A course of english for student of forestry

Although a forest may contain annual, biennial, and short-lived perennial plant species, trees are generally considered to be the major vegetation: they are long-lived perennials that us

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION Page 1 Unit 1: FORESTRY Page 2-6 Unit 2: TREES AND FOREST Page 7-12 Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part I) Page 13-17 Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (Part II) Page 18-23 Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION Page 24-27 Unit 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART I) Page 28-32 Unit 7: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (PART II) Page 33-36 Unit 8: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART I) Page 37-42 Unit 9: TREES ARE CHEMICAL MACHINES (PART II) Page 43-47 Unit 10: FOREST TREES DISEASES Page 48-53 Unit 11: CONTROL OF TREE DISEASES Page 54-57 FURTHER READING 1 Page 58-59 FURTHER READING 2 Page 60 FURTHER READING 3 Page 61-63 FURTHER READING 4 Page 64-65 FURTHER READING 5 Page 66-70 REFERENCES Page 71

This course has three purposes It is intended:

To introduce students to the contents of Forestry

To provide examples of authentic texts written in the language typical of the subject

To help students to practise the skills they will need in order to study the subject via English and to use it when they have learned it

In this course, the designer doesn‟t intend to give comprehensive coverage, but the materials does embrace most of the basic concepts It in sense is a basic course book of Forestry

All the texts in this course are selected from many different sources They are not simplified for students of English: the language the students encounter in these texts is exactly what they will meet in real life

The most important aim of this course is to help the students to acquire and develop the skills they will need in order to learn their subject and when they have finished the course, to use what they will have learned

of the forest are the same as those for other crop species Thus, forestry must

be based on a sound understanding of botanical principles One critical point

to keep in mind is that trees are generally managed for wood production, i.e., stem tissue Compared with most horticultural and agronomic crops, forests represent long-lived, perennial plants

2 Classification

In United States forests, all trees are spermatophytes, or seed plants They are classified formally as either gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants) or angiosperms (flowering plants) This formal classification is accepted scientifically, but others are routinely used by foresters The most common general classification identifies a tree according to its leaf form

as a hardwood or softwood tree Hardwoods are broad-leaved, generally deciduous, bearing trees Softwoods are needled-leaved, mostly ever-green, cone-bearing trees This broad classification is far from perfect: the southern long-needled pine is classified as a softwood species although its wood is harder than that of many of the hardwoods, and several deciduous broad-leaved species yield softwood, e.g., basswood, willow, and aspen This leads

flower-to the confusing terms hard hardwoods, and soft hardwoods Some senses can be made from this when it is remembered that the terms were established early, when the demand was for the soft white pine and the very hard white oaks only Later use of numerous species of widely varying hardness or softness could not erase the old established usage

3 Morphology and Anatomy

Although a forest may contain annual, biennial, and short-lived perennial plant species, trees are generally considered to be the major vegetation: they are long-lived perennials that usually produce a single central stem and attain a height of 6 m or more Rarely does a forest tree maturity in less than 15 to 20 years: some trees may grow continuously for centuries though generally very slowly after the five hundred years In considering the growth of trees, increases in both height and diameter, or girth, are important

in determining the yield of lumber or other products In terms of gross morphology, as a rule, tree growing in a typical forest environment are taller and have smaller root systems than those growing separately or under widely spaced, ornamental-settings The apical or top portion of the tree, the crown, is also smaller under crowded conditions Note that the word crown has a different meaning in forestry than in horticulture and agronomy In forestry, the crown is that portion of the tree which has branches Since shade decreases the ability of branches to survive, the trees in crowded forests tend to shed their lower branches and thus have less crown in proportion to clear stem

