Learning and space mean communicationtheories rooting in china, india, and europe

Finally, the third example is conceptualizing “space” as result of human or general interaction and communication Ahamer, 2014a, b, 2016 and the subsequent understanding that space as su

think-on a cthink-oncept of space that is generated by communicatithink-on, and after a survey of historic approaches to space and cognition from Asia and Europe, learning is understood to be a generic result of the manifold- ness of views and perspectives A core suggestion of this text is: “to accelerate time means to facilitate learning” and vice-versa: “learning means to accelerate time” An approach of “meta-didactics” is proposed to lead to a competence that is capable of bridging all possible standpoints – especially in the fields of globalization, multicultural comprehension and education towards global peace.

1 THE GREATER CONTEXT

The theme of this entire book covers higher education including distance education; especially regarding

how leadership in both fields can be attained In this light, the present chapter decides on an unusual

approach in order to prepare a fundamental view on the foundations of education and learning

Learning and Space Mean

Communication:

Theories Rooting in China,

India, and Europe

Gilbert Ahamer

Graz University, Austria

Learning as a decisive and universal theme of human development is here fundamentally linked to

several other themes serving the targets of this text in the larger sense, namely

• (1) Global evolution – when keeping in mind that human and civilisational evolution is ently triggered, fostered and accelerated by successful (individual and collective) learning, hence

appar-(Formula 1, Ahamer, 2010)

Formula 1: Learning enhances global civilisational evolution

• (2) Well-being and health in a holistic sense (i.e., the potential and expectable sixth Kondratieff

upswing suggested among others by Nefiodow & Nefiodow, 2011) that intends cultural rium and the profound satisfaction of deep human needs in a society and the healing of energy-related imbalances (Tolle, 1997, Pearl, 2001, Loyd & Johnson, 2010, Hicks & Hicks, 2006, Thích Nhất Hạnh, 2010, Montessori, 1909, Steiner, 1960, Freire, 1968, Smith, 1976, Eckhart, 1993) to the degree possible under the given physical, evolutionary, developmental and political circum-stances (Formula 2) Life is perceived as an opportunity to attain personal freedom and mental wealth This approach is by far the most effective and strongest type of learning, but will not be dealt with in this chapter The intention is to allow for self-creation and this is exactly the approach

equilib-of an educator in the stage equilib-of mastery

Formula 2: Learning is healing Healing is learning

• (3) Communication in the general sense of mutual exchange that opens up “spaces” of tion and communication, which ultimately leads to autopoietic self-construction of a humanitarian

interac-community among the globe’s citizens, based on the key notion of responsibility This thought is expressed in Formula 3

Formula 3: What can be said about “space”, can be said about “learning” as well: both are constituted

by communication

The advantage of contemplating a greater context as suggested by Formula 1, Formula 2 and Formula

3 lies in the possibility of making use of the tremendously large literature and deeper understanding

provided by other streams of human thinking, namely (1) developmental and evolutionary theories of humanity, (2) psychotherapy including all traditions and options for individual or collective healing and finding a well-balanced status of living and (3) human geography, including its latest developments that

have recently made it a “theory exporting” branch of science

The motivation of the present article is hence to lay the foundations for an enriched concept of didactics and learning by including both Asian and European historical and contemporary traditions of thought,

including very innovative thought Such a concept of learning should build on primordial deliberations and entities and start from scratch, building only on unquestionable primary categories of thinking.More concretely, the aim of this chapter is to introduce a radically new theory of learning as such –

based on an audacious theory of space as such This chapter suggests applying what has been said on space also to learning – thus generating a new approach Conclusions for Higher Education (HE) are

provided – including distance education – and this is a good argument for taking into account definitions

of space as such

Actually, the three above-mentioned realms of thinking and theorizing are intertwined and entangled:

As a first example, Claire Graves’ theory of “Memes” (reported and structured by Beck & Cowan, 1996,

