Effects of collaborative learning on writing skills and attitudes of intermediate non english major students at english zone center of hoa sen university a thesis submitted in partial fulfi

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY EFFECTS OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ON WRITING SKILLS AND ATTITUDES OF INTERMEDIATE NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT ENGLISH ZONE CENTER OF HOA SEN UNIVERSIT

HO CHI MINH CITY OPEN UNIVERSITY

EFFECTS OF COLLABORATIVE LEARNING ON WRITING SKILLS AND ATTITUDES OF INTERMEDIATE NON-ENGLISH MAJOR STUDENTS AT

ENGLISH ZONE CENTER OF HOA SEN UNIVERSITY

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of Master of Arts (TESOL)

Submitted by NGUYEN THI THANH HUYEN

Supervisor

Dr BUI THI THUC QUYEN

Ho Chi Minh City, August, 2016

STATEMENT OF AUTHORITY

I certify that this thesis entitled “Effects of Collaborative Learning on Writing Skills and Attitudes of Intermediate Non-English Major Students at English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University” is my own work

Except where reference is made in the text of the thesis, this thesis does not contain material puplished elsewhere or extracted in whole or in part from a thesis by which I have qualified for or been awarded another degree or diploma

No other person’s work has been used without due acknowledgement in the main text of the thesis

This thesis has not been submitted for the award of any degree or diploma in any other

tertiary institution

Ho Chi Minh, August 2016

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS

I hereby state that I, Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen, being the candidate for the degree of Master

of TESOL, accept the requirements of the University relating to the retention of use of Master’s Theses deposited in the Library

In terms of these conditions, I agree that the original of my thesis deposited in the Library should be accessible for purposes of study and research, in accordance with the normal conditions established by the Library for the care, loan or reproduction of theses

Ho Chi Minh City, 2016

Nguyen Thi Thanh Huyen

Besides my supervisor, I would like to take this opportunity to thank all my devoted lecturers who taught me a great deal and gave me the inspiration to pursue my profession while I was taking the courses at The Open University All of their goodness will be engraved

on my memory forever

I am also deeply indebted to my parents and my brother who have always supported

me, encouraged me when I am down and inspired me throughout the process of completion

of the study

I am most grateful to all of my colleagues and staff members of English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University (EZC of HSU) for their helps, comments and encouragement during the time I carried out the research

Last but not least, I offer my regards and blessings to all students who were willing to participate in my thesis Without their contribution, the thesis would not have been completed

ABSTRACT

Collaborative learning (CL) in writing is regarded as an effective method to contribute

to the success of learners in writing A large number of previous studies investigated the use

of collaborative learning in writing and showed that collaborative learning in writing had positive effects on learners’ performance However, most studies were still uncertain of which aspects of writing skills were improved significantly after applying collaborative learning Additionally, most of previous studies focused on investigating how collaborative learning in writing affected learners’ writing performance or their attitudes separately, while few studies investigated the effects of collaborative learning in writing on both learners’ writing skills and their attitudes Also, there is no reseach related to CL in writing carried out

at English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University Therefore, this study is designed to fill these gaps In particular, this study aims to investigate the influence of collaborative learning on intermediate non-English major students’ writing skills and their attitudes towards using collaborative learning in teaching writing at EZC of HSU

To fulfill the aims, the quasi-experimental study was carried out from early September

to December of the academic year 2015-2016 at the head office of EZC of HSU with the enthusiastic participation of 46 students from two classes (class EGC 2- 2700 and class EGC 2- 1200) of intermediate level Class EGC 2- 2700 was chosen as the control group which included 14 males and 9 females Meanwhile, class EGC 2-1200 was chosen as the experimental group which consisted of 16 males and 7 females Data collection was from the pre-test, the post-test, the questionnaire, and the interview

The findings of the study revealed that (1) the students in the experimental group had higher significant improvement in writing skills than those in the control group did in terms

of organization, mechanics (grammar, punctuation, capitalization, and spelling), and sentence variation and transitions (2) Most of the students’ perceptions towards collaborative learning

in writing were highly positive Especially, according to them, they highly evaluated its significant contribution to improve their writing performance, motivation, and critical thinking

Based on the findings, some recommendations were given for the teachers who are interested in applying collaborative learning in writing class to improve students’ writing skills

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STATEMENT OF AUTHORITY i

RETENTION AND USE OF THE THESIS ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii

ABSTRACT iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS v

LIST OF TABLES ix

LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION xii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Background of the study 1

1.2 Statement of the problem 2

1.3 Aims of the study 4

1.4 Research questions 4

1.5 Significance of the study 4

1.6 Organization of the study 5

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 6

2.1 Writing teaching and learning 6

2.1.1 Definition of writing 6

2.1.2 Reasons for teaching and learning writing 7

2.1.3 Aspects of writing skill 9

2.1.4 Approaches to teaching writing 11

2.1.5 Writing process 15

2.2 Collaborative learning 18

2.2.1 Definition of collaborative learning 18

2.2.2 Characteristics of collaborative learning 19

2.2.3 Benefits and drawbacks of collaborative learning 22

2.3 Teacher’s and learner’s roles in collaborative learning 28

2.3.1 Teacher’s roles 28

2.3.2 Learner’s roles 29

2.4 Collaborative learning in writing 30

2.5 Previous studies 31

2.6 Chapter summary 34

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 35

3.1 Research design 35

3.2 Research site 36

3.3 Participants 37

3.4 Teaching material and time distribution for the implement of the material 40

3.4.1 Teaching material 40

3.4.2 Time distribution for the implement of the material 41

3.5 Lesson plans for experimental group and control group 42

3.5.1 Lesson plan for EG 42

3.5.2 Lesson plan for CG 45

3.6 Instruments 46

3.6.1 Tests 46

3.6.2 Questionnaire for experimental group 47

3.6.3 Interview 48

3.7 Procedures of the study 49

3.7.1 Pilot study 50

3.7.2 Training teacher 51

3.7.3 Training students of the experimental and control group before the treatment 52

3.7.4 Teaching procedure for the experimental and control group 54

3.7.5 Procedure for conducting the tests 56

3.7.6 Procedure for conducting the questionnaire 57

3.7.7 Procedure for conducting the interview 57

3.8 Assessing the writing paper tests 57

3.9 Data analysis 58

3.9.1 Analysis of student’s tests 58

3.9.2 Analysis of student questionnaire 59

3.9.3 Analysis of student interview 59

3.10 Reliability and validity 60

3.11 Ethical and legal consideration 61

3.12 Chapter summary 61

CHAPTER 4: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 62

4.1 Data analysis and interpretation of tests’ scores (in response to research question 1) 62

4.1.1 Independent samples t-test on the pre-test of the control group (CG) and experimental group (EG) 62

4.1.2 Pair samples t-test of control group in pre-test and post-test 64

4.1.3 Pair samples t-test of experimental group in pre-test and post-test 65

4.1.4 Checking assumption about normal distribution of the tests’ scores 67

4.2 Data analysis and interpretation of questionnaire (in response to research question 2) 70 4.2.1 Students’ attitudes towards the use of collaborative learning in writing class 70

