Handbook of food and beverage stability

CHAPTER 1 EFFECT OF AGING ON FRESHNESS OF WHITE PAN BREAD KAREL KULP JAMES VETTER American Institute of Baking Manhattan, Kansas Tables 2 Figures 26 References 30 Handbook of Food and Be

Handbook of Food and

Beverage Stability Chemical, Biochemical, Microbiological, and Nutritional Aspects

Edited by

G E O R G E CHARALAMBOUS

St Louis, Missouri

ACADEMIC PRESS, INC

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Publishers

Orlando San Diego New York Austin London Montreal Sydney Tokyo Toronto

1986

2 4 - 2 8 Oval Road, London N W 1 7 D X

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

H a n d b o o k of food a n d beverage stability

Contributors

Numbers in parentheses indicate the pages on which the authors' contributions begin

MILTON E BAILEY (75), Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of

Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211

UMBERTO BRACCO (391), Nestlé Research Laboratories, CH-1800 Vevey, Switzer­

land

RONALD J CLARKE (685), Donnington, Chichester, Sussex P020 7PW, England LEOPOLDO G ENRIQUEZ (113), Department of Food Science and Technology,

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

GEORGE J FUCK, JR (113), Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

THOMSEN J HANSEN (423), Department of Nutrition and Food Sciences, Drexel

University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104

IAN HORMAN (391), Nestlé Research Laboratories, CH-1800 Vevey, Switzerland JANIS B HUBBARD (113), Department of Food Science and Technology, Virginia

Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia 24061

KAREL KULP (1), American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas 66502

DAVID C LEWIS (353), Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of

California, Davis, Davis, California 95616

WILLIAM W MENZ (621), Winston-Salem, North Carolina 27104

ROBERT R M O D (489), Southern Regional Research Center, United States Depart­

ment of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana 70179

STEVEN NAGY (719), Scientific Research Department, State of Florida Department of

Citrus, Lake Alfred, Florida 33850

JOHN H NELSON (33), Quality Assurance/Regulatory Compliance, Kraft, Inc.,

Glenview, Illinois 60025

TOSHITERU OHBA (773), National Research Institute of Brewing, Tokyo 114, Japan ROBERT L ORY (489), Southern Regional Research Center, United States Department

of Agriculture, New Orleans, Louisiana 70179

THOMAS M RADKE (467), Food Science Research Center, Chapman College,

of California, Davis, Davis, California 95616

JAMES S SWAN (801), Pentlands Scotch Whisky Research Ltd., Edinburgh EH 11 1QU, Scotland

JAMES VETTER (1), American Institute of Baking, Manhattan, Kansas 66502 TEI YAMANISHI (665), Ochanomizu University, Tokyo 167, Japan

TAMOTSU YOKOTSUKA (517), Kikkoman Corporation, 399 Noda-shi, Chiba-ken 278,Japan

Preface

A recently compiled list of world needs amenable to solution through chemistry was submitted to leaders in the world chemical community for comment and discus­ sion The application of chemistry to alleviate hunger was allotted high priority by almost everyone One way of achieving this, as the population of the world expands and the migration to urban centers where food is not grown continues, is through an improvement in the stability of foods and beverages The prevention of spoilage and thus waste in the face of dwindling resources in the food supply has long been an objective In many ways, however, chemistry and agriculture, also related endeavors, have developed along parallel or independent paths

Fortunately, chemistry—the root of all life processes—is becoming better under­ stood and more accessible A strong synergism between the chemical, agricultural, and related sciences is highly desirable This handbook attempts to provide in easily accessible detail up-to-date information relevant to the stability of foods and beverages Highly qualified scientists have compiled an extraordinary amount of data

on the chemical, biochemical, and microbiological stability, along with sensory aspects, of selected foods and beverages These data have been distilled and are presented mostly in tabular form, with a minimum of commentary whenever possible

A total of 17 chapters (10 on food, 7 on beverages) by renowned experts in their particular fields from the United States, Europe, and Japan present a wealth of food and beverage stability information in handbook format In particular, the chapters on fish and shellfish, cheese, and meat are remarkable in presenting data not readily available in an easily digestible form

This handbook, encompassing as it does aging, shelf life, and stability—in short, the knowledge necessary to ensure preservation of our food supply—should help to bring about the above-mentioned synergism between chemical, agricultural, and related sciences It is expected to fill a need, especially through the convenience of its tabular presentations