Graves, 1970, 1974 and Küstenmacher et al., 2012) describes how the entire evolution of civilization can be described by some nine consecutive main patterns of world views and value systems that can

be adopted by individuals and cultures In this evolutionary meta-theory, the five belief systems of the so-called “first tier” (usually characterized by the colors beige, purple, red, blue, orange, green1) can be transcended in a “second tier” (yellow, turquoise, coral) – a potential process that can take place & time actually during the present historical epoch2 It is important to note that each of the eight value systems

is present at any historic time in different individuals (according to Ernst Haeckel’s dictum for

biol-ogy in 1866: ontogenesis is abbreviated phylogenesis; Transemantics, 1977) while emphasis becomes

shifted throughout history – thus posing an eminent chance for both individual (and hence subsequent

collective) learning among mankind When following Clair Graves’ metatheory, each act of individual learning represents an actual facilitation for collective learning, hence human evolution in the sense of

humanitarian, psychic and social development Additionally, the author’s understanding of global tory as “blossoming evolution” (Ahamer, 2008) suggests that learning processes are the only means to speed up techno-socio-economic evolution Whatever theory of learning readers may choose, learning always means reaching a higher state of consciousness – whatever metric may be used to measure it

his-A second example is that learning (anamnesis – a term used by Plato – that learning consists of rediscovering the knowledge within us) was believed to be the same as re-calling pre-existent wisdom

(cf Roland, 2012, Tolle, 2005) and hence re-entrance into a well-equilibrated psychic state of freedom

and evolution – corresponding to an act of healing When building this conceptual bridge, a myriad of experiences and theories from psychotherapy, medicine and psychology become available for theoriz- ing “learning” Similar theories of global development correlate well with such a view: Amartya Sen

(1999) believes that “development” goes beyond classical views of economic development but includes dignity and freedom

Finally, the third example is conceptualizing “space” as result of human (or general) interaction and communication (Ahamer, 2014a, b, 2016) and the subsequent understanding that space as such

is constructed by human perception Continuing this thought into considering “spaces of perception” (see Table 1), which is actually the realm of didactics, allows the contemplation of several “truths” at

a time and the perception of them as gradual phases in an overall evolution directed to full humanism

The present chapter concentrates on the third of these three proposed links to other realms.

Table 1 Evolution of understanding and science can be pictured along three main categories: elements, interaction and communication between them, and perspectives on these.

categories element interaction (of elements) perspective (on interaction of elements)

branches of science physics,

mechanics (human) geography, systems analysis didactics, sociology, peace research

2 OPTIONS FOR CONCEPTS OF LEARNING

The motivation of the present article is to lay the fundament for a generic concept of learning based on communication and a theory of space resulting from communication (as such) Such a concept of learn-ing should build on primordial deliberations and entities and start from scratch, while disregarding any culturally-bound presuppositions

Here at the outset, an approach is selected that seems to be as fundamental as possible: which most basic deliberation shows what the foundational characteristics of learning are? In which category of thinking does learning fall?

In the author’s view, “learning” triggers a process of understanding that previously separated world views of individual humans converge even if these were too “distant” to interact directly and harmoni- ously Learning supports matching and connecting of (previously unconnected) world views and trains harmonious personal interaction Learning can be thought of as a provider of mutual understanding, hence as enabler for communication and cooperation In this concept (Formula 4), learning is propor-

tional (sign ∝) to the likelihood of actually changing “reality” (cf Ahamer, 2017, chapter 3.4.3) The

field of peace research and global development (including the most difficult of all Nobel Prizes, the

Nobel Peace Prize) may be especially inclined to such a definition Consequently, such a concept might

be capable of uniting the scientific fields of (social) communication and learning, and may contribute

to transdisciplinary understanding

Formula 4: successful learning ∝ likelihood of successfully changing “reality” cooperatively

2.1 Main Concepts of Learning and Space in History

When starting out from philosophy and theoretic geography, “space” clearly and visibly depends on the underlying communication procedures, as the German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1781) had already

posited in the 18th century Space and learning are a function (e.g written as f) of the communicative

process constituting them (generalized in Formula 5 and Formula 6, compare Formulae 4 to 15 in mer, 2014a), as is also stated by modern geographers (Herod, 2009, Soja, 2011, Ahamer, 2012a, 2013a) and – of course – by many authors in didactics

Aha-Formula 5: space = f (communication process)

Formula 6: learning = f (communication process)

Presently and practically, the enormous multitude of Internet users (hence, potential e-learning clients) makes the globe an ever moving, constantly re-aggregating cluster of bubbles, appearing and disappearing Symbolically, such a pattern might be envisioned as a cluster of soap bubbles of diverse radius (each representing a communicational, hence social aggregate: Figure 1 in Ahamer, 2014b: 169),

or as a boiling “primordial soup” of an upcoming communicational world, when inclining towards the noosphere concept of French philosopher and paleontologist Teilhard de Chardin (1955) and his Russian

counterpart Vladimir Vernadsky (1926) “We live in a transition (from biosphere) to the noosphere”