4.2.2 Students’ suggestions about the use of collaborative learning in writing 80

4.3 Analysis of the interview (in response to research question 2) 81

4.4 Chapter Summary 84

CHAPTER 5: DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 86

5.1 Discussion of findings on students’ writing skills (in response to research question 1) 86 5.2 Discussion of findings on students’ attitudes (in response to research question 2) 87

5.2.1 The students’ attitudes towards the positive statements 87

5.2.2 The students’ attitudes towards the negative statements 89

5.2.3 The students’ attitudes towards other statements 91

5.3 Chapter Summary 91

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 92

6.1 Main conclusions of the study 92

6.2 Implications 93

6.3 Limitations 96

6.4 Recommendations for further research 96

6.5 Chapter Summary 97

REFERENCES 98

APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 109

APPENDIX 2 110

APPENDIX 3 111

APPENDIX 4 113

APPENDIX 5 116

APPENDIX 6 119

APPENDIX 7 120

APPENDIX 8 122

APPENDIX 9 126

APPENDIX 10 132

APPENDIX 11 134

APPENDIX 12 135

APPENDIX 13 136

APPENDIX 14 137

APPENDIX 15 138

APPENDIX 16 139

APPENDIX 17 140

APPENDIX 18 141

APPENDIX 19 142

APPENDIX 20 143

APPENDIX 21 144

APPENDIX 22 148

APPENDIX 23 154

APPENDIX 24 160

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 3.1: Structure of the nonequivalent control group design with pretest and posttest 35

Table 3.2: Summary of the characteristics of the control group and experimental group… 39

Table 3.3: Structure of writing part In Supplementary Materials for Reading and Writing book 41

Table 3.4: Summary of lesson plan for experimental group 45

Table 3.5: Summary of the lesson plan for the control group 46

Table 3.6: Schedule for the main stages of the research 49

Table 3.7: The teaching schedule for the EG and CG 54

Table 4.1: Group statistics on pre-test of control group and experimental group 63

Table 4.2: Independent samples t-test on the pre-test of the control group and experimental group 63

Table 4.3: Paired samples statistics for control group in pre-test and post-test 64

Table 4.4: Results of paired samples test for control group in pre-test and post-test 64

Table 4.5: Paired samples statistics for experimental group in pre-test and post-test 65

Table 4.6: Paired samples test for experimental group in pre-test and post-test 65

Table 4.7: The results of writing performance for organization, content, sentence variation & transitions, vocabulary and mechanics (grammar, punctuation, capitalization, spelling) 66

Table 4.8: Test of normality in the pre-test’s scores of the control group and experimental group 68

Table 4.9: Test of normality in the post-test’s scores of the control group and experimental group 69

Table 4.10: Students’ attitude towards their writing skills after implementing CL in writing

71 Table 4.11: Students’ attitude towards other skills after implementing CL in writing 72 Table 4.12: Students’ attitude towards motivation and confidence after implementing CL in

writing 73 Table 4.13: Students’ attitude towards collective effort and responsibility after implementing

CL in writing 74 Table 4.14: Students’ attitude towards problem-solving and knowledge exchange after

implementing CL in writing 75 Table 4.15: Students’ attitude towards academic improvement after implementing CL in

writing 75 Table 4.16: Students’ attitude towards positive statements after implementing CL in writing

77 Table 4.17: Students’ attitudes towards negative statements of collaborative learning in

writing 78 Table 4.18: Students’ attitudes towards other statements of collaborative learning in writing

79 Table 4.19: Students’ suggestions about the use of collaborative learning in writing 80

LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS

experimental group ··· 69

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

EZC: English Zone Center

HSU: Hoa Sen University

CL: Collaborative Learning

ESL: English as a Second Language

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

BA: Bachelor of Arts

MA: Master of Arts

L2: Second language

EGC: English for Global Communication

EG: Experimental Group

CG: Control Group

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

The introduction chapter helps lay background information essential for an understanding of the issues discussed in this study Also, it is established with the framework

of the thesis consisting of (1) background of the study (2) statement of the problem, (3) aims

of the study, (4) research questions, (5) significance of the study, and (6) organization of the

study

1.1 Background of the study

Nowadays, English is an international language and has been playing an important role

in many aspects of life such as studying, communicating and entertaining, etc Therefore, learning English is becoming more importance not only to Vietnamese people but also to people all over the world As a result, English is considered as a key leading to success in life when English becomes globalized Hence, English has become one of the obligatory subjects

in most schools in Vietnam Especially, the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) in recent years has made an immense effort to reform education system including textbook development and teaching training with the goal of learning English which is focused on how

to help learners use English effectively It means that four English skills namely listening, speaking, reading and writing are considered equally important and should be treated equally among learners

As a matter of fact, every skill has its own importance and difficulty that can make it different from other skills Nevertheless, among of these skills writing is generally considered the most difficult skill for students to acquire and for teachers to teach Kroll (1990) said that

“becoming a writer is a complex and on going process, and becoming a writing teacher is no less complex” (p.1) Also Langan (1987) and Gunning (1998) agree that writing can be a challenging skill for learners to learn because it is more complex and abstract than talk In addition, Dyson and Freedman (1991) add that “writing requires simultaneous use of phonological, graphic, orthographic, semantic, syntactic, and discourse rule systems” (p.762) Obviously, writing is a complicated skill to teach as well as to learn since in order to write well learners have to face with a lot of difficulties in terms of social and cognitive challenges However, the writing teaching in Vietnam such as introducing new words, reading passage, doing grammar tasks, is still common It means the methodology seems to lay emphasis on the product approach rather than on the process approach Moreover, in Vietnam, students are often asked to write individually and then get feedback from the

teacher Therefore, some of the problems can be found in English writing classrooms such as learners’ fear of writing, lack of motivation, lack of ideas, poor vocabulary, and lack of planning (Fulwiler & Young, 1982) In fact, it is very difficult for students to learn well as they are isolated receivers of knowledge Hence, learning collaboratively is an essential component of a writing classroom because it can encourage students to become more deeply engaged in their writing

1.2 Statement of the problem

At Hoa Sen University (HSU), students are in need of English mostly for education requirements, career prospects and employment opportunities In fact, there are many subjects taught in English Hence, students are required to be able to approach their professional materials written in English Moreover, benchmark for graduation is applied for students to make sure all students are well-qualified in English language and can used it for further studying or for their job in the future For example, students at college have to submit

an English certificate with IELTS of 4.5, but students at University have to get IELTS of 5.0 For this reason, English Zone Center of Hoa Sen University (EZC of HSU) is established with the aim to inspire and empower students to develop competence as well as confidence and progress in the educational environment of international quality At EZC of HSU, textbooks were chosen from international publishers and are modern and up-to-date Furthermore, the four skills are scheduled and taught in separated periods or classes in order

to help students have deep understanding and good practice for each skill

For intermediate level, students are taught grammar, listening, speaking based on Solutions 2nd edition intermediate by Oxford University Press However, writing is taught based on Supplementary Materials for Reading and Writing composed by experienced teachers at EZC of HSU for internal use only In this book, there are 5 units for writing Each unit is designed consisting of three main parts such as writing skill, grammar and unit assignment Each part includes a lot of smaller assignments for students to practice Unit assignment of intermediate level mainly includes writing a short paragraph of 150- 180 words related to some paragraph types such as descriptive, opinion, etc