4 Roots

Roots serve the same general function as for other plants: anchorage, absorption of water and essential minerals, and storage of photosynthate The storage function is less important in forest trees than for most perennial field crops since stem tissue takes over much

of the storage function in trees

5 Trees species differ markedly in the extent of their roots systems, differences that may

affect how the species are managed in a forest For example, most oak, hickory, and walnut trees have deep and extensive taproot systems which provide extremely solid anchorage Thus, these and other trees with similar roots systems are not prone to uprooting by severe winds In harvesting a forest, wind damage is a minor concern with these trees Spruces and balsam, on the other hand, have shallow roots system and can be uprooted even by moderate winds In planning the harvest, such trees must be removed or allowed to remain in a pattern that will ensure adequate wind protection Most forest trees fall somewhere between these extremes Generally, the root systems provide sound anchorage except in relatively extremely conditions Of course, even deep-rooted species can be up-rooted under severe conditions, such as prolonged heavy rains before or during high winds Hurricane conditions can level extensive areas of forest In addition, trees that normally produce taproots may develop shallow root systems because of poor soil conditions, e.g., only a thin layer of a soil above the bedrock In such cases trees may be not only stunted but also easily blown over

This text was taken from Barden et al., Plant Science, Mc Grav-Hill

II Comprehension questions : Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following

questions:

1.Why are forests usually managed?

2.What is the difference between an angiosperm and a gymnosperm?

3 How are hardwoods and softwoods differenciated?

4 What kind of tree is the aspen?

5 How long does it take for a forest to mature?

6 How do you assess the amount of wood you will get from a tree?

7 What is a crown?

8 Why is the storage function of a tree‟s roots less important than those of a field crop?

9 Why is an oak less likely to be uprooted than a balsam?

10 When is the root system inadequate to anchor a tree?

III Vocabulary

1 Look at the first paragraph again What words have the same meaning as:

well-informed

main, most important

2 Look at paragraph 2 again What words have the opposite meaning to:

straightforward; easy to understand

as an exception

3 Look at paragraph 2 again Can you explain the words:

4 Look at paragraph 3 again What words have the same meaning as:

5 Look at paragraph 4 and 5 again Which words correspond to these definitions:

holding something down so that it is not blown over

Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form:

He admitted taking my book

Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”:

He agreed to lend me his book

Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect are followed by the -ing form:

He insisted on going to a film last night

Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives:

It began raining

It began to rain

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent

Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight

Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago

Quit: David quit smoking

Mind: Would you mind opening the window?

Postpone: I postponed doing my homework

Put off:I put off doing my homework

Keep: Keep working Don’t stop

Keep on: Keep on working Don’t stop

Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii

Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii

Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat

Talk about: They talked about getting a new car

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES want refuse need appear

would like pretend would love forget hope can’t afford expect

plan intend mean decide promise offer agree

1 Make sentences from the following notes Think whether you should use the infinitive or

the – ing form after the verbs

It/no use/leave/your work/last minute

I/miss/watch/college football match/last week

He/ hope/get/ good results/his examination

I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year

I/not want/risk/fail/my exams

2 Asking question You want to find out about the oil palm Find out about the oil palm by

asking questions Note down the answers Asking about the following points:

Botanical name:

Family:

Varieties:

Seed rate:

Planting out:

Spacing:

Maturation:

Harvest:

Yields:

Composition percentage

Diseases:

Processing:

3 Paragraph Writing: Now write a short paragraph on the oil palm, using the information

you have noted above

Unit 2: TREES AND FORESTS

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

A mature forest cannot be precisely measured nor cost However, it is clear that forests have special functions In addition to providing habitats for animals and contributing to environmental stability, forests influence wind patterns, rainfall and nutrients turnover

The Function Of A Forest

The waru

The trees are the fixed elements of a forest and the associates of trees- fungi, bacteria,

squirrels, possums, insects, birds, and other animals- can be seen as the mobile elements The whole- the tree and its associates- can be imagined as a guild or waru (the Australian Aboriginal word waru expresses the sense of all organisms belonging together and working

co-operatively.) the tree provides habitat for the animals (shelter, food, nesting materials); in return animals carry out the tree‟s needs for pollination, seed dispersal, pruning, cultivation and fertilising

In permaculture, you are aiming to create landscapes and ecosystems that function with the wonder, diversity and efficiency of a waru

Trees and wind

Trees are “pruned” or deformed by prevailing winds and from this you can predict local wind direction and intensity, and assess the need for windbreaks

Heavy trees with large canopies, such as oak trees, rely mainly on their weight to withstand severe winds Trees with lighter canopies insert roots deeply into the ground to anchor themselves It is important to use anchoring trees in cyclone areas

