high costs of labour, the changes in the world of work, where brainpower hasovertaken muscle power as the key ingredient in effective labour use, and the need tomaintain competitive advantage With these influences it is not surprising that govern-ments have also encouraged vocational education This started with the emergence ofsuccessful business schools but has extended to particular sectors as diverse as journal-ism, housing studies, leisure management and tourism Further, prompted in part byperiods of high unemployment and in part by changes in the system whereby they aremade responsible for at least a part of their own study fees, students have become muchmore aware of employment potential in making their choice of subject of study This hasbeen a further driver for vocationalism and as a growing sector of activity tourism has

participa-14 David Airey

been considered to offer good employment opportunities Finally, Airey (2002, p 14)has pointed to:

changes in the funding and regulation of higher education whereby tions have been free to compete with each other for student demand and theincome that it brings; and a recognition by colleges and universities thattourism represents a way of expanding student numbers more reliably andcheaply than many other subject areas

institu-Combined with the underlying growth of tourism, these together represent a fairly potentset of influences Of course, they operate at different levels and in different ways in dif-ferent countries but all of them have at least some resonance in all countries The impor-tant thing here is that they point in the same direction, to growth in tourism education

Patterns of Development

Vocational Origins in Higher Education

As a subject for study as a whole, as distinct from study and training related to its nent parts such as food production and service or airline ticketing, one of the characteris-tics of the development of tourism is that it first emerged at the higher education level Thevery earliest provision, in the mid-1960s, was in the form of optional components in otherprogrammes In the UK tourism was offered within undergraduate diploma and degreeprogrammes in Hotel and Catering Administration These were followed in the UK by twoHigher National Diploma (HND) (Tourism) programmes started at the end of the 1960s(Airey, 1979) In these, tourism was an “add-on” to provide a specific vocational focus to

compo-an essentially business studies course for 18-year-old school leavers

In many ways more influential than these on the future development of tourism as afield of study were the two postgraduate master degree programmes started in 1972 at theUniversities of Strathclyde and Surrey With these, for the first time, tourism was consid-ered as a domain of study in its own right treated as a multi-sector activity and as a multi-disciplinary subject One of the important influences on this development was Medlik’s(1966) report on the position of tourism studies in Western Europe, but of crucial impor-tance also was the location of these programmes in university departments of hotel andcatering management Hotel and catering management had been accepted as a subject ofdegree level study earlier in the 1960s during the period of university expansion Influence

on this had in turn come from similar and earlier developments in the United States notably

at Cornell University In many ways this represented a new departure for higher education

in the UK, to provide programmes with a fairly tight focus on a relatively confined area ofeconomic activity The resulting degree programmes were highly vocationally oriented,with close links with industry and employers and with a focus on the practice and opera-tion of the industry When tourism was established in this environment, and given theinfluences that had led to its creation as a distinct area of study, it is not surprising that itfollowed this highly vocational route This was then further fostered by some early and

Growth and Development 15

influential textbooks (McIntosh, 1972, Burkart & Medlik, 1974) that effectively set theboundaries of the curriculum for a decade or more The other main strand of development,from the HND in Business Studies, further buttressed the position of tourism as a highlyvocational area of study.

Paralleling these developments of course, tourism remained a subject for study by those

in other academic disciplines, notably geographers; and study areas such as leisure andrecreation continued their growth But, up to and well beyond the creation of the first twoundergraduate degree programmes in 1986, the early highly vocational influencesremained strong This can clearly be seen in the curricula of these new undergraduatedegree programmes Table 1 provides an example of one of these programmes which has

a heavy emphasis on business, management and links with industry

Similarly this focus of the provision is clearly reflected in the aims of the programmes

on offer Table 2 indicates that for 99 programmes surveyed in 1998, the first eight aimswere specifically vocational Wider objectives in the form of “sound education/academicunderstanding” only appear at number 9 with only one-third the number of mentions of thefirst placed aim

Broadening of the Curriculum

From this development, and particularly from about 1990 there have been two significantshifts in the development of tourism education First at University level the curriculum hastended to broaden outwards from its essentially business-oriented vocational origins Thishas found expression in the development of a few new tourism programmes which werenon-vocational from the start An example in the UK was the master programme in the