In writing and reading period, teachers often have about 120 minutes for teaching both reading and writing However, teachers have to check attendance, students’ vocabulary template and revise the previous lesson Therefore, the time for teaching writing is only about

50 minutes In reality, 50 minutes is not enough for teaching theory and asking students to do all activities related to the theory and then write the unit assignment in the textbook After

teaching theory and giving time for students to write, sometimes teachers don’t have enough time for peer feedback as well as give correction Therefore, many of teachers at EZC often collect all students’ papers and give correction at home with hope that students will review their mistakes in writing and avoid doing the same mistakes in the future However, when teachers give the papers back to students, many of them often put them aside or pay much attention on how many points they get for their work without caring much about the errors highlighted by teachers It is evident that writing is a real obstacle for many writing teachers Furthermore, many teachers at EZC state that writing individually may help their students get higher scores in the final exam because students are able to manage the whole writing process on their own and may deal with difficulties when they get stuck in writing For this reason, writing is still considered as an activity which is done mostly individually rather than collaboratively

Through years of teaching at EZC, it is not uncommon to notify that students at intermediate level show lack of interest as they often have to write individually which makes writing class boring Sometimes, they encounter some problems in transfer their thoughts into words In this situation, they really need help from others, but they can’t ask others because other students have to focus on doing their own writing Therefore, it is easier make student get the feeling of giving up whenever they get stuck Many teachers believe that their students can overcome their difficulty by themselves However, it is really difficult for non-English major students In fact, In spite of at intermediate level, students still deal with many problems while writing such as difficulty in expressing and organizing ideas, finding appropriate words, phrases, connectors, and changing or combining sentence structures for writing effectively

As a result, teachers at EZC had the common complaint that their students’ writing achievement were generally poor compared with other skills As a matter of fact, many teachers realize that many students at EZC of HSU prefer to learn other skills rather than writing Sometimes, teachers may feel disappointed with the fact that many students are very good at speaking, listening, but may get low scores in writing That is why it is necessary for teachers to find out another ways to teach writing in order to offer students a chance to discuss and work together to help them learn from each other from the early stage Thus, students can arouse their interest in learning and activate their positive energy in the writing classroom

Eventually, the above considerations provided the researcher with the idea of attempting

to conduct the study to help not only the students at EZC of HSU increase interest in writing but also teachers at EZC of HSU know how to use CL effectively

1.3 Aims of the study

This study, therefore, aims to investigate the influence of collaborative learning on intermediate non-English major students’ writing skills at EZC of HSU and their attitudes

towards using collaborative learning in teaching writing

1.5 Significance of the study

This study is significant because of the reasons as listed below:

Firstly, it is expected that the study will contribute to clarify to what extent collaborative learning might promote students’ achievement and their positive attitudes in writing

Secondly, the most importance point of this study is that researcher based on both theory and practical knowledge to design the useful, interesting and appropriate lesson plan which might enhance students’ background knowledge, interest and writing skills

Thirdly, this study in the future can be seen as a useful source of reference for the teachers not only at the EZC of HSU but also other teachers who feel interested in this field

to consult to use collaborative learning in teaching writing

Lastly, the findings of the result can also raise teachers’ awareness of the role of collaborative learning while making the writing lesson plan as well as provide them with the inspiration for teaching writing

1.6 Organization of the study

The thesis is organized into six chapters as follows:

Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the study by introducing back ground of the study, statement of the problem, the aims, research questions, research significant, and organization

of the study

Chapter 2 reviews the relevant theories which can be served as the background for the whole research

Chapter 3 describes methodology of the study

Chapter 4 presents the results of the study, and analyzes the results to point out findings Chapter 5 presents discussion of the finding which consists of two main parts one in relation to the students’ writing skills and the other to their attitudes towards learning writing with collaborative learning

Chapter 6 concludes the thesis by presenting a summary of the findings, making implications, presenting limitations of the study, and giving recommendations for further research and lastly summarizing the overview of the study

The next chapter will focus on the literature review of the thesis

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

In the previous chapter, background information to the study has been given Chapter 2 will review literature which is relevant to the study as a basis to formulate the research questions and a standpoint to withdraw comments, recommendations and suggestions of the study This chapter includes six main parts and discusses the following issues: (1) writing teaching and learning, (2) collaborative learning, (3) teacher’s and learner’s roles in collaborative learning, (4) collaborative learning in writing, (5) previous studies, and (6)

chapter summary The discussions are intended to provide a theoretical sketch of the study

2.1 Writing teaching and learning

2.1.1 Definition of writing

Writing is one of the four basic language skills that take an important role in our life It

is also considered as a means to create connections among people For example, through writing, people can tell other their feelings, carry out transactions, inform someone the latest information, etc In terms of definition, there have been several definitions of writing which are defined and interpreted differently by researchers

For example, in order to distinguish writing from other skills Rivers (1968) considers writing as the act of conveying something that had been spoken to others by using a conventional graphic system In the same way, Morris (1966) assumed:

It is speech, not writing, which serves as natural means of communication between

members of a settled community, both for the expression of thought and as a form of

social behavior Writing is primarily a means of recording of speech, even though it

must be acknowledged as a secondary medium of communication in its own right

(Morris, 1966, p.24)

However, writing or learning to write in a language is not simply a matter of writing down things, but writing is much more than that According to Petty and Jensen (1980), letters and words in writing are formed by both mental and physical act It means writing is not only an act of putting words into sentence, using spelling, punctuating, using conventions, etc but also a process in which writer focuses on inventing ideas and how to organize, express them in an effective way in order to enable readers in understanding what the writer

wants to convey through the written work such as thoughts, feeling, social and personal experiences, etc

Brown (2001) also agrees that writing is the written products which are the result of thinking, drafting, and revising procedures that require specialized skills For example, some skills are related to generate ideas, organize them coherently, revise and edit text for clearer meaning and appropriate grammar, etc

Besides, writing is also considered as a cognitive activity Hayes (1996, cited in Weigle, 2002) mentions writing involves three main cognitive activities named text interpretation, reflection, and text production Three cognitive processes are used in both drafting process and revising process

As stated by Nunan (2003), writing is considered as a means of communication that is used to express and impress It means that when composing writing works, writers mainly focus on two purposes The first one is to express the ideas which writers have in their minds The second one is the text which is written is used to communicate the ideas to the readers Thus, writers are required to have ability to communicate and express ideas in certain ways which impress readers In the same viewpoint, Lindemann (1995) views writing as a process

of communication that uses a conventional graphic system to convey a message to readers Notably, Flower (1989) points out:

Writing is a social act that can only occur within a specific situation It is therefore

influenced both by the personal attitudes and social experiences that the writer brings

to writing and the impacts of the particular political and institutional context in which

it interviews, analyses of surrounding practices and other techniques, researchers

seek to develop more complete accounts to local writing contexts (Flower, 1989,

p.54)