The editor wishes to thank his far-flung authors for their considerable efforts in compiling up-to-date and not always readily available information, compressing it in tables for handbook format He also expresses his appreciation of the publisher's advice and assistance

CHAPTER 1

EFFECT OF AGING ON FRESHNESS OF WHITE PAN BREAD

KAREL KULP JAMES VETTER American Institute of Baking

Manhattan, Kansas

Tables 2 Figures 26 References 30

Handbook of Food and Beverage Copyright © 1986 by Academic Press, Inc

Stability: Chemical, Biochemical, All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

1 White Pan Bread 5

TABLE III Theories of Bread Staling

Theory According to:

Schoch and French (1947)

Essentially same as Schoch

1

s except it emphasizes inter-granular interaction (Fig 4 ) Formation of structured gel, consisting of starch, protein, and water

Interaction of gliadin and glutenin with starch chains Implicates gluten in addition

to starch (Fig 5 )

TABLE IV Effect of Protein Content of Flour

on Avrami Exponent (n) and Time Constant of Bread Stored at 21 C

6 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE V Effect of Soluble and Insoluble Flour Pentosans on Staling of Starch Gel and Bread Stored at 2 1 ° C

0.92 0.73

0.77

Overall Time Constant 3.80 5.33 7.41

Time Constant During the First Day of Storage 3.70 3.29

5.75 Bread

5.44 6.53

8.54

4.80 4.23

5.88 a

From Kim and D'Appolonia (1977a)

White P a n Bread

TABLE VI Effect of Flour α-Amylase on Firmness Values (g/cm) of Breads

(From D'Appolonia, 1984)

7

Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE VII Effect of Formulation of White Pan Bread

on Freshness

Crust ^ Crumb Formula Ingredient Freshness Freshness

+ = Improves freshness retention

+ = No effect on freshness retention

- = Reduces freshness retention

8

White Pan Bread

k+ = Improves freshness retention

- = Reduces freshness retention

TABLE XI Effect of Storage Temperature of Bread

Firming During Storage

Chorleywood Bread Process, Bulk Fermented,

ο Temperature, F Time Constant Time Constant

11

12 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE XII

Bread

Storage, Days

Average Panel Flavor Score

Total Carbonyl Compounds, ppm

Total GLC Headspace area, cm^

Freshly Baked Bread 5-Day Old Bread

From Lorenz and Maga (1972)

The Effect of Bread Storage on Flavor Score,

Carbonyl Content, and GLC Headspace Area

White Pan Bread

TABLE XVI

Crust Crumb Production Method Freshness Freshness Continuous Mix 1 1 Sponge Dough 2 2 Liquid Ferment, 0% Flour 2.5 2.5

20% Flour 2 2 50% Flour 2 2 Straight Dough 3 3 No-Time Dough 4 4 a

F r o m Kulp (1979)

^Lower number, softer

TABLE XVII Product Variables Affecting Staling Rate of

White Pan Bread

Crust Crumb Bread Freshness Freshness Specific Volume (Higher) 4- + Moisture Content (Higher) + + Crust Thickness (Higher) +

16 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE XVIII

Agent CFR

Acetic Acid 182.1005

Restrictions on Use Generally recognized as safe as a multipurpose food substance when used in accordance w i t h good m a n u ­ facturing p r a c t i c e s Propionic Acid 184.1081 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance w h e n used as an antimicrobiaT agent and a flavoring agent at levels not to exceed good m a n u f a c ­ turing practices in baked goods; cheeses; confec­ tions; and frostings; gela­ tins; p u d d i n g s ; and fill­ ings; and jams and jellies

Calcium Propionate 184.1221 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance w h e n used as an antimicrobial agent and a flavoring agent at levels not to exceed good m a n u f a c ­ turing practices in baked goods; cheeses; c o n f e c ­ tions and frostings; gela­ tins; puddings and f i l l ­ ings; and jams and j e l l i e s