Anthropology of Tourism There are other examples around the world However, more

typ-ically it has taken the form of the existing and additional programmes introducing widerissues not specifically related to the operation of the tourism industry and in this sense,

Year 3

Industrial placement

Year 4

Tourists and Destinations; Business and Tourism; Options; Dissertation

Source: Her Majesty’s Inspectorate (1992).

non-vocational In other words, tourism was starting to break out from what Tribe (1999)

refers to as the Vocational/Action curriculum (see Chapter 4) By the end of the 1990s this

broader approach could be clearly seen in the so-called “Subject Benchmark” for tourism.This was agreed with the tourism education community in the UK and promulgated by the

UK Quality Assurance Agency (QAA) for Higher Education as providing a guide to thecontent of tourism courses Details are provided in Table 3 One of the four broad head-ings refers to the tourism industry The others are concerned with the wider issues raised

by tourism both in terms of its impacts and in terms of the nature of tourism as a humanactivity Of course, to the extent to which these widerissues provide a stronger background

in good-stewardship to the world’s scarce resources for those progressing to employment

in tourism they can been seen as vocational But the important point is that they are notrooted in day-to-day current operational practice

The reasons for this broadening of the curriculum can be related to two significantchanges The continuing growth of tourism as a world activity meant that the wider con-sequences of its development were coming under closer scrutiny Inevitably for thoseinvolved in tourism education it became essential to deal with these issues But at the sametime, as tourism programmes were being created and expanding and as tourism wasbecoming a dynamic part of education provision, so it attracted scholars and researchersfrom a wider range of disciplines who in turn all left their mark on the curriculum The

Growth and Development 17

Table 2: Top twenty ‘Aims and Objectives’ of tourism degree courses

3 Tourism industry: large/important/global/growth 50

4 Vocational/“reality” skills/theory into practice 48

5 Tourism industry: international opportunities 45

8 Transferable relevant skills for other industries 28

10 Broad foundation/wide range/thorough grounding 22

result was a much stronger underpinning of tourism studies not only by economists andgeographers but also anthropologists, psychologists, archaeologists and many more This

is reflected, perhaps most starkly, in the growth in the number of textbooks and academicjournals with content devoted to many different aspects of tourism

Tourism Education at All Levels

The second important shift from about 1990 is the appearance of tourism as a distinctsubject of study at lower levels, in what in the UK is referred to as “Further Education(FE)” (typically for 16–18 year olds) and in the period of compulsory schooling up to 16years The first developments in this field in the UK were in the 1980s and were prompted

by the tourism industry in the form of American Express who encouraged and supportedthe creation of a qualification for 16 year olds This was followed by the creation of whathas now become a series of General National Vocational Qualifications at two levels inLeisure and Tourism with a third, at the top level, in Travel and Tourism These are pro-vided both in FE colleges and in schools and have proved extraordinarily popular By theearly 2000s there were approximately 30,000 students following these programmes As thename suggests they are ostensibly vocational in focus as is born out by the subject content

of one of the advanced programmes provided in Table 4 Students are required to take 6 or

12 of these modules depending on their award

18 David Airey

Table 3: QAA subject benchmark for tourism

Concepts and characteristics of tourism as an area of study

Products, structure and interactions in the tourism industry

Role of tourism in communities and environments

Nature and characteristics of tourists

Source: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (2000).

Table 4: Subject content of advanced vocational certificate of education

Investigating travel and tourism Tourism geography

Tourism development Health, safety and security in the travelWorldwide travel destinations and tourism industry

Marketing travel and tourism Investigating heritage tourism in the UKCustomer service in travel and tourism Sports tourism

Travel and tourism in action Countryside recreation

Business systems in the travel and Resort representatives

Human resources in the travel and The UK retail travel industry

Financial planning in travel and tourism

Overseas tourism markets

Source: AQA (2004).