Wind carries a “load” It carries ice particles, sand, dust, bacteria, viruses and seed Trees with small fine leaves can “trap” the load and deposit the nutrients for their own growth Because fine-leaved trees are often found on the edges of forests, you will sometimes find that the edge facing the prevailing wind has richer soils than the edge on the leeward side

Typically, in a forest about 60% of the windstream is deflected up and over the trees The remaining 40% that enters the “edge” or forest closure is absorbed and warms the forest with its energy Within 100m the wind dies At this point in the forest the air is clean, warm, still and slightly humid This is a perfect growing place

The deflected wind is compressed in a region up to 20 times the height of the tree canopy If the air is humid, it will be compressed and cooled, and it will rain

The forest edge is essential to the lift of the wind The species growing on the edge are dense, small-leaved and thick-stemmed, and can withstand the force of the wind The edge

must be kept intact because if it is destroyed the plants in the forest may suffer from windburn and abrasion, and diseases and weeds can enter the forest and destroy its integrity

Trees and temperature

Forests can be seen as nature‟s air conditioners because they clean the air and modify extremes of humidity and temperature

Trees absorb the sun‟s light energy and turn it into chemical energy

If leaves are dark green or reddish in colour, as often found in the tropics, more light

as absorbed and local temperatures are reduced

Trees transpire water into the atmosphere as humidity (one medium-sized elm will transpire 7000 litres of water on a clear day.) this evaporation is accompanied by cooling so that by day it is cooler in and near a forest than it is in unvegetated areas At night, in humid conditions, water condenses on the leaves and warms the surrounding air

In very dry areas, the evapotranspiration from trees will humidify air which is uncomfortably dry; in very damp areas, water captured by trees dehumidifies the air by absorbing water

Trees and precipitation

Where the air stream is very humid (i.e coasts and islands), air flows rapidly and

condenses on leaf surfaces In these conditions dense rainforests will grow and the

condensation from leaf surface can be 80-86% of the total precipitation

Trees pump moisture into the air as they transpire- up to 75% of precipitation is returned to the atmosphere in this way The Tasmanian Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus, which averages about 60 trees to a hectare in a natural mixed forest, pumps 4000 litres/ day This is a huge return of moisture to the airstreams

The environmental effects of forest removal are dramatic, both in the local area and further field It has been calculated that as much as 60% of inland water comes from forest transpiration Hence, forest removal in one area may relate directly to drought in another area

Forests protect the soil from erosion In one heavy deluge up to 80 tones/ hectare of soil can be lost from bare earth In addition, the topsoil and subsoil start to dry out if water runs across the surface and off the land into waterways Dams and rivers silt up and eventually flood, carrying the valuable topsoil downstream

When it rains………

When it rains over a forest the impact of each rain drop on the soil is reduced and the rain is spread as a film of water, bound by surface tension, over all the leaves of the trees It is caught in stems and bark, in webs, flowers and insect nests The amount caught is influenced

by the crown thickness and density For 100% of rain falling, 10- 15% is caught by the tree canopy, branches and trunks of deciduous trees; more is caught in evergreen trees This is called interception

The rest of the rain- the throughfall- drifts through the canopy as mist and droplets It contains organic salts, dust, plant exudates, insect droppings and sheddings It is nutrient-rich and is directed towards the outer plant canopy (also known as the drip line) and the underlying feeding roots

Before the water reaches the roots however, the organic humus layer of the soil acts like a great water blotter and soaks up 1cm of rain for every 3cm of depth This moisture is held for later use, when the soil begins to dry out again

In the underlying 40-60cm of soil, the throughfall is filtered into water and air channels, nests and burrows, and is absorbed by soil fungi and bacteria, and of course, the tree roots This water is first bound by particles of clay and humus and then the excess percolates slowly through the soil At any time some of this water is valuable to soil organisms and plant roots

Once all this has been accomplished, water starts to flow very slowly to rivers and the sea And when it does, it is clean