Sodium Propionate 184.1784 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance w h e n used as an antimicrobial agent and a forming agent at levels not

to exceed good m a n u f a c t u r ­ ing practices in baked goods; nonalcoholic bever­ ages; cheeses; confections and frostings; g e l a t i n s ,

p u d d i n g s , and fillings; jams and jellies; meat

p r o d u c t s ; and soft candy

(table continues) United States Regulatory Status

of Antimicrobial Agents

1 White Pan Bread 17

TABLE XVIII (Continued)

b

Restrictions on Use Sorbic Acid 182 3089 Generally recognized as

safe as a chemical preser­vative when used in accor­dance with good manufac­turing practices

Calcium Sorbate 182, 3225 Generally recognized as

safe as a chemical preser­vative when used in accor­dance with good manufac­turing practices

Potassium Sorbate 182, ,3640 Generally recognized as

safe as a chemical preser­vative when used in accor­dance with good manufac­turing practices

Sodium Sorbate 182 ,3795 Generally recognized as

safe as a chemical preser­vative when used in accor­dance with good manufac­turing practices

Methyl Paraben 184 1490 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance when used as an antimicrobial agent at levels not to exceed 0.1 percent in food

Propyl Paragen 184 167 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance when used as an antimicrobial agent at levels not to exceed 0.1 percent in food

Benzoic Acid 184 1021 Affirmed generally recog­

nized as safe direct food substance when used as an antimicrobial agent and as

a flavoring agent and ad­juvant at a level not to exceed 0.1 percent in food

(table continues)

18 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

Agent CFR

Sodium Benzoate 184.1733

Ethyl Alcohol 184.1293

Restrictions on Use Affirmed generally recog­nized as safe direct food substance when used as an antimicrobial agent and as

a flavoring agent and ad­juvant at a level not to exceed 0.1 percent in food Affirmed generally recog­nized as safe direct food substance when used as an antimicrobial agent on pizza crusts prior to final baking at levels not to exceed 2.0 percent by prod­uct weight

Regulatory status may change Information presented is current as of date of publication

U.S Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR, Food and Drugs

TABLE XVIII (Continued)

1 White Pan Bread 1

TABLE XIX U.S Regulatory Status of Antioxidants

Which May Be Used in Bakery Products

Antioxidant C F R

b

Limitations Butylated 182 3169 Generally recognized as safe hydroxyanisole for use in food at a total

antioxidant level not to ex­ceed 0.02 percent of the fat

or oil, including essential (volatile) oil content of the food

Butylated 182 3173 Generally recognized as safe hydroxytoluene for use in food at a total

antioxidant level not to ex­ceed 0.02 percent of the fat

or oil, including essential (volatile) oil content of the food

Propyl gallate 184 1660 Affirmed generally recognized

as safe for use in food at a total antioxidant level not

to exceed 0.02 percent of the fat or oil, including essen­tial (volatile) oil content

or oil, including essential (volatile) oil content of the food

Regulatory status may change Information presented is current as of date of publication

U.S Code of Federal Regulations: 21 CFR, Food and Drugs

20 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE XX Spectrum of Effective Action of Antimicrobial Agents

Commonly Used in Bakery F o o d s

a'

b'

c

Benzoates 4 5 or below Yeasts, molds, many bacteria Propionates 5 5 or below Mold; limited antibacterial

potency, but effective against "rope" (B subtilis); essentially no effect on yeasts

Sorbates 6 5 or below Yeasts; molds; many bacteria

including B subtilis, but generally not lactic acid bacteria

a

Barrett (1970)

bBrachfeld (1969) °King (1981)

TABLE XXI Recommended Levels of Calcium or Sodium Propionates

Dark breads, whole or

cracked wheat, rye

bread, rolls or buns

3.0-4.0 under normal condi­tions; up to 6.0 under severe conditions

Angel Food Cake 1.5-3.5

1 White Pan Bread 21

TABLE XXII Recommended Levels of Sorbates in Bakery Goods

milk powder

0.1-0.3 Dry blend with flour or

add during creaming 0.3 Dry blend with flour or

add during creaming 0.075-0.15 Dry blend with flour or

add during creaming 0.05-0.1 Dry blend with flour and

other dry ingredients 0.1-0.4 Dry blend with flour

For added protection, soak fruit in 1.0% po­tassium sorbate solution 0.05-0.1 Add after heating when

temperature has dropped below 160°F

0.05-0.1 Dry blend with flour or

dough

0.05-0.1 Add after heating when

temperature has dropped below 160°F

0.05-0.1 Dry blend with flour and

other dry ingredients a

Monsanto Company (1978)