In general, it is obvious that writing is a process of communication that ideas, thought, feelings, etc are conveyed in written form Moreover, it also enables writer to synthesize their knowledge into an acceptable text that is suitable with the English writing conventions such as using appropriate punctuation, vocabulary, format, structure, spelling, etc

2.1.2 Reasons for teaching and learning writing

In fact, writing takes an important role not only in learning process but also in multidimensional aspects of life In terms of learning process, writing supports students in learning process and reinforces what they have learned Harmer (1998) emphasizes that learners can get a number benefits from writing because writing helps them not only keep

language in the memories but also understand how to put words and phrases in sentences, and connect them appropriately In more details, Raimes (1983) highlights the importance of writing as belows:

First, writing reinforces the grammatical structures, idioms, and vocabulary that we

have to teach our students Second, when our students write, they also have a chance

to be adventurous with the language, to beyond what they have just learned to say, to

take risks Third, when they write, they necessarily become very involved with the

new language; the effort to express ideas and the constant use of eye, hand, and brain

is unique way to reinforce learning (Raimes, 1983, p.3)

From Raimes (1983)’ viewpoint, writing is very important linguistic skill that helps students learn more effectively because when students put down the ideas on paper, they have

to struggle to think of what to put down and how to put it down because they have to find the right word and the right sentence to express ideas In addition, through writing process, mental activity is also developed which leads to language development Moreover, writing helps learners to work at their own pace to learn a language, so it creates learners’ learning style Similarly, Hamer (2004) also agrees that writing is a useful way which helps learners pay attention to use language accurately Hence, it may result in their language development Overall, writing can be of great value in helping learners to refine, consolidate and develop their language

In daily life, writing is considered as a powerful instrument to convey ideas, desires which the writers want to say to others Hamer (2004) states that aim of teaching writing is not just to help students become better writers, but to help them “communicate real messages

in an appropriate manner” (p.34) Harmer (2004) also highlights “being able to write is a vital skill for ‘speaker’ of a foreign language as much as for everyone using their own first language” (p.3) Similarly, Ramelan (1994) agrees that writing is essential in human’s culture because it preserves thought, ideas and speech sound Furthermore, in daily communication language is not only focused on speaking but also in writing for example, in working place, people often communicate via the written word such as emails, letters, notes, texts, etc For students, they also have to write a reports, term papers, messages, memos, directions, etc (Arapoff, 1969)

As a matter of fact, writing is a crucial skill which can improve learners’ writing ability

as well as a powerful tool for learners to transfer information easily Besides, Hyland (2003) adds that “writing is the central to our personal experiences and social identities, and we are

often evaluated by our control of it” (p.1) Thus, writing is no wonder a skill worth teaching and learning

2.1.3 Aspects of writing skill

In terms of writing skill, there are three main aspects which are discussed in this part as follows: 1) micro and macro skills of writing, 2) mechanical components of writing, 3) cohesion and coherence of writing

1) Micro and macro skills of writing

According to Brown (2001), micro skills are more suitable for imitative and intensive types of writing task In addition, Brown (2001) enumerates micro skills for writing as follows:

1 Produce graphemes and orthographic patterns of English

2 Produce writing at an efficient rate of speed to suit the purpose

3 Produce an acceptable core of words and use appropriate word order patterns, and rules

4 Use acceptable grammatical systems (e.g., tense, agreement, pluralization), patterns, and rules

5 Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms

6 Use cohesive devices in written discourse

(Brown, 2001, p.343)

It means that when learners write, they should consider letters or combination of

letters, e.g f in fun or gh in laugh in order to distinguish one word from another, the time for

finishing writing, core of words, word order and rules Besides, learners should pay much attention to grammatical systems and rules because both of them are very important and will occur during writing process For example, when writers write one sentence, they should focus on tense such as past, present, simple, agreement between subject and verb, singular or plural for main verb, etc In addition, writers should know how to use different grammatical forms in order to make a result in creating a particular meaning Last but not least, writers should consider cohesive devices such as transitional words and phrases to help readers have clear understanding about the relationship among ideas in a piece of writing

For macro skills of writing, Brown (2001) states that macro skills are necessary for the successful mastery of responsive and extensive writing because macro skills mainly focus on the message which the writer intends for readers by using strategies in writing Moreover, Brown (2001) also figures out a list of macro skills as follows:

1 Use the rhetorical forms and conventions of written discourse

2 Appropriately accomplish the communicative functions of written texts

according to form and purpose

3 Convey links and connections between events, and communicate such

relations as main idea, supporting idea, new information, given information, generalization, and exemplification

4 Distinguish between literal and implied meanings when writing

5 Correctly convey culturally specific references in the context of the written

text

6 Develop and use a battery, using of writing strategies, such as accurately

assessing the audience’s interpretation, using prewriting devices, writing with fluency in the first drafts, using paraphrases and synonyms, soliciting peer and instructor feedback, and using feedback for revising and editing, /…/

(Brown, 2001, 343)

Additionally, as stated by Spratt et al (2005), writing consists of several sub skills such

as spelling correctly, punctuation correctly, choosing the right vocabulary, using grammar correctly, using correct layouts, etc

2) Mechanical components of writing

According to Harmer (2004), mechanical components of writing involve punctuation, spelling, handwriting, and construction of well-performed sentences, paragraphs and texts

He also insists that mechanical components of writing take an important role in writing Thus, those components should be introduced in every stage of teaching and learning process of writing

3) Cohesion and coherence of writing

In terms of the grammatical or lexical relationship between the different elements of the text, the concept of cohesion can be defined as relations of meaning which exist within the text and that define it as a text (Halliday, 2002) In other words, cohesion is considered as

a linking relationship of a number of linguistics elements that can be seen in the structure of the text surface Moreover, Halliday (2002) identifies two main types of cohesion in English

as lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion The grammatical cohesion is classified into reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction

On the contrary, coherence is defined by Castro (2004) as the link in a text which connects ideas and makes the flow of thoughts meaningful and clear for reader to read and understand as the text follows a certain kind of logical order among elements in a text and the organization of ideas is systematical and logical

Cohesion and coherence are important skills for students to pay much attention to because cohesion and coherence closely linked together This view is shared by Harmer

(2004) who confirms that both cohesion and coherence are necessary to make the writing more accessible because when sentences, ideas, and details fit together clearly, it is easier for readers to follow, which results in coherence in writing

In short, the micro and macro skills, the mechanical components and cohesion and coherence are important aspects of writing Therefore, an awareness of all these aspects of writing mentioned above is a key for writer to have the good paragraph compositions As a result, these skills of writing should be introduced to students before and during the process

of writing composition It will help students to get used to writing more effectively as they apply those skills of writing in each stage of the process of writing

2.1.4 Approaches to teaching writing

There are a number of approaches implemented in teaching and learning ESL/ EFL writing have been known to many teachers and researchers of English writing However, there are two most famous approaches that have been applied in classrooms and extensively researched named product approach and process approach