II/ Comprehension questions

1 Can a mature forest be precisely measured or cost?

2 What is the definition of the term “waru”?

3 How can you predict local wind direction and intensity?

4 How can trees withstand severe wind?

5 Are fine-leaved trees benefit? Where can we find them in a forest?

6 What is the perfect growing place?

7 What tree species usually grow on the edge of a forest?

8 Why can forests be seen as nature‟s air conditioners?

9 When does air flow rapidly and condense on leaf surface?

10 Can trees pump moisture into the air? When?

11 How can trees help the soil?

12 Which acts like a great water blotter?

III Vocabulary

1 In paragraph 3, line 1, the word “that” refers to:

A permaculture B landscapes C ecosystems D B & C

2 In paragraph 6, line 2 , the word “their” refers to:

3 In paragraph 7, line 3, the word “its” refers to:

A 40% B forest closure‟s C windstream‟s D forest‟s

4 In paragraph 8, line 2, the word “it” refers to:

5 In paragraph 9, line 4, the word “its” refers to:

6 In paragraph 11, line 1, the word “it” refers to:

7 In paragraph 14, line 1, the word “which” refers to:

8 In paragraph 16, line 1, the word “they” refers to:

9 In paragraph 23, line 2, the word “it” refers to:

B GRAMMAR COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions However, there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain prepositions This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention

to the elements of a new language

Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition

1 It‟ very nice you to let me use your car Thank you very much

2 Why are you always so impolite ………… your parents? Can‟t you be nice …… … them?

3 It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you

4 I can‟t understand people who are cruel to ………… animals

5 Why do you always get so annoyed ……… little thing?

6 We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….… the hotel

7 I was surprised ………….… the way he behaved It was out of character

8 These days everybody is aware ……… the danger of smoking

9 Mr Davis spends a lot of time gardening His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud

……… … it

10 Bill has been doing the same job for too long He‟s bored …… ……… it

Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank

1 A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………… somebody who participates in managing forests (on / for / to / with)

2 Forestry must be based ……… a sound understanding of botanical principles (on / for / to / with)

3 Considering the growth of tree is important ……… the determination of the yield of lumber and other products (in / on / for / with)

4 Some areas tend to be crowded ……… bushes (in / on / by / with)

5 Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different ……… those of like ones (with / at / from / for)

needle-6 The life cycle of trees, similar ……… that of most plant, begins with germination (with / to / as / by)

7 A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor ……… nitrogen (with / in / at / on)

8 If the tree is deficient (not enough) ……… water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried

to different parts (in / with / on / for)

9 The forest edge is essential ……… the lift of the wind (with / for / to / of)

10 In the soil, water may be valuable ……… soil organisms and plant roots (with / for / to / of)

11 The gross features of trees are more useful ……… quick field identification (with / for / to / of)

12 The positions of tree crown are relative ……… the general level of the forest canopy (with / for / to / of)

13 Some branches are capable ………… growing independently (with / for / to / of)

14 Glucose is rich ……… energy (with / in / for/ of)

15 Some forests are free ……… rotting diseases (with / for / to / from)

16 Trees are vulnerable ………… various diseases (with / for / to / of)

17 It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant ……… diseases (with / for / to / of)

18 Forest trees are prone ……… attacks by diseases (with / for / to / of)

19 The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient (with / for / to / of)

20 The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless (with / for / to / of)

21 Cellulose is high ………… energy content (with / for / in / of)

Exercise 3 : Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank

1 The American chestnut once accounted ………… as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands (with / for / to / of)

2 Any tree consists ……… the roots, stem and leaves (with / for / to / of)

3 The tree provides habitat ………… the animals (with / for / to / of)

4 The word „crown‟ refers ……… the branches and leaves of a tree (with / for / to / from)

5 Four sections of layers make ………… the outer part of a tree trunk (with / for / to / of)

6 The outer bark protects the tree ………… radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects and dying (with / for / to / from)

7 Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the soil and light energy from the sun (with / for / to / of)

8 Metabolism is the process of building ……… and breaking ……… substances containing carbon (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down)

9 The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results ……… several net effects (with / for / in / from)

10 Biomass production should depend …… the tree species and their spacing and age (up /

on / upon / of)