22 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE XXIII Effect of Sorbates and Propionates on Mold-Free Shelf Life of Baking Foods

in Dough

0 0.16

0 0.02

0 0.3

0 0.02

0 1.0 0.12 0.12

0 0.4 0.05 0.05

0 0.25 0.05 0.05

% Product Weight

on Surface

0

0 0.016 0.016

0

0 0.02 0.02

0.1 0.2

0

0 0.06 0.12

0

0 0.1 0.2

Average Days Without Mold

3

5

9 11+

7

16

23 28+

5

9

12 26+

4

9

14 27+

2

2

9 36+ a

Monsanto Company (1977)

b

I n dusting flour

White Pan Bread

TABLE XXIV

Mold-Free ^ Shelf Life, Days Usage Sponge/ No-Time Antimicrobial Agent oz./CWT Dough Dough

^Slices of bread inoculated with mold spores

Effect of Antimicrobial Agents on

Mold-Free Shelf Life of Bread

3

23

Karel Kulp and James Vetter

TABLE XXV Effect of Antimicrobial Agents on Rope-Free

Shelf Life in Bread

White Pan Bread

Seiler (1962)

TABLE XXVII Food Ingredients Suggested for Antimicrobial Activity in Bread

Approximate Use Level, Product Percent, Flour Basis

200 Grain Vinegar 1.0 Raisin Juice Concentrate 5.0-10.0 Cultured Dairy Product 1.0- 3.0

Cultured Wheat Product 0.5

Effect of pH and Equilibrium Relative

Humidity (ERH) on Mold-Free Shelf Life

of Cakes With and Without 0.1% Sorbic A c i d

a

25

Karel Kulp and James Vetter

1 White P a n Bread 27

S U R F A C T A N T F R E S H B R E A D S T A L E B R E A D

AMYLOSE AMYLOSE - SURFACTANT

Fig 4 Modification of Schoch's mechanism as proposed by

Lineback From Lineback (1984)

28 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

STARCH RETROGRADATION Ε

TIME AFTER BAKING

Fig 5 Graphic representation of Willhoft's equation From

Willhoft (1971)

Control

2 24 4 8 72

Age of Bread - Hours

Fig 6 Effect of bread storage and surfactants on firmness

Control doughs have 3% shortening, others 2% From Skovholt and Dowdle, 1950

1 White Pan Bread 29

280_

l , ι ι • ι ί I • ' • »

18 42 66 90 114

S T O R A G E T I M E , H O U R S

Fig 7 Effects of equivalent levels of malted flour (x),

fungal (ο) , and bacterial α-amylase (o-) on bread

firmness." Control (·) From Miller et al.,

(1953)

Fig 8 Network structure of starch gel showing crystalline

regions (the arrow points to one) and possible points in amorphous regions at which bacterial α-amylase cleaves the structure during bread stor­age From Senti and Dimler, 1960

30 Karel Kulp and James Vetter

REFERENCES

American Association of Cereal Chemists (AACC) (1983)

"Approved Methods of the AACC." AAAC, St Paul,

Minnesota

Axford, D W E., and Colwell, Κ H (1967) Chem Ind (London), pp 467-468

Axford, D W E., Colwell, K H., Cornford, S J., and Elton,

G A H (1968) J Sci Food Agric 19, 95-101

Barrett, F (1970) Baker's Dig 44 (4), 48-49, 67

Brachfeld, B A (1969) Baker's Dig 43 (5), 60-62, 65 Briscoe, R (1978) Baker's J 39 (2), 12-13, 31-32

Cornford, S J., Axford, D W E., and Elton, G A H (1964)

Cereal Chem 41, 216-229

D'Appolonia, B L (1984) In "International Symposium on

Advances in Baking Science and Technology," pp T1-T18 Department of Grain Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan

Dubois, D (1979) Am Inst Baking Res Dep Tech Bull 1

Ingram, M., Ottaway, F L Μ., and Coppock, J Β M (1956)

Chem Ind (London), pp 1154-1163

Kay, M., and Willhoft, Ε M A (1972) J Sci Food Agric

King, B D (1981) Baker's Dig 55 (5), 8-10, 12

Knyaginichev, M I (1965) Zh Vses Khim O-va 10, 277 Krog, N (1971) Staerke 23, 206-209