(Vernadsky, 1945); and such a transition was explicitly advocated and desired by both scientists

(Mo-chalov, 2011, Lapo, 2001, de Chardin, 1955) similarly to other advocates of evolutionary transitions (Raskin et al., 2002, Krausmann & Fischer-Kowalski, 2013) “The term biosphere was coined in 1875 by the famous Austrian geologist Eduard Suess (1831-1914)” (Trubetskova, 2004) The term “noosphere” (sphere of reason and thought) was first coined by the French mathematician and philosopher, Edouard

Le Roy, “building on Vernadsky’s ideas and on discussions with Teilhard de Chardin” (Le Roy, 1927,

Trubetskova, 2004) Again, both biosphere and noosphere are seen here as both spaces and learning

effects constituted by characteristic modes of communication therein

2.2 Deliberation Towards a Communicational Space

It can be deliberated and hypothesized that in our Internet age, the conceived sole importance of geodetic space is likely to implode imminently, at least for several layers of relevance within life and conscious-ness In such a reductionist view, when clicking the mouse to enter a social web, our clicking finger annihilates the (purely geodetic relevance of) planet Earth not by physically destroying it, but by render-ing its traditional metric less relevant What becomes irrelevant will slip out of attention, hence out of consciousness; therefore, it is no longer perceived, and as such no longer exists (in our perception, cf Ahamer, 2014a, b)

Space-less communication destroys the unique relevance of geodesy in the traditional sense.Analogously, it can be postulated that communication deprived of learning destroys the classical meaning of “truth”

Figure 1 Chien, Auo, Shih Modes of Chinese perception of space (Lai, 1985)

2.3 Co-Evolution of Space, Learning and Communication

Since the earliest epochs of organismic evolution, a tactile type of spatial learning (based on steric, hence

space-related properties of bio-macromolecules) has been perceived by flagellate proto-organisms (cf Pereira, 2015a, b) and similarly by the immune defense system; and most likely the nature of the respec-tively learned spaces has correlated closely with the communicational tools of the respective organisms The earlier the emergence of the perceiving organisms, the deeper their concept of learning might be rooted in collective cognitive structures, materialized as “brain”, e.g tactile, audial, visual and other types of learning, taking place in the related “spaces” Geodetic learning in this deliberation has been implemented in acts of cognition for millions of years and has also been valid for bacteria since their

evolutionary emergence – which actually serves to convince most of us to insist that (geodetic) “learning

is really real” Conscious experience informs perceived “reality” (Brown, 2013).

2.4 Globalization is Key to the Understanding of Space and Learning

Similar deliberations may be found in geographic literature: Bryson et al (1990, p 24) saw “the myths

about globalization signaling the end of geography” and advocated the “death of distance” Through borderless information flow and e-commerce, (geodetic) space and related learning and time are largely being rendered irrelevant The similar but more widely-known expression of increasing “space-time compression” (Harvey, 1989) or “time-space shrinkage” denotes the same evolutionary structural civili-zational transition, in the words of a social geographer Similarly, by the term “time-space-distanciation”

the British sociologist Anthony Giddens (2001) refers to time and space as being a human construct

(Knox & Marston 2008, p 75) As compared to those ideas already presented in Ahamer (2014a, b),

the decisive step in the present chapter is that all these deliberations are applied to learning as well:

“learning-time compression” or “time-for-learning shrinkage” are newly emerging concepts that fit

well into the presumed shrinkage of time over history’s evolution and intensified global cooperation in ever more complex modes In line with the (admittedly audacious) definitions for the variable “time”

(which is usually seen as the independent variable in any science such as physics but is expressly seen

as a dependent variable here; see later in Formula 14 leads to Formula 15) we see that actually “time”

is the effect of a learning procedure Such an expressly taken view may reverse the traditional one taken

in science

Regarding the political and cultural phenomenon of globalization that we all face, for Anthony Giddens (2001) globalization is the consequence of modernity He describes globalization as the “restructuring

of space and time”; this equals – seen through a sociologist’s lens – exactly what this article attempts to

consider, namely the communicational constitution of space and learning.