2.1.4.1 Product approach

Product approach is regarded as one of the earliest approaches in which students have

to start from pre-writing to composing and to correcting This approach mainly focuses on raising student awareness of grammatical structures (Tangpermpoon, 2008) Similarly, Nunan (1999) states that the product approach focuses on tasks that learners imitate, copy and transform models of correct language provided by textbooks or by teachers Writing classes, thus, involve in the sentence level and grammar exercises only Saeidi & Sahebkheir (2011) also agree that modeling is at the center of this approach and is considered as an effective teaching tool as well as a beneficial source for providing feedback to students if it is used appropriately

Another well- defined description of this approach is provided by Pincas (1982) She points out that in the product approach the focus is on linguistic knowledge in which great attention is mainly based on using vocabulary, syntax and cohesive devices appropriately

As stated by Nunan (1999), the goal of the product approach is primarily on the final product of writing which should be a coherent, error-free text Therefore, Pincas (1982) states that in order to achieve the goal mentioned above, four stages in writing including familiarization, controlled writing, guided writing and free writing should be used in learning

to write In the familiarization stage helps learners raise awareness of particular text In this

stage, teacher introduces a topic by using guide in textbook and then model texts are read After that, most particular features of the gene are highlighted In the controlled and guided writing sections, learners practice the language skills provided and organize ideas with increasing freedom until learners are ready for the free production activity As for free writing stage, learners have to produce a writing product based on what they have learned Pincas (1982) also highlights that form should be focused rather than content as teacher grades students or gives comments As a result, teacher takes the role as provider model of language, guided exercises and corrector of errors when the final product is created It means that the process approach is thoroughly teacher-centered of the whole learning process The product approach is obviously appreciated for providing the learners with linguistic knowledge in terms rules and structures and helping learners have a clear idea about the organization of words and sentences by using model text However, this approach still has some limitations Murray (1980) point outs that model texts prevent L2 learners’ creativity in writing, especially when learners have to read the text, analyze it and start to write like the form of the text Moreover, Escholz (1980) has emphasized that in the product approach, the learners are encouraged to use the same plan in different settings and the same forms without considering content Hence, the imitation of models is considered as the process of

“stultifying and inhibiting writer rather than empowering them or liberating them” (Escholz,

1980, p.232) Reid (1993) also agrees that following the product approach, students often conduct writing without sense of audience and purpose which are the two crucial components for writing

In conclusion, the concern of the product approach is mainly on the correctness of the learners’ final products of writing based on knowledge about the structure of language, and writing development is mainly considered as the result of imitation of the form of texts provided by the teacher However, the activities of writing are controlled to avoid errors in the text composition which causes some limitations in developing creativity and the learners’ potential, both linguistic and personal

2.1.4.2 Process approach

Process approach was initiated as a pedagogical approach in the 1970s (MacArthur, Graham & Fitzgerald, 2006) Unlike the product approach which is more concerned with the final product, the coherent, and the error free text, the process approach emphasizes on the process of writing According to Zamel (1980), using this approach, the writer asks himself/

herself not only on purpose and audience but also on the way of composing by asking some questions such as “How do I write this?”, “How do I start?” etc Thus, the act of writing then becomes the result of the real need to express one’s personal feelings, reactions or experience within a climate of positive encouragement

Besides, Hatcher and Goddard (2005) note that in order to compose a good written text, learners will experience a number of stages and steps in which learners have to deal with different procedural strategies However, the writing process is seen as a “non-linear, exploratory, and generative process whereby writers discover and reformulate their ideas as they attempt to approximate meaning” (Zamel, 1983, p.165) For this point, Murray (1993) also points out that “the process of writing is not linear, but recursive” (p.337) That means learners move around the steps of writing once or many times, sometimes go forward and retrace these steps For instance, brainstorming in prewriting step can be exercised many times at different stages, in case writer realizes the need of having new ideas later in the writing process As a result, learners can go through the writing process in different ways in order to achieve the writing goals

In addition, the process approach has been considered as a method of thinking which helps students analyze and organize ideas Applebee (1986) highlights that the process approach provides “ a way to think about writing in terms of what the writer does (planning, revising, and the like) instead of in terms of what the final product look like (pattern of organization, spelling, grammar)” (p.96) Brown (2001) also agrees that a final written product is result of the thinking process which learners go through

Furthermore, in process approach, students are seen as the language creators in which they are given a chance to make decisions on how to begin, organize and express their ideas

in writing task This view is shared by Tribble (1996) who states that the process approach is

“an approach to the teaching of writing which stresses the creativity of the individual writer, and which pays attention to the development of good writing practices rather than the imitation of models” (p.160) Moreover, Silva (1996) adds that the process approach considers writing as a complex, recursive and creative process The learner who is active engagement in meaning discovery and expression is viewed as the center of attention whereas the teacher supports them in the development of writing strategies for getting started, drafting, revising, and editing Hence, in the process approach, learners are considered as a central in learning

Additionally, Raimes (1983) states that the process approach brings a lot of benefits for students because learners are given a suitable time for the writing process to work and what they first put down on paper is not necessarily correct right away as in the product approach

On the contrary, learners will receive the appropriate feedback from other students or teacher which is contributed to help learners adjust and revise what they are incorrect as well as help them discover new ideas, new sentences, and new words for the second draft

Although process approach has been an effective method in English as a Second Language (ESL), some scholars point out that process approach has its own drawbacks Harmer (2004) claims that “process of writing may not be the answer to every learning situation” (p.12) If we put too much emphasis on the process approach, we will fall into what Harmer (2004) calls “the process trap” (p.12) It means that writing follows steps may takes

up a lot of time, sometimes unsuitable to teaching situation if both teacher and student are paid too much attention on steps Besides, Reppen (2002) supposes that the process approach often disregards the importance of written form Therefore, many writing conventions will still be a mystery if teachers do not bring these forms and patterns of language use to conscious awareness Similarly, Badger & White (2000) also emphasizes that process approach cannot provide students with sufficient input, particularly, in terms of linguistic knowledge to write successfully, especially those who lack both knowledge and experience

To sum up, although the process approach still contains some drawbacks, it generally is

a useful tool for learners to improve their writing ability because the process approach focuses on the composing process which students are given a chance to discover and reformulate their ideas during the writing process Besides, with appropriate comments from teacher and other learners, learners can make a revision and get more inputs that result in their writing quality Moreover, in learning process, teacher who takes a role as facilitator helps students develop their critical thinking from their own experience as well as observation and learning is no longer a process which totally depends on the teacher

After discussing the characteristics of both product and process approach in teaching writing, it is easier to realize that both of them have their own strong points and weakness Therefore, the process of teaching writing must of course be seen in the perspective of a balance between process and product Raimes (1985) explains that “student should be taught not only heuristic devices to focus on meaning, but also heuristic devices to focus on rhetorical and linguistic features after the ideas have found some forms (pp.247- 248) In line

with Raimes (1985), Brown (2001) further explains that “the product is, after all, the ultimate goal; it is the reason that we go through the process of pre-writing, drafting, revising, and editing [ ] without that final product firmly in view, we could quite simply drown ourselves

in a sea of revisions Process is not the end; it is the means to the end.” (p.336) Furthermore, Nunan (1999) also agrees that what we need in the writing classroom are both models and appropriate procedures In other words, we should consider the need to attend to product as well as process in writing process