Developments and Tensions

Criticisms of Growth and Novelty

Not surprisingly, given its rapid growth, the development of tourism has brought with it anumber of problems and tensions Initially these stemmed from the fact that tourismprogrammes were new and rapidly expanding and as a consequence little understood Forexample, programmes have been criticised as lacking in serious content or academic rigour(The Observer, 1995) The growth of programmes has been considered to be far greaterthan perceived employment opportunities (Airey et al., 1993) and they have been blamedfor not providing sufficient skills training Yet against this, when they have been scruti-nised, tourism programmes have fairly consistently been seen to provide the students with

a good education leading to appropriate employment prospects (Further EducationFunding Council, 1998; HM Inspectorate, 1992) Indeed, HM Inspectorate (1992, p 25)commented on:

well-designed programmes which are vocationally relevant, provide a goodbalance of theory and practice and offer the students adequate academicchallenge

More recently, and based on a total of 109 institutions, a report by the QAA reaffirmed theoverall quality of the student experience on programmes in higher education in the relatedareas of hospitality, leisure, recreation sport and tourism (QAA, 2001) Noteworthy com-ments include:

Curricula are multidisciplinary, flexible and coherent with impressive links

to industry and the professions (p 1)

The interrelationship between theory and practice is a consistently strongfeature… (p 1)

The quality of teaching is consistently high It is characterised by a richdiversity of approaches, including many industry-supported initiatives (p 1)The progression of diplomates and graduates to employment and furtherstudy is satisfactory overall, and an impressive feature of some of the pro-vision (p 5)

Clearly, from these comments, some of the initial unease about the development of thisaspect of education provision is no longer a cause for concern However, the same reportdoes pick up on one issue which is a reflection of the relative newness of the subject andsuggests an important area for further work:

…there is a general need to strengthen staff research and scholarly activity

in support of the subjects

Growth and Development 19

The Curriculum Debate

Perhaps more interesting and in many ways of more fundamental importance than the cisms associated with growth and newness, has been the debate about the tourism curriculum.For more than the first decade of its existence there seemed to be a fairly general agreementabout the curriculum As already noted, the boundaries of the tourism curriculum werestrongly influenced by its origins and the early textbooks confirmed the vocational, business-oriented focus of the provision This is reflected in the chapter titles for one of the early text-books (Burkart & Medlik, 1974) shown in Table 5 However, as tourism programmes grewand developed and particularly as a wider range of academics entered the field there wasincreasing unease that there was no real agreement about the curriculum As Cooper, Scalesand Westlake (1992, p 236) expressed it, tourism programmes “tend to take on the character

criti-of the particular expertise criti-of its faculty” Or commenting on the situation in the United States,Koh (1994, p 853) commented that “several studies found that most of the tourism curriculawere designed by educators (influenced by their individual biases) with little/no representa-tion from the tourism industry” This was clearly part of the development of the subject as newacademic perspectives and insights were developed However, Middleton, in the CNAAReport (1993), warned of the dangers if tourism was simply allowed to mean what academ-ics wanted it to mean In his view this would lead to confusion on the part of applicants tocourses, students and potential employers and with no common agreement about what tourismmeans the development of the subject would be limited Further Middleton and Ladkin (1996,

p 10) commented that “we believe a key issue for tourism studies over the next few years islikely to focus on how far the subject can not only retain, but also develop its coherenceagainst powerful pressures for diversification and fragmentation…”

This provided the background to a number of initiatives in the mid-1990s to establish acommon curriculum for tourism Holloway (1995), with virtually unanimous support from

UK Universities, gave an outline core curriculum for the National Liaison Group forHigher Education in Tourism (NLG) This identified the minimum tourism content for atourism degree programme An outline is given here in Table 5 Also, during 1996 and

20 David Airey

Table 5: Body of knowledge for tourism

Historical development The meaning and nature of tourismAnatomy of tourism The structure of the industry

Statistics of tourism The dimensions of tourism and issues

Marketing in tourism Tourism planning and managementPlanning and development Policy and management in tourismOrganization and finance

Future of tourism

Source: Burkart and Medlik (1974) and Holloway (1995).

1997 The Association for Tourism, and Leisure Education (ATLAS), built upon the NLGwork in a project spanning the countries of the European Union Based on a wide-spreadconsultation involving universities and the tourist industry across Europe, this identified asimilar draft core curriculum (Richards & Onderwater, 1998) A further project by theWorld Tourism Organization at about the same time set out a range of tourism competen-cies The fact that all these attempts have a core curriculum in common that is focused pri-marily on the vocational and business aspects of tourism provides an indication of theextent to which there was agreement about the position of the tourism curriculum, despiteconcerns about fragmentation.