In this sense, globalization can be defined as the intensification of worldwide social relations that link distant realities in such a way that “local occurrences are shaped by events occurring far away”, and vice versa (Giddens, 1990, p 64) Globalization might well act as a catalyst to push learning further to an advanced understanding of evolution, complexity, and human nature on a higher level of consciousness.What was suggested in the paragraph above can be seen as quite the same message as was described

in the domain of quantum physics in the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen (EPR) paradox (Einstein et al 1935;

Moser 1989; 1991; 1992; Zeilinger, 2007, p 333; CABEQ, 2004), where subatomic properties such as

an electron’s spin are communicated faster than the speed of light, thus opening up the concept of locality (Gröblacher et al., 2007) Einstein’s disciple Bohm (1980, p xv) finds that “in the enfolded [or

non-implicate] order, learning and time are no longer the dominant factors determining the relationships of dependence or independence of different elements” and develops a theory that “is not based on the use

of a learning-time description” (Bohm et al., 1970, p 171); similar to Sheldrake’s (2009) morphogenetic fields or Pribram’s (1991) suggestion that memories may be enfolded within every region of the brain rather than being localized in one region (holonomic brain theory, Pribram & Meade, 1999), resembling a hologram that mathematically uses Fourier transforms (Similarly, Ahamer (2014a, b) proposes functional spaces in addition to geo-spaces, which are again open to learning by social interaction.) Far-reaching interpretations of quantum mechanics have been widely popularized by the Austrian physicist Fritjof Capra (1975), including Asian philosophical approaches to uncertainty, indeterminacy, and freedom.Also the distinction between cognizing subject and cognized object, and their principal independence from each other, is essentially suspended in quantum mechanics (Wichmann, 1971) Hence, theoretical physics has, in a way, conceptually prepared a century ago what this article is attempting to convey now.The French theorist of space Lefebvre (1974) suggested the three following concepts of space: 1 spatial practices, 2 representations of space, and 3 spaces of representation

In the author’s understanding, space is the opportunity for processes of change to occur (Ahamer, 2014a: Formula 14), hence a life in space allows for learning.

2.5 What Didactics is

Traditionally, the science that deals with learning is didactics While students learn how to take

(suit-able) perspectives, didactics trains how this can best be done

As a new attempt to define the approach of the scientific discipline of didactics, in the context of Table 1 the present chapter states (Formula 7):

Formula 7: Didactics trains the training of taking views and perspectives

The concepts presented by didactics are hence transdisciplinary by nature

From this perspective, learning – or rather, successful acts of learning– facilitate training for tion, containing therein all possible modes of perception

percep-3 DO EASTERN AND WESTERN CONCEPTS OF

SPACE AND LEARNING CONVERGE?

3.1 Far Eastern approaches to Space and Cognition

3.1.1 Chinese Historic Approaches Towards Space

It can be helpful to examine other traditions of understanding what space is In particular, the long nese philosophical tradition shows promise in widening a purely occidental perspective This chapter follows some attempts at intercultural modes of studying what space might result from

Chi-Innovation – according to Thomas S Kuhn (1962) – often consists in applying paradigms of one scientific discipline to another discipline

As one example, the Chinese architect Chih-Ta Lai (1985) in his study at the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology applies philosophical spatial concepts to architecture and understands them as being pable of evolving throughout history, as in the case of China over 30 centuries Lai (1985, p 2, Ahamer,

ca-2014b: 173ff) sees the characteristics of spatial concepts as determined by the relationship between man and phenomena; this relationship may take three forms that follow each other in historic development (Figure 1): Chien, Auo, and Shih.

Only imperfect translations can be found for those concepts of spatial paradigms which were prevalent

during different times: Chien means the in-between (relevant in architecture before the Han dynasty,

206 BC to 220 AD), Auo means profundity (from the Han dynasty through the Tang, 618-907 AD, and Song dynasties, 960-1279 AD; and similar to Japanese oku), and Shih means tendency and atmosphere,

developing tendency, changing situation (since the Song dynasty, prevailing through the Ming,

1368-1644 AD, and Qing dynasties, 1368-1644-1911 AD) (Lai, 1985, p 23-33; 102)

“Shih hints at a sense of flowing, growing and interacting It describes any phenomenon with force, energy and everything is perceived as ‘alive’ and dynamic It seems that Shih concerns the changing rhythms rather than the static characteristics of the universe It reflects a holistic view of the universe.” (Lai, 1985, p 35; 71)

For Laotse (cf Lai, 1985, p 21), the utility of space lies in its hollowness, perceptiveness and ness; the void (the immaterial) is important for its ability to be filled by the solid (the material) Clearly,

empti-this “Eastern” understanding of space is very close to “Western” quantum mechanics where space is

probability space or state space; a vessel to be filled by occurring elementary particles (Wichmann,