2.1.5 Writing process

Harmer (2004) defines the writing process as “the stages a writer goes through in order

to produce something in its final written form” (p.4)

Regarding the writing process, every writer follows his or her own writing process Hedge (1988) states that writing process consists of a number of stages making a sequence as

in Figure 2.1 below:

Figure 2.1: The process of the writing skill by Hedge (1988)

It seems that the process of writing is extremely complicated and messy Finally, Hedge (1988) divides the writing process into three main stages: pre-writing or planning, writing and re-writing/revision, and editing These three stages are also described in more details as below:

Pre-writing or planning: in this stage, writing purpose and target audience should be

identified because it influences language choice of writer For example, writer can choose what to say or present it in formal or informal style, serious or friendly, etc Also, the amount

of pre-writing or planning is different based on the task For instance, when writer write an email or letter to close friend, he or she sometimes doesn’t need to be well planned Whereas, writing an academic paper, writer should highly plan

being getting planning making making revising editing and motivated ideas and notes a first re-planning getting ready

to write together outlining draft redrafting for publication

Writing and re-writing/revision:

In pre-writing and planning, a writer focuses on how to say, whereas at this stage he focuses on what to say It means a writer typically write down ideas without much attention

to spelling, punctuation, grammar, etc The aim of the stage is the content or the subject matter of writing After finishing piece of writing, revision is applied to correct at the level of vocabulary, sentences, pattern, transitional words, omit repetition, etc Writing at this stage is viewed as drafting

Editing: it is the final step to readjust the text and correct the linguistic flaws It is clear

that poor writers often edit grammar, punctuation, spelling, etc at the beginning of the composition without noticing the fact that it is very important to produce a high quality of writing if writers leave the writing for later re-thinking and reorganizing

Meanwhile, according to Richards and Renandya (2002), there are four basic stages in the process of teaching writing: planning, drafting, revising and editing Four stages can be clarified as follows:

Planning: The aim of this stage is to encourage or stimulate students to write by giving

activities such as brain storming, rapid free writing or clustering, etc in order to help writers generate ideas or provide them learning experiences of writing

Drafting: At this stage, writers focus on the content and meaning of the writing without

paying much attention to the accuracy of the written work

Revising: The writers review the text to see whether the writers’ intention is clearer for

readers Thus, revising in this stage is not a simply activity of checking errors in language use, but the most important thing mainly focuses on improving content, organization of ideas

Editing: The writers tidy up the written works and prepare the final drafts At this stage,

writers focus on editing mistakes on spelling, grammar, sentences, punctuation, etc

Besides, according to Richards and Renandya (2002), some activities may be added in each stage in order to help students to learn of specific writing skills For example, brain storming, clustering, rapid free writing, etc could be used to stimulate and encourage students to write

From the point of view of (Steele, 2004), in order to write well, writers should follow eight stages as belows:

Stage one (brainstorming): In this stage, brainstorming and discussion are used by

students in order to generate ideas related to the topic

Stage two (Planning/ Structuring): all ideas that students have in stage one are

converted into note form and then students judge whether these ideas are good and appropriate for their writing

Stage three (Mind mapping): After choosing the appropriate ideas in stage two, students

organize these ideas into a ‘spidergram’, mind map or linear form Thus, it is easier for students to have deeper understanding about their text structure

Stage four (Writing the first draft): Students write the first draft, normally by forming

Stage seven (Final draft): Students write a final draft after finishing editing

Stage eight (Evaluation and teachers’ feedback): Students’ writings are evaluated and finally teachers give feedback

As for paragraph writing, Wohl (1985) states that having a good writing, learners should take at least three basic stages as follows:

1 Finding the topic sentence

2 Developing paragraph from topic sentence

3 Editing the finish product

In general, although every writers have their own writing processes, the stages in writing process cannot be separated because each stage in the writing process will connect together to help the writers to compose a high quality text However, as stated by Harmer (2004), teacher and student will easily fall in “ the process trap”(p.12) if they pay too much

attention to follow steps because a lot of steps may take time and sometimes students and teachers don’t have enough time to finish the final version Therefore, Harmer (2004) suggests that the writing process has four main elements: planning, drafting, editing (reflecting and revising), and producing the final version Harmer (2004) notes that there are three main points that writers have to think about when planning are the purpose, audience and content structure because these issues may affect type of text, the choice of language, information they include In addition, draft is considered as the first version of a piece of writing, which will be edited later Moreover, when editing, writer should read though the first draft for the general meaning, overall structure before focusing on detailed features such

as words and grammar Finally, after the process of reflecting and revising the draft, writer creates the final version which is more perfect than the first one

As for the study, eight stages of Steele (2004) and a stage named clustering, which was suggested by Richards and Renandya (2002) were employed

2.2 Collaborative learning

2.2.1 Definition of collaborative learning

Collaborative learning is often confused with cooperative learning However, Goodsell, Maher and Tino (1992) view collaborative learning as the learning approach umbrella for cooperative learning In fact, the concept of collaborative learning has been researched and discussed by many experts For instance, collaborative learning is defined by Dillenbourg (1999) to refer “a situation in which two or more people learn or attempt to learn something together” (p.1) Having the same view point with Dillenbourg (1999), Gokhale (1995) states that collaborative learning as “an instruction method in which students at various performance levels work together in small groups toward a common goal” (p.22) In addition, Smith and MacGregor (1992) consider collaborative learning as “an umbrella term for a variety of educational approaches involving joint intellectual effort by students, or students and teacher together.”(p.1) According to Smith and MacGregor (1992) ’s view, normally students have to work in groups consisting of two or more to find out solutions for problems

or complete the task, or create a product It means that students are center of learning They have to cooperate with other members in their own groups to exchange ideas, search for information, meanings to solve their current situation without waiting for the teachers’ clarification

From the point of view of Ingleton et al (2004), collaborative learning also involves “a sense of the social nature of learning and the emphasis on a social approach to the development of learning skills, work skills and life skills”(p.3) However, one of the most explicit definitions of collaborative learning is provided by Graham (2005) who states that collaborative learning is “ a small group of learners working together as a team to solve problems, complete a task, or accomplish a common goal” (p.11)

So far, from what have been mentioned about the definitions of collaborative learning,

it can be concluded that collaborative learning is a situation which learners are organized in groups and work together towards a common goal Students not only discuss, exchange their ideas and find solution to the problems but also learn how to be responsible for one another’s learning as well as their own in order to achieve a learning goal Thus, in groups students can share their strengths and develop their weak skills As a result, the success of one member also helps others in a group to be successful

2.2.2 Characteristics of collaborative learning

As pointed out by Johnson and Johnson (1987), collaborative learning (CL) doesn’t mean that students are asked to sit side by side in order to communicate and discuss with each other in order to complete their own task or only one or two members of a group complete all the group work and others simply put their names on the final product According to Graham, (2005), collaboration means students not only talk and share materials with each other in group but also use elements of CL effectively

There are five elements of collaborative learning which help students to increase their achievement and improve must be present in the classroom They are positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, group processing