To a large extent the work in the 1990s of Tribe (1997) and Airey and Johnson (1999)confirmed this The latter demonstrated the extent to which the tourism programmes in the

UK reflected the core curriculum set out by the NLG Indeed they comment that there is agreat deal of similarity among the programmes in higher education Tribe drew a distinc-tion between the programmes that have what he calls a “business interdisciplinaryapproach” and those which do not The first have a commonality that crystallises around

“business” but as he says “there is no comprehensive aggregation of non-business tourismknowledge” (p 654) In other words, the fears about fragmentation appear to have beenunfounded Most tourism programmes are basically very similar It is in the small minor-ity where the diversity and lack of curricular agreement are found Stuart-Hoyle (2003, p.53) reached similar conclusions, commenting that:

the most common purpose of tourism undergraduate programmes is to pare student to work in the tourism industry

pre-The Developing Knowledge Base

For those involved in teaching tourism, one of the big changes over the past decade or so hasbeen the rapid development of the knowledge base This has found expression in the increase

in the numbers of scholarly journals as well as in textbooks and manuals Butperhaps more importantly it has provided new and more traditional areas of knowledge onwhich to draw for an understanding of tourism Tribe’s work (see Chapter 4) provides a basisfor understanding these changes in the knowledge about tourism For the first years of its

development tourism relied on what Tribe (1999, p 103) refers to as extradisciplinary

knowledge from “industry, government, think tanks, interest groups, research institutes andconsultancies” Given its newness and its vocational origins this is not surprising It is clearlydemonstrated in the very comprehensive reference list of Burkart and Medlik’s (1974) earlytextbook, which is dominated by government and other official reports and studies As theprovision of tourism programmes expanded and as more scholars started examining tourism,the more traditional, discipline-based forms of knowledge were developed Tribe (1999, p.103) has suggested that for such knowledge “disciplinary based methodology and peerreview are the hallmarks of quality control” This is the type of knowledge that normallyunderpins higher education In the case of tourism it provided a rich source of knowledgefrom many different disciplines as academics skilled in the contributing disciplines have

brought in their knowledge and methodologies In this way, tourism has become

multidisci-plinary in that it draws from different disciplines A third potential step in this development

Growth and Development 21

is the creation of interdisciplinary knowledge whereby scholars draw upon more than one

discipline to explain a specific tourism problem As Airey (2002, p 16) has commented:

It is this type of knowledge that provides the rationale for tourism as a standing area of academic endeavour as distinct from a field of enquiry andexperimentation by academics from other communities

self-An early example of this type of knowledge came in 1980 with Butler’s Tourism Area LifeCycle (1980) which to quote Airey (2002, p 16):

springs from geography, biology and marketing but is ultimately locatedcentrally within tourism and addresses a specific tourism issue

A key challenge for tourism now as a distinct academic field lies in the extent to which it

can add to this interdisciplinary knowledge and thereby move to become a distinct

aca-demic field of study that relies as much for its identity on its own knowledge as it does onits vocational links

stu-edge base needs to progress beyond the extradisciplinary and even beyond the

multidisci-plinary into interdiscimultidisci-plinary work In being able to draw on extradiscimultidisci-plinary,

multidisciplinary as well as interdisciplinary knowledge tourism is in a position to offermuch more than precise vocationalism It can both give a depth and breadth of knowledgeand insight as well as vocational relevance that can make a contribution both to the knowl-edge base and to the future employees of the tourism sector The danger for tourism edu-cation comes from two directions One is that it remains tied too closely to vocationalismand in this sense does little more than provide a reflection of the world of work The other

is that it turns its back on its industry connections thereby jeopardising one of its key

raisons d’etre Somewhere between the two it can provide a model of the way in which

academia can make a real contribution to the world of the 21st century

22 David Airey

Airey, D (1979) Tourism education in the United Kingdom Revue de Tourisme, 2/79, 13–15 Airey, D (1995) Tourism degrees past present and future Inaugural lecture, 31 January 1995,

Nottingham: Nottingham Business School.

Airey, D (2002) Growth and change in tourism education In: B Vukonic & N Cavlek (Eds),

Rethinking of education and training for tourism (pp 13–22) Zagreb: University of Zagreb,

Graduate School of Economics and Business

Airey, D., & Johnson, S (1999) The content of tourism degree courses in the UK Tourism

Management, 20(2), 229–235.