11 Chemical substances can prevent trees ……… being attacked by fungi (with / for / from / of)

Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees A tree usually grows upright to at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or trunk The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown Other woody plants are vines and shrubs Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright branches Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually are smaller than trees

Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area Trees that grow in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length Essentially, we have no timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher mountain elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate Such tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth periods, deep snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds However, under favorable conditions, most species develop characteristic shapes Several field trips with a good identification manual showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to become rather proficient in identifying trees

Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark structure The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower parts) are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little experience The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more useful for quick field identification

II/ Comprehension questions

1 All woody plants are trees or not?

2 At maturity, how high is a tree?

3 How many stem does a tree have?

4 What does the stem support?

5 Do vines have distinct crowns?

6 How do trees develop when they grow in an open area?

7 What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light?

8 Why are some trees knurled or twisted?

9 In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape?

10 In order to have quick field identification what should be used?

1 ……… is very important for the growth of trees

2 Trees……… is a subject that we are going to study next week

3 The……… of this tree is very thick

4 Many………affect the growth of a tree

5 After the flood, the……… of the river banks changed so much

6 This kind of Pine has got a lot of……….…

7 We used to play under the……….of this old, big tree

8 The……… of this bamboo is 10 metres long

9 Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……….is damaged

B Comprehension check: Multiple-choice

1 A tree usually grows………

2 A tree usually has………

3 Vines has got………

A great crown B small crown C complex crown D indefinite crown

4 The branches of a vine are………

A big B long and thin C not upright D hard

5 When growing in an open area, trees often have a…………

A nice form B popular form C great form D dense form

6 The tree that has to compete for light often has …………

A a long stem B many branches C thick bank D a beautiful crown

7 The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………

A a long stem B a usual shape C an unusual shape D a dense brown

B GRAMMAR COORDINATORS

You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS

FOR AND NOR BUT OR YET SO

for Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health

(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)

and Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often

(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.)

nor Women don‟t smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much

alcohol (Nor means „and not‟ It joins two negative independent

clauses Notice that questions word order is used after nor.)

but Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as

women do (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)

or Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or

they risk getting heart disease (The two clauses express alternative

possibilities.)

yet Women used to be known as the „weaker sex‟ yet in some ways, they

are stronger than men (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected

contrast to the first clause.)

so Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accidents (The

second clause is the result of the first clause.)

Exercise1:

A Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form compound sentences Be sure to write a complete clause containing a subject and a verb Underline the coordinator and add punctuation

Example:

The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do my shopping

1 Students can attend day classes and ………

2 Students can live in dormitories or ………

3 I have finished my math homework but ………

4 I have studied English for six years yet ………

5 My adviser suggested a word processing class for ………

6 Some students do not like to write term paper nor ………

7 The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers yet ………

8 Most students had not even chosen a topic nor ………

9 The instructor was very upset for ………

10 My roommate scored very high on the English placement test so ………

B For each pair of sentences below, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning, and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence Use each FAN BOYS coordinator once Write your new sentences on a separate sheet of paper, and punctuate them correctly

Example:

Nuclear accidents can happen Nuclear power plants must have strict safety controls

Nuclear accidents can happen, so nuclear power plans must have strict safety controls

1 The accident at the nuclear power plant at three Mile Island in the United States created fears about the safety of this energy source The disaster at Chernobyl in the former Soviet Union confirmed them

2 Solar heating systems are economical to operate The cost of installation is very high

3 Energy needs are not going to decrease Energy sources are not going to increase (Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the word not.)

4 Burning fossil fuels causes damage to our planet We need to develop other sources of energy

5 Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer People continue

Notice: Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or and but are written in parallel

form Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences:

The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobiles exhausts, and the

Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft

The States regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft

Pesticides cannot be sold if they have an adverse effect on humans, on animal life, or on the

environment

Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with and, so, because, then or but