2.2.2.1 Positive interdependence

As stated by Richards & Rodgers (2001) “Positive interdependence occurs when group members feel that what helps one member helps all and what hurts one member hurts all” (p.196) It requires that group members in CL have to raise their awareness of the importance

of each member in group because they are linked with each other in a way that one cannot succeed unless all members do The failure of one means the failure of all members in that group Thus, each member in group has to depend on each other to complete the tasks or a

shared goal Therefore, each member’s efforts benefit not only him/ herself but also for all group members

Besides, Johnson & Johnson (1987) note that positive interdependent helps students to improve not only their individuality but also their social identity Hence, positive interdependence is considered as the heart of CL Graham (2005) In line with Graham (2005), Cohen (1994) insists that without positive interdependence, students sometimes fall into the trap where one student seems to do all the group work Therefore, in order to raise students’ sense of joint responsibility and create the supportive social environment among them in group, teacher should give a clear task and a group goal so that students believe they “sink or swim together” As a result, students are more motivated, confident to reach the desired goal

2.2.2.2 Individual accountability

According to Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1998), “individual accountability is the measurement of whether or not each group member has achieved the groups’ goal Assessing the quality and quantity of each member’s contribution and giving the results to all group members.” (p.17) It means that in collaborative learning, the group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each member is accountable for contributing his or her fair share of the work Hence, the individual accountability is obviously a useful technique as the results

of individual performance are given back to the individual and the group because it helps the group knows which students need more assistance, support and encouragement in completing the assignment Thus, individual accountability is the key to ensuring that all group members take responsibility for contributing his or her fair share to the group’s success Graham (2005) also confirms that individual accountability strengthens every member of the group in order to achieve the final group outcome

To ensure that each student is individually accountable to his or her fair share of the group’s work, Johnson, Johnson, and Holubec (1998) suggest some common ways that teachers can apply in assessing how much effort each member is contributing to the group’s work as well as helping group avoid redundant efforts by members According to them, teacher should keep the size of the groups small In addition, after students are grouped and given tasks, teacher could observe each group and group members and keep track of students’ contribution to the group’s work Besides, teacher could require students to teach what they have learned to others or to edit each other’s work Moreover, teacher may give every member of the group an individual test to answer or ask one member of the group to

represent the whole group Furthermore, from the suggestion of Kagan (1992), teacher should give clear instruction of what and how the group should do in order to accomplish and achieve the main goal of the task In addition, averaging the group members’ scores is also considered as a useful tool to help students work collaboratively Moreover, the observation could be made by both teacher and peer to increase individual accountability

2.2.2.3 Face-to-face promotive interaction

According to Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1998), face-to-face promotive interaction

is fostered by the positive inter-relationships, and psychological adjustment and social competence among individuals In addition, it gives individuals opportunities to encourage, facilitate and support each other's efforts to overcome problem in order to accomplish the tasks as well as reach the group's goals Moreover, face to face promotive interaction also has several effects on individual members in group For example, it helps them exchange needed resources, provide feedback for all individuals to test ideas and build a framework for their knowledge in order to improve their performance effectively As a result, face-to-face interaction helps improve the quality of decision making, encourage students to be motivated

to strive for mutual benefits, and decrease levels of anxiety and stress

2.2.2.4 Social skills

Using the appropriate social skills is an important element to ensure collaborative learning effectively When working in team, students must know how to get to know and trust each other, to make communication accurately and effectively, support and help each other, control and resolve any conflicts occurred in order to solve the problems successfully (Johnson &Johnson, 1990)

Furthermore, Graham (2005) also emphasized that collaborative learning group will get higher achievement if collaborators have sufficient social skills Similarly, Schultz (1999) suggests that social skills should be taught explicitly to the students in order to help them work among themselves without the teacher’s authority or hostility Thus, teacher should help students identify which social skills they need for their collaborative learning such as decision-making, trust building, leadership, communication and conflict-management (Johnson &Johnson, 1990)

Briefly, to ensure the high quality collaboration, social skills must be taught for students because social skills are the key to group productivity

2.2.2.5 Group processing

According to Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1998), group processing is a reflection on sessions of collaborative learning in order to discuss how well they are achieving their goals and maintaining relationships Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1998) also point out that there are two levels of processing: small group and whole class Regarding to small group processing, groups have to describe what member actions were helpful and unhelpful in accomplishing the group’s work and make decisions if there is a need to make some changes

in order to clarify and improve the effectiveness of the members in contributing to the collaborative efforts to achieve the mutual goals

In terms of whole class processing, teacher take an essential role to help students achieve successful collaborative groups When collaborative learning groups are used, teacher observes the groups and gives feedback to each group by using formal observation sheet At the end of the class meeting, teacher shares the results of his or her observation with the students The results from teacher’s observation can be added with results of peer observations to get overall class data Then, basing on the results from small group processing and whole class processing, teacher can give feedback for each group to help them work better in the next session (Johnson, Johnson & Holubec, 1998)

Undoubtedly, group processing is thus important because it gives students an opportunity to not only receive the feedback from teacher and others but also evaluate and adjust their group actions in order to help group achieve the group’s goal

In conclusion, five elements of collaborative learning are very important to build a collaborative learning group Therefore, when designing activities, teacher should pay attention to organize classroom and activities appropriately to ensure that five elements mentioned above incorporated to help students work collaboratively to achieve the best possible result

2.2.3 Benefits and drawbacks of collaborative learning

2.2.3.1 Benefits

There are a number of benefits that are associated with the concept of collaborative learning such as academic benefits, social benefits, psychological benefits which are clarified clearly in this study

Academic benefits

As mentioned in the definition, in collaborative learning, students have to work together In groups, they engage in discussion, exchange, debate or negotiate ideas with each other Moreover, students in groups are also given an opportunity to express their thoughts and learn how gather relevant information, assess the ideas of peers and determine the findings as well As a result, collaborative learning provides opportunities for higher order thinking and students are encouraged to become critical thinkers (Totten, Sills, Digby, & Russ, 1991) Importantly, Johnson and Johnson (1986) in their research have pointed out persuasive evidence that students who work in teams get higher levels of thought than students who work individually

Besides, Johnson and Johnson (1986) mentioned that students preserve the information longer by engaging in groups This view is also shared by Davis (1993) who states that students who work in the collaborative groups tend to learn more than what is taught and retain it longer if the same content is presented It is clarified by Ames and Murray (1982) that when students engage in group discussion, they often deal with discussion of controversial ideas Hence, they have to use their own vocabulary and give comments based

on their previous knowledge to frame the new concepts Thus, this process helps students have deeper understanding and obviously leads to retain the content longer

Another benefit of collaborative learning is to foster metacognition in students According to O’Donnell and Dansereau (1992), metacognition in students as mentioned means student recognition and analysis of how they learn In fact, sometimes in collaborative groups, students are asked to reflect their own contributions to the group which they are joined in Also, they have to assess their group’s performance, make suggestions for group’s improvement or even make necessary corrections which will help to improve group results in the future (Pressels, 1992)

Furthermore, CL helps students take more responsibility for their learning In collaborative learning, students not only take responsible for themselves but also other group members by assisting each other, cooperating to fulfill the tasks assigned for their groups, and assessing all processes which achieved by both individuals and groups as well In fact, by working together in groups, students become more mature and responsible for their learning Hence, teachers are no longer sole sources of knowledge and the director of the class In collaborative learning, students have to take responsible to find information and solve

problems which they are encountered As a result, students involves actively in the learning process while teachers act as a facilitator and passive follower (Baird &White, 1984)