Airey, D., Ladkin, A., & Middleton, V T C (1993) The profile of tourism studies degree courses in

the UK 1993 London: National Liaison Group, for the Tourism Society.

AQA (2004) Advanced vocational certificate of education, travel and tourism advanced 2005.

Manchester: AQA.

Brunner, E (1945) Holidaymaking and the holiday trades London: Oxford University Press Burkart, A J., & Medlik, S (1974) Tourism, past present and future London: Heinemann.

Butler, R W (1980) The concept of a tourism area cycle of evolution: Implications for management

and resources Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5–12.

Cooper, C., Scales, R., & Westlake, J (1992) The anatomy of tourism and hospitality educators in

the UK Tourism Management, 13(2), 234–247.

Council for National Academic Awards (1993) Review of tourism studies degree courses London:

CNAA.

Dipartimento del Turismo (1996) Sixth report on italian tourism International Edition Florence:

Mercury.

Further Education Funding Council (1998) Hotel and catering (including leisure, tourism and

travel) curriculum area survey report Coventry: FEFC.

Her Majesty’s Inspectorate (1992) Higher education in the polytechnics and colleges, hotel,

cater-ing and tourism management London: HMSO.

Holloway, C (1995) Towards a core curriculum for tourism: A discussion paper London: National

Liaison Group for Tourism in Higher Education.

Koh, K (1994) Tourism education for the 1990s Annals of Tourism Research, 21(4), 853–854 McIntosh, R W (1972) Tourism principles, practices and philosophies OH: Grid.

Medlik, S (1966) Higher education and research in tourism in western Europe London: University

of Surrey.

Middleton, V T C., & Ladkin, A (1996) The profile of tourism studies degree courses in the UK:

1995/1996 London: National Liaison Group for Tourism in Higher Education.

Morrison, A (2004) http://omni.cc.purdue.edu/ ∼ alltson/journals_1.htm (accessed 13 July 2004).

National Committee of Enquiry into Higher Education (1997) Higher education in the learning

society London: Stationary Office.

Norval, A J (1936) The tourist industry: A National and International survey London: Pitman.

Observer Newspaper (1995) New focus, second class citizens, p 15, 3 September.

Ogilvie, F W (1933) The tourist movement London: Staples Press.

Pimlott, J A R (1947) The Englishman’s holiday London: Faber and Faber.

QAA (2000) Hospitality, leisure, sport and tourism, subject benchmark Gloucester: Quality

Assurance Agency for Higher Education.

QAA (2001) Hospitality, leisure, recreation, sport and tourism, subject overview report 2000–2001.

Gloucester: Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.

Rae, W F (1891) The business of travel London: Thos Cook and Son.

Growth and Development 23

Richards, G., & Onderwater, L (1998) Towards a european body of knowledge for tourism Tilburg:

ATLAS.

Stuart-Hoyle, M (2003) The purpose of undergraduate tourism programmes in the UK Journal of

Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tourism Education, 2(1), 49–74.

Tribe, J (1997) The indiscipline of tourism Annals of Tourism Research, 24(3), 638–657 Tribe, J (1999) The philosophic practitioner: Tourism knowledge and the curriculum Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, University of London, London.

World Tourism Organization (2004) Compendium of tourism statistics Madrid: WTO.

24 David Airey

Back in 1981, Ritchie guest edited a special issue of Annals of Tourism Researchdevoted entirely to tourism education In that issue Jafari and Ritchie (1981) pointed tosome key issues First, they addressed the question of what is tourism Second, they con-sidered the important issue of tourism knowledge and provided a framework for under-standing this (Jafari and Ritchie’s wheel) Third, they noted “the need to develop a body ofknowledge in tourism” (p 29) Fourth, they made some useful observations about perceivedweaknesses in tourism education These include a “lack of empirical research on which tobase the design of tourism curricula” (p 31), the relative isolation of course designers andthe “highly vocational nature of material received from North American sources” (p 31).They also signalled a particular gap in the literature, noting:

The inclusion of [Blanton’s] article which emphasises the social and tural differences in training needs of developing countries, is made in thehope of stimulating greater interest and concern for this neglected andimportant area of tourism education (p 30)

cul-The aim of this chapter is to describe and evaluate research into tourism education in theperiod up to the end of 2001 Its structure is as follows Initially, the methodology of theenquiry is set out The findings of the enquiry are then discussed under a number of sec-tions The general findings reflect on some of the quantitative aspects of tourism educationresearch Thereafter, qualitative aspects of tourism education research are considered under

An International Handbook of Tourism Education

Copyright © 2005 by Elsevier Ltd.