1971), yet similar to “container space” perceived in early traditions of geography (Hund, 1972; Čapek,

1976, p 113) For Laotse, the non-space (windows, doors etc.) offers opportunities for decisions to be made (Chang, 1981)

Additionally, the Tibetian author Tarthang Tulku (1986, p 30) explicitly invites the study of infinite space as such (not only an infinite number of objects in space) which he holds to be a more promising route to relaxation and personal satisfaction Ultimately, he concludes in his book: “Space projects space into space” (Tulku, 1986, p 33)

In the author’s understanding, space (in the context of this subsection) is the fixed, already for; while non-space is the yet open, still-permitted option to act (could also be described as potential)

decided-– hence learning This is similar to quantum mechanics, where the probability function of an unmeasured entity is still undecided (Schrödinger, 1935) Compare also the well-known paradox of Schrödinger’s cat, as was fundamentally revealed by quantum mechanics in the 1920s (Heisenberg, 1969)

As mentioned, this chapter tries to generalize the notion of ‘space’ As mentioned by the Australian futurologist Joseph Voros (2001, 2003, 2005, 2006a, b, 2008):

the distinctions between Chien and Auo seem to resonate with the idea of ‘extended’ and ‘unextended’ space, or Ken Wilber’s right-hand quadrants (extension) and left-hand quadrants (interiority) (Wilber, 1997) The ‘space’ of interiority is similarly characterizable by way of the ‘depth’ of interpretation pos- sible in that interiority In Wilber’s view, the complexity of connections in physical space (brain wiring

or ‘connectome’) apparently gives rise to a ‘deeper’ interior ‘space’.

3.1.2 Similar spatial understanding in Japan

As an example of similar understanding in related cultures, Chien is analogous to the Japanese ma

(the thing that takes place in the imagination of the human who experiences compositional elements: Nitschke, 1966, 1988) and is written with the same character (Figure 1 above) This character’s center

is the pictorial sign for the moon, under the sign for gate; the combination depicts the delicate moment

of moonlight streaming through a chink in the entrance way, expressing two simultaneous components

of a sense of place: the given and the felt aspect (Nitschke, 1993, p 51, see in Figure 1 and in Figure 2)

The conceptual importance of emptiness and void is underlined by this citation: “Length of time

depends upon your ideas Size of space hangs upon your sentiments For one whose mind is free from care a day will outlast the millennium For one whose heart is large, a tiny room is as the space between heaven and earth.” (cited after Nitschke, 1967, p 1006; 1966, p 113, translated from Saikotan [Vegetable Root Talks], Yuhodo, Tokyo, 1926)

The traditional Japanese consciousness of space distinguishes three steps: first kukan (space), second

ma (place), third dai-kyu (great emptiness) (Nitschke, 1967).

Modern literature provides encouragement for the notion that modes of perception can be transferred and yet remain valid in other civilizations and cultures: According to Küstenmacher et al (2012, p 245sq), the Wilber-Combs lattice (Wilber, 2006, p 89) illustrates that each mode of vision and understanding can be achieved in each civilization, culture or psychological phase of development – thus, in a sense, contradicting (neo-)classical economic development theory (e.g Rostow, 1960)

3.1.3 An Evolutionary Sequence of Three Chinese Spatial Concepts

For Lai (1985, p 70) spatial concepts not only coexist but develop one after another, based on a cyclic procedure of perception, conception and application of space (Figure 3) Similarly, and also illustrated

during the evolution of geography throughout history (Ahamer, 2012a; 2013a), the concept of space has Figure 2 The letter of Chien Source: Nitschke, 1966)

evolved into it being perceived as a constructed entity The same applies to learning: it can be seen as a construction of “understanding” (compare with Formula 7).

According to his general system (Figure 3), Lai (1985) next looks into the perception of the three spatial concepts

For the architect Lai, the modes of space perception are not only distinct phases in philosophical thought, but are reflected in distinct architectural approaches towards buildings, architectural style and spatial planning

1 Chien (explained in the first row of Table 2) results from the inevitable fact that “space has to be perceived” (Lai, 1985, p 58) Even if looking back is impossible for this divergent body percep-

tion, Chien is not replaced but coexists while being complemented by other modes of perception

2 In Auo (second row in Table 2), man escapes from the enclosure of external phenomena and tries

to observe internal phenomena from the outside, by spirit perception “Man can manipulate his

own mind into a spiritual status to get rid of the constraints of the physical body (…) and then the whole appearance of the universe gets graspable (…) and one can get into a formless world that is

Figure 3 The procedure of space perception and space-making after Lai (1985, p 70) integrated into the larger concept of contemplation and acting

Table 2 Modes of Chinese space perception in three stages according to Lai (1985).