Additionally, CL is a valuable method to develop oral communication skills This view

is shared by Neer (1987) who states that when working in groups, students have to not only listen to others but also give their questions or comments upon what they have heard Sometimes, they have to make a clarification or explanation relating to the problems that they are solving in order to help others members have a deep understanding about what they mentioned Consequently, students working in groups interact with one another and lead to develop communication skills

Moreover, CL helps students be actively engaged in learning process According to Slavin (1990), CL creates an environment in which students have attempt to answer the questions or solve the problems by interacting with each other, seeking necessary information, sharing ideas, making decision about what they learn and how they use knowledge, giving suggestions, etc Hence, students actively participate in learning environment when they take more responsibility for their performance, have opportunities to contribute in their groups and also make decisions to solve the problems in learning

In addition, applying CL in classroom also helps students improve their learning results In fact, Bligh (1972) states that CL helps students to get a higher level of performance Also, Kulik and Kulik (1979) explain that working as a team increases students’ critical thinking skills, information retention and improves their interest in the subject matter as well Notably, Cohen (1994) indicates that weaker students’ performance is improved by grouping weaker students with higher achieving students In the same way, Swing and Peterson (1982) in their studies of collaborative seat work also agree that students

of low achievement benefit from heterogeneous grouping as they interact with others of higher achievement Besides, higher achieving students also benefit from participating in heterogeneous groups, especially when they give explanation to others of lower achievement

As for improvements in writing, Gousseva-Goodwin (2000) and Storch (2005) in their studies found that advanced ESL learners’ collaborative essay grades and grammatical accuracy were higher than those done independently A reason for the higher grades is the students “have attained the skills necessary to self-edit and revise their own writing” (Rollinson, 2005, p.29) Similarly, Murphy and Jacobs (2000) also states that the collaborative process leads to more productive feedback sessions Generally, it can be

inferred from the above that through CL, learners learning can learn more effectively than by working independently

Social benefits

Firstly, students’ interpersonal relationships are developed as they work together and help each other Johnson and Johnson (1987) point out interpersonal relationships among students created by combination of many factors including self and group assessment, the social nature of collaborative learning process and improvement techniques as well Especially, CL brings students together long enough during a course Actually, students in groups can contact each other to solve the problems in learning or even extend their activities outside of class (Bean, 1996)

Secondly, a significant benefit of CL is regarding to social interaction skills Indeed, working as a team, students have to learn to relate to their peer and other learners Therefore, social interaction skills are fostered as students learn how to listen to each other, expressing ideas, interrupt politely, negotiate, asking for help, etc In fact, Cohen and Cohen (1991) also agree that working in groups not only helps students raise awareness of the need for healthy and positive but also helps interactions

Last but not least, other social benefits of CL are founded by many well-known researchers For example, Yager (1985) mentions CL fosters empathy in students because CL encourages students to work as a team by asking questions, debating issues or discussing each other’s ideas, etc During CL processes, students in comparison to others find out many differences in individual and culture As a result, they have deeper understanding about others’ differences in order to view situations from others’ perspectives Additionally, Johnson and Johnson (1990) indicate that CL reduces violence because CL is based on the model which eliminates fear and blame, foster friendliness, honor, ect

Psychological benefits

The first psychological benefit is shared by Kessler, Price and Wortman (1985) who state that CL reduces anxiety and create less stressful learning atmosphere In fact, in traditional class, each student is always afraid of making mistakes when he or she is called upon by teacher because any mistakes may become a subject to scrutiny by others This is considered one of the main reasons causing worry and anxiety in students On the other hand, working as a team, each student represents the whole group Obviously, no single individual

is blamed or criticized for any mistakes that he or she has made Furthermore, Slavin and Karweit (1981) point out mistakes occurred are reduced as students work in a group because the group product can be reviewed by their peers carefully before it is presented to the whole class In addition, Johnson, Johnson and Holubec (1995) confirm that group learning creates a supportive learning setting which competiveness and individualism are reduced Meanwhile, students are given more opportunities to actively talk and transform knowledge, create new ideas, etc For this reason, CL environment is considered as an effective way to reduce anxiety and create an atmosphere which student feel more comfortable to study

Another benefit of CL is to increase students’ esteem In terms of definition, esteem is defined by Rekurt (1994) is the evaluation of one’s self about one’s own self-worth

self-In collaborative learning environment, students work in groups and all members have to cooperate and support each other in order to accomplish a shared goal or tasks This process leads to create a supportive community As the result, the performance of each member is increased For this reason, self-esteem in all students is raised (Webb, 1982) Additionally, when students get higher achievement, they share their success with others in group Therefore, both individual’s and group’s self esteem are enhanced

However, to avoid the use of mother tongue during group work discussion, it is recommended by Harbord (1992) that teacher should discuss this problem with the students

at the beginning of the school years or the course It is usually the best way if teacher set a rule and be very strict by giving some light punishment such as extra homework or school work for those who speak mother tongue Besides, teacher should plan group work carefully

and help students understand the purpose and benefits of what they are doing It is also good ways to help students to set up a good habit of speaking only English in class

The second drawback of CL is related to noise and indiscipline generated during group work activities Noise can surely happen when students work in group because they have to discuss things related to the task such as check words, idea sharing, etc It is considered as a positive noise because students are concentrated on the task and they absolutely can hear one another in a group easily This view is also shared by Doff (1991) who states that “the noise created by pair work and group work is usually ‘good’ noise – students using English, or engaged in a learning task” (p.141) Therefore, if the noise is not likely to disturb other class, teacher can ignore it However, sometimes in class some lower-ability students don’t concentrate on the task and begin making noise which can distract other students To avoid this problem, teacher should plan activities carefully and give students clear instructions about what they should do in the activities, how many times for each task, etc (Harbord, 1992) In fact, it is usually best for teachers to control if the task are designed not to take too long because some groups will finish quickly they can disturb other groups

Another drawback of CL shared by Ettinger and Eisenhower (2006) is a loss of control

In fact, it is easier for teachers to control a small class rather than a big class with using group work because teacher sometimes does not know what students are discussing in group whether they are taking about the task or they are talking something else Some students in a group sometimes do not work properly Some of them simply pretend they are working with other members in a group To solve this problem, teacher should give a clear instruction and check whether students understand what to do before let students to work in groups Byrne (1989) also agrees that “sometimes this is just as important as explaining how to do something If the students understand why they are doing something, they will probably do it better.” (p.33- 34)

The next problem is some faster students may dominate others in a group of CL Randall (1999) emphasizes that in heterogeneous groups, stronger students often do most of the work and don’t want to teach to weaker students These stronger students often take a chance to express a lot of opinions, do a lot of things on the task Obviously, slower students may benefit from being worked with partners with higher level thinking skills In reality, it is quite difficult to deal with both types of students because dominant students somehow are more powerful and quite aggressive, talkative and want to do everything Meanwhile,