All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

ISBN: 0-08-044667-1

25

a number of headings the curriculum, teaching, learning and assessment; student gression and achievement; learning resources and quality management and enhancement.The chapter concludes by revisiting Jafari and Ritchie to determine to what extent theiragenda for tourism research has been met and to consider the key challenges for tourismeducation research for the next 21 years.

pro-Methodology

Initially, a list of research articles was generated by the following technique The primarydatabase of literature was generated from the author’s research interests in tourism educa-tion Mainstream bibliographic abstracting services (e.g BIDS etc.) included very few spe-cific tourism education entries and in the absence of dedicated databases, a quite basic andlaborious technique was used This entailed building a bibliography by following up the ref-erence list of every article that was encountered Subsequently this database was expandedusing expert opinion The literature database was then updated using two key abstractingservices The first is the abstracts database operated by CABI publishing (www.leisure-tourism.com) This comprises over 50,000 international bibliographic references originallypublished in Leisure, Recreation and Tourism Abstracts and includes published researchsince 1974 The second is Articles in Hospitality and Tourism (AHT) The AHT database(www.surrey.ac.uk/Library/cdaht.htm) provides details of English language articlesselected from academic and trade journals published worldwide from 1984 It is produced

by the libraries of Oxford Brookes University and the University of Surrey Some difficultywas encountered in searching the CABI database since the general search using the phrase

“tourism education” based on keywords and/or abstract yielded too many results includingliterature, which had no direct relevance to the field To narrow down the search it was nec-essary to limit the search to the title, using the following search words (where ∗stands forany character or string of characters): tourism educat∗, teaching, manpower, humanresourc∗, education, curriculum, learning and student∗ This method also encountered someproblems First, not every journal that includes tourism education is abstracted Second,some education literature has an enigmatic title that does not include the terms searched for.Third, some spurious literature was still generated although this was eliminated by a visualcheck The full database included 302 literature references up to 2001

Reading and analysis of the literature initially generated 47 different separate areas ofinterest These were subsequently grouped together into main themes and subthemes.Classification into the main categories followed the general approach set by the UKQuality Assurance Agency for Higher Education (QAA) The QAA ‘aspects of provision’are Curriculum Design, Content and Organisation; Teaching, Learning and Assessment;Student Progression and Achievement; Student Support and Guidance; LearningResources and Quality Management and Enhancement (QAA, 2000, p 7) StudentSupport and Guidance was not used as it was mainly concerned with the general welfare

of students (e.g induction, tutorial support) rather than subject-specific issues The 47categories were subsequently rationalised to a total of 16 categories and subcategories.The literature was then sorted into these categories Table 1 illustrates this categorisationand sorting

26 John Tribe

If a piece of literature covered more than one category then it was included in each,hence the number of entries exceeded the number of literature references Additionally(although not included in Table 1), a division was made between pre- and post-1995 liter-ature to ascertain whether there were any changes apparent in terms of volume or subject

of research

Findings

General

Medlik (1965) was an early pioneer of research into Tourism Education with his

unpub-lished report into Higher Education and Research in Tourism in Western Europe Subsequently, Lawson (1974) was one of the first to get into print in a similar research area

covering tourism education and training in Western Europe The 1970s saw two furthercontributions Airey (1979), who has maintained a strong presence in this area to date,reviewed tourism education in the United Kingdom and Christie-Mill (1978) also consid-ered its development and status Thereafter, research outputs developed a steady momen-tum Fifty-one outputs are counted during the 1980s, a number that was certainly given anextra fillip by the special issue of Annals of Tourism Research (1981) Additionally in

1988, the International Conference for Tourism Educators, hosted at the University of

Surrey attracted a broad range of research papers The 1990s saw another large increase in

Overview of Research 27

Table 1: Categories of research in tourism education (to 2001)