Perceptual …

Mode subject object medium move translation situation

Chien man external phenomena body inside-out inside,

in-between man at center, diverging Auo man internal phenomena spirit outside-in sense of

profundity man converges to a formless center Shih man external and

internal phenomena breath reciprocal flow in-out tendency man and phenomena

integrated

void (…) and profound An ancient Chinese saying goes: ‘huge without outside’ – how can man grasp it?” (Lai, 1985, p 48; 63).

3 In Shih (third row in Table 2), man and phenomena are no longer two independent subjects, but an

‘integrated entity’; there is no distinction between man and phenomena, as with inside and outside, respectively (…) Even if it is impossible to change objective facts by subjective thinking, it can give them different meaning; we cannot change the facts of integration but the meaning of integration (…) One may try to imagine ch’i (breath) as the basic compositional element of everything (…) it

could be the base of a two-way thinking The way is to change perceptual skill once again (…) and

to imagine a situation of no-distinction-between-the-inside-and-the-outside-of-the-body without violating the fact that the-body-does-not-have-an-inside-and-an-outside (…) and obviously, what

we need is another medium (…), the only thing which can flow into and out of the human body is breath.” (Lai, 1985, p 52; 64)

Compare this breath3 to “spirit” in a Western tradition, namely denoting the communicative aspect between the “me” and the “you” (Buber, 1922), sometimes conceived as a third person, and compare this notion of breath also to exercises involving breathing in Tulku (1986, p 97) and other authors

Whereas Auo does not replace Chien but is complementary, Shih replaces the other two concepts

as the third evolutionary stage – and is applied in order to understand the development of Chinese chitecture’s history

ar-Lai (1985, p 58) understands the emergence of spatial concepts as a process of learning (i.e., of how

to perceive space), hence as evolutionary; and as “the result of perceiving phenomena from different

positions”

3.1.4 The Example of Japanese Grammar and Fields

The structure of a language and its grammar is able to reflect fundamental decisions on how to deal with relations (e.g., how to construct a space); in very interesting manner in the case of Japanese grammar

as analyzed in (Latka, 2003; 2007a; 2007b; 2010) A similar and potentially interesting approach is the prefigured (morphic) fields by Rupert Sheldrake (1988) that are used e.g by Bert Hellinger’s (2010, 2013) family constellations and by and Latka (2008; 2003, p 53)

3.1.5 Indian Concepts

In Indian philosophy, as in quantum mechanics, the difference between cognizing and cognized is solving (i.e., leading towards non-duality), notably along eight levels of cognition, consciousness or

dis-jhanas (WP, 2013) These levels are grouped into a first set of four (rūpa jhānas, meditations of form)

and a second set of four (arūpa jhānas, formless meditations)

While rupa jhanas differ according to their characteristics, arupa jhanas differ in the sense that their object is determined by the level of the jhana:

• Fifth jhāna: infinite space,

• Sixth jhāna: infinite consciousness,

• Seventh jhāna: infinite nothingness,

• Eighth jhāna: neither perception nor non-perception

This Buddhist concept means a state of extreme concentration and equanimity Obviously, such conscious states relate to respective “spaces”.

3.1.5 Postulative and Practical Approaches in Science: “Shift Happens”

It is not unusual, indeed very common in the world of mathematics that postulations of entities and their properties (Czajko, 2004, p 262) lie at the outset of deliberation The same approach of “postula-

tive mathematics” (and no other approach applies to the above subchapters), is used here, hence these

chapters comply with scientific traditions Lai (1985, p 67) calls the Chinese tradition “experiential, concentrating on the relationship between things – as different from the (essential) Western tradition which concentrates on things proper” Scientific method requires intersubjectivity and repeatablility

Because spirit’s exercises comply with both, they are acceptable as a means of generating new meaning Galileo Galilei’s telescope was also an intersubjective tool allowing for repeatablility; it enhanced the eye and initiated an enlargement of perceptions

The practical application of above modes of perception lies in creating space (be it as an architect

or otherwise); this is man’s response to the physical environment: the creation of space is dominated by spatial thinking, and the base for man’s thinking is the existing space, which man has no choice but to perceive (Lai, 1985, p 70), see Figure 3

A precondition for a new type of action (α) is a new type of understanding (ω) and perception or contemplation, as underlined by (Eastern and Western) philosophers; consequently, the way in which we understand space potentially influences even geo-politics The differentiation made in Ahamer (2013b)

in acting (α) and pereiving or contemplating (ω) equals Lai’s (1985, p 69) differentiation into tion and application (in Figure 3 and later in Formula 9): “creating space is something which cannot be

percep-separated from perceiving space” – a knowing-doing relationship (Star, 2000).