Kulp, K (1979) Am Inst Baking Res Dep Tech Bull 1

Lineback, D R (1984) In "International Symposium on

Advances in Baking Science and Technology," pp 51-59 Department of Grain Science, Kansas State University, Manhattan

1 White Pan Bread 31

Lorenz, Κ , and Maga, J (1972) J Agric Food Chem 20,

Pelshenke, P F., and Hampel, G (1962) Baker's Dig 36 (3),

Russell, P L (1983) J Cereal Sci 1, 297-303

Schoch, Τ J (1965) Baker's Dig 39 (2), 48-52, 54-57 Schoch, T J., and French, D (1947) Cereal Chem 24, 231-

249

Seiler, D A L (1962) In "Microbial Inhibitors in Foods"

(M Molin, ed.) , pp 211-220 Almqvist & Wiksell,

CHAPTER 2

CHARACTERISTICS, COMPOSITION, AND SHELF-LIFE OF CHEESE

JOHN H NELSON Quality Assurance/Regulatory Compliance

B Ma3or Natural Cheese Groups 34

C Natural Cheese Ingredients 35

D Natural Cheese Manufacture 36

III Process Cheese and Related Products 36

A Definition 36

B Related Products 36

C Process Cheese Ingredients 3 7

D Process Cheese 37

IV Nutritional Qualities of Cheese 3 7

V Shelf Stability of Cheese 37

VI Cheese Spoilage 38

VII Out-of-Refrigeration Display of Cheeses 39

Tables 40 Figures 7 2

References 74

Handbook of Food and Beverage Copyright © 1986 by Academic Press, Inc

Stability: Chemical, Biochemical, All rights of reproduction in any form reserved

34 John H Nelson

I DEFINITIONS OF CHEESE

Webster's unabridged dictionary defines cheese as "curd that has been separated from whey, consolidated by molding for soft cheese or subjected to pressure for hard cheese, and ripened for use as a food."

II NATURAL CHEESE

A Definitions

There is no single definition for natural cheese in U.S Standards of Identity promulgated by the Food and Drug Administration; instead, each variety is defined in a

separate standard

The Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Cheese

(Codex Standard No A-6) defines natural cheese as follows: Natural cheese is the fresh or ripened curd obtained:

a by coagulating milk, skim milk, cream or buttermilk

or any combination of these, through the action of lactic acid producing bacteria, the action of rennet

or other suitable coagulating agents or by a combi­nation of the two, and by partially draining the whey resulting from such coagulation; or

b by techniques applied to milk and/or materials

derived from milk which give an end-product with essentially the same physical and organoleptic

characteristics as the product defined under a

B Major Natural Cheese Groups

1 Extra Hard (Grating)

Ripened by bacteria (e.g., Parmesan)

2 Hard

a Ripened by bacteria, without eyes (e.g., Cheddar)

b Ripened by bacteria, with eyes (e.g., Swiss)

y mold in the interior

4 Soft

a Ripened by bacteria (e.g., feta)

b Ripened by bacteria and surface microorganisms (e.g., Liederkranz)

c Ripened principally by white mold on the surface (e.g Camembert)

d Unripened (e.g., cottage)

Table I describes the more natural cheeses, including not only major American varieties but also major continental varieties

Table II categorizes natural cheese by hardness, fat content, and ripening method Two sets of standards are references: U.S Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter 21, and the Codex Alimentarius General Standard for Cheese A-6

C Natural Cheese Ingredients

Cow's milk is by far the predominant type of milk used for cheese making The milk of cows is defined as the whole, fresh lacteal secretion obtained by the complete milking of one or more healthy cows, excluding that obtained within

15 days before and 5 days after calving, or such longer period as may be necessary to render the milk practically colostrum-free; it contains not less than 8.25% milk solids not fat and not less than 3.25% milk fat

Most cheese is made from milk, but the other derivatives

of milk, such as whey, buttermilk, and ultrafiltration

retentate, are used in some varieties of cheese

Table III lists the ingredients, other than milk and milk-derived ingredients, permitted in natural cheese,

including the limits of addition, if any, and the function(s)

of each ingredient