For architecture, the close connection between contemplating and acting is again underlined (Lai,

1985, p 89): we “have reconstructed a direct tie between spatial concepts and architecture in terms of physical form”; as examples, the neolithic hut as one solid object relates to Chien, the open inner court-yard embraced by the wings of the building to Auo – the void, and the communication between gates, houses and pavilions in recent gardens to Shih “The key to identifying their difference is to examine the continuity/discontinuity of the external boundary” (Lai, 1985, p 95; cf Tulku, 1986, p 47) “In both of the enclosures, there is a center: intangible and invisible in the courtyard case, but solid and tangible in the Chien case Similarly, the localisation on the main building has changed from center to outside along Such does create historical evolution in Chinese architecture for Lai, an understanding denied by many

of his Western architects Generally, where a manifold of conscious subjects is present they may be able

to create a space (space being understood as a potential for effective action), this is the primordial form

of constituting a space (Matthew, 80, p 18:20)

“Shift happens”; among others, a shift in perceptions of (political, action) spaces (Youtube, 2013)

has already taken place, as well as the shift occurring during the transitions of “blossoming evolution” (Ahamer, 2014b)

3.2 Western Historic Approaches to Space and Cognition

3.2.1 Wheeler’s Geometrodynamics and Space

Wheeler (1962) “made attempts at a unified field theory, dubbed geometrodynamics, but in it John

Archibald imperfectly explained the present state of physics and he abandoned it However, he also produced one of the best quotes in physics, ‘Time is what prevents everything from happening all at once.’” (NNDB, 2014) (By the way, compare the analogous definition of space in Ahamer, 2014a, b): Space is what prevents everything from happening all on the same spot.)

3.2.2 Experiential Scientists’ Concepts: Master Eckhart and Others

In the Western hemisphere, philosophers who were not widely acknowledged by later generations have developed ideas on space that are similar to Asian space perception: two are taken as examples in this subchapter

The German philosopher Meister Eckhart (1260-1327) suggests that before successful cognition, humans should become similar to what they are attempting to cognize (Eckhart, 1993) They should not remain with the effable, but should instead progress to the non-effable – simple silence while fac-ing property-less existence after the dissolution of roles “cognized” vs “cognizing” became effective (Eckhart, 1993, Schucman, 1976) The manner of existence in physical reality is not static, but is rather

a continuous process

3.2.3 Common Features of “Spaces” in Diverse Cultures and Meanings

Regardless of their cultural origin or historic age, the above subchapters have attempted to illustrate that (spatial) experiences may be “anthropological constants” and culturally invariant Advanced experiential concepts suggest non-duality (i.e the vanishing distinction between cognized and cognizing entities as also suggested by quantum mechanics), irrespective of cultural background

The appropriateness of the method “spiritual vision” as a scientific approach (chapter 2.1, Lai 1985) is endorsed by the fact that it is repeatable and intersubjective; the latter being underlined by the numerous literature sources (Lai, 1985, p 83; Spiral Dynamics, 2013; Küstenmacher et al., 2012, p 291, Tolle, 1997) that speak about the same experience of form-less cognition which analogously appears in Eastern and Western thought As cited in literature (Küstenmacher et al., 2012, p 261) “in Islamic sufism, ac-cording to Halladj (857-922), the ‘me’ and the ‘you’ merge into each other”; the same was experienced

by Katharina of Genova (1447-1510) and Hindu philosopher Shankara (8th century), and by Zen dhists The early European philosopher Meister Eckhart stated “the eye by which you see me is the eye

Bud-by which I am seen” – hence, the dissolution of distinction between the cognizing, the cognized, and cognition – which quantum mechanics as a “hard” science endorsed a century ago (Wichmann, 1971)

As a further example, Michael Talbot (1991) finds the universe to have holographic properties (i.e., each

part of it contains all information), “building his book on earlier views by David Bohm (1980; 1993), a protege of Einstein’s and one of the world’s most respected quantum physicists; and Karl Pribram (1971),

a neurophysiologist at Stanford University”, as well as Bernie Siegel (1986) The shifting meaning of space in our Internet age simply appears as an implementation of the above

Walsh (2007, p 8) says: “Beyond vision-logic, for Ken Wilber, lie a further four major stages which

he calls psychic, subtle, causal and nondual (…) and associates these stages with four types of cism: nature, deity, formless and nondual.” “Wilber associates his (i.e., what he named) psychic, subtle, causal, and nondual stages with four types of mysticism: nature, deity, formless, and nondual, and sug-gests as exemplars of these Ralph Waldo Emerson, St Teresa, Meister Eckhart and Ramana Maharshi.”The main conclusion of this subchapter 3 is that for the target of this deliberation, it behooves us to explore many modes of human communication as provided by scientists and philosophers from both East and West throughout the centuries, because such modes of communication are likely to endow

mysti-characteristic and specific spaces – and thus modes of learning In this light, a primordial theory of learning through communication and a primordial theory of space appear as only two perspectives on one fundamental entity.

4 A FORMALIZED DESCRIPTION OF ACTIONS IN SPACE AND IN LEARNING 4.1 Communicational Space in the Case of Virtual Communication

After the “tour d’horizon” through various concepts of space in subchapter 3, this text attempts to build

up a generic concept of space entirely from scratch in this chapter 4 According to the findings of chapter 2, and in line with many authors from human geography and sociology, a formalized definition

sub-begins with the underlying communication by which space is endowed (Ahamer 2014a, b, 2016).

Every theorist of (social) space has applied their theoretical deliberations to society: David Harvey,

Ed Soja, Henri Lefebvre, Anthony Giddens and more

Analogously, and based on the above systematizations and tables, the first hints toward characteristics

of social constructs that emerge from these three typologies and nodes of interaction are deliberated

A social body emerges based on a communicational space, i.e., a space endowed by communication.Actually, the metric of space is most often the speed of communication or the speed to reach a target Hence, a time-related quality implies a space-related quality In this understanding, whoever is able to communicate with everybody is at the center (of communicational behavior); at least in their own per-ception This applies to standard social life but also to web-mediated scientific communication such as

ResearchGate (2016) Communication (as a key element making up what is human) produces a position

in space (a key element of the universe) Furthermore, wherever instantaneous communication existed,

there would instantaneously be no space Formal proof: space needs future (location of future path); if there is no meaningful time, space collapses

4.2 Formalistic and Primordial Understandings of Space

From Ahamer et al (2010, p 302) the definitions of space and time are taken and further developed here In order to combine several of the approaches to time-space discussed above, the author suggests Formula 8 where “walking” denotes a procedure over time A path is seen as space already traversed

Formula 8:

space = paths not yet walked on

path = space already walked on

Compare with “learning”: understanding not yet taken on vs already taken on

Against this background, space provides opportunities and options to act (such options might even

be counted as advantageous over space-less vision) In cases where there is no more time, the ments of space collapse because of a deficit of “future” paths Such interdependence links the existence

funda-of time and space to each other In Formula 8, “path” has the role funda-of “location, place” along a dynamic procedure according to Lefebvre’s (1991) threefold relevance of space

Revisiting the two extreme cases in Formula 9 (α and ω), we hypothesize that along evolution the

density of interaction always increases and communication is ever more facilitated Consequently, the

secular (long-term) trend would lead to an ever more communicational world, hence to an ever more acting world (more α).

Formula 9:

ω = omega = contemplation = space

α = alpha = acting = path / place

One of the main conclusions from the more primordial role of communication compared to the role

of space, as posited by this article, is a new hierarchy of entities (Formula 10): A manifoldness produces

its space In this view, space is clearly not a prerequisite for a manifoldness to exist On the contrary: Space is the result of a manifoldness Therefore, in this article’s view, space is a secondary concept, and manifoldness is a primary concept In fact, manifoldness does seem more fundamental than space,

which appears as less fundamental

The genesis of space is mediated by communication The same applies to learning

Formula 10:

space = f(manifoldness)

learning = f(manifoldness)

In the view of Formula 10, learning means to actually take the offer to reconsider earlier orientation

in the “spaces of views, approaches, perspectives and values”

A very practical, astronomical and well-observed example underlining this statement, complying with modern relativity theory, is the curving of geo-space (Weinberg, 1972) in the proximity of a (celestial) body with very high mass In this example, “gravitation” is the expression of communication between the two celestial bodies