1 We didn‟t have any money ……… we couldn‟t go to a restaurant

2 He closed all the doors and windows, and ……… he left the house

3 I was feeling very tired, ……… I went to bed very early

4 Romano is usually on time, ……… tonight she arrived half an hour late

5 I couldn‟t sleep ………… there was a party next door

6 It was very cold outside, ……… I put on my warmest clothes

7 I phoned my friends ………… invited them to come to my house

8 We couldn‟t go out ……… the weather was so bad

9 He looked through the window for a minute or two, ………… went inside

Exercise 3: Paragraph writing

Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because

a the next evening he needed them

b he arrived at the canteen

c they did not please Andrew very much

d Last night Andrew lend Robert his

lecture note

e Andrew needed his notes immediately

f He had waited for an hour

Robert could not attend Robert finally arrived

he went to the canteen to look for Robert

Robert has not returned them Robert was not there

he decided to wait

Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

Trees and other plants often have several common names, which vary with locality or local use To make specific identities world-wide, botanists employ Latinized names, which remain constant since Latin is a language that no longer changes The scientific name consists

of two parts: the genus (a collection closely related species) and the specific epithet or species (a collection of individuals so similar that they suggest common percentage and produce like offspring) The generic name always appears first and is capitalized, while the specific name follows and begins with a lowercase letter Because general and regional guides to field identification of trees and government publication that describe local or native trees are readily available, only a few of the important commercially significant trees of the major forest regions will be studied in this chapter Most of these are valued for their wood products

Prior to studying individual tree species, it is necessary to know that trees are divided into two main groups These are the conifers (gymnosperms) or softwood trees and the broadleaf (angiosperms) or hardwood trees Conifers have mostly needle-like or scale-like leaves and bear their seeds in cones or cone-like structures The conifers or evergreens do not shed all their leaves annually, with the exception of larch and bald cypress Deciduous trees, those that shed all their leaves in the fall, generally are broad-leaved hardwoods

The term hardwood and softwood can be misleading because the wood of some hardwood trees is softer than that of some softwood trees For example, the wood of yellow poplar and basswood is much softer than that of the longleaf pine

We will first study the conifers, which are very widely distributed in the various regions and are very significant in the production of lumber and paper

II/ Comprehension questions

1 How many names do trees and other plants have?

2 Why do they have many names?

3 Why do botanists have to use Latin to name trees?

4 How many parts does the scientific name consist of? What are they?

5 How are trees classified?

III Vocabulary

A Find word or combination of words that means:

1 some (paragraph 1) 6 types (paragraph 2)

2 definite (paragraph ) 7 accurate (paragraph 1)

3 the same (paragraph 1) 8 sawn wood (paragraph 4)

4 before (paragraph 2) 9 easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

5 classified (paragraph 2) 10 different (paragraph 4)

B Find an appropriate word to fill the blank

1 He is a very famous……… (paragraph 1)

2 These trees do not………….leaves in the autumn (paragraph 2)

3 In old time, people used to………to construct bridges (paragraph 4)

4 ……….….is often used to produce paper (paragraph 4)

5 It is difficult to store the………… of this tree, because their germination capacity is decreased by the time (paragraph 2)

6 To conserve valuable……… ….resources is a task of great importance (paragraph 1)

7 This kind of trees are often………on high mountains (paragraph 4)

8 Names of trees………with different regions (paragraph 1)

9 The generic name always………first (paragraph 1)

10 ……… ….do not shed all their leaves annually (paragraph 2)

C Comprehension check: Multiple choice

1 Trees and plants have…………

A very few names B many names C two names D one name

2 The scientific name of a tree has………

A only one part B two parts C four parts D many parts

3 The specific name stands…………

4 ……….is written or printed in capital letters

A the generic name B the specific name

5 Trees are classified into………

A three types B four types C two types D several types

6 Conifers are often………

A hardwood trees B softwood trees

7 Most of softwood trees do not change their leaves………

A in autumn B in spring C in summer D in winter

8 The wood of……… hardwood trees is hard

D/ Reading test

Complete the following text by filling in the blank spaces with the expressions given below

A dotted line………requires a phrase to be added and a straight line requires a word

the leaf of the surrounding environment

very carefully how unfamiliar plant

plant groups for example functions

identifiable grass smell

some other plant doing

If you want to identify an………, use your natural senses Feel the texture of the leaves Then the plant- crush the leaves and see if the scent reminds you other plants you know All the mints are by smell, and so are the lavenders, eucalypts and citrus Taste……… and spit it out, and again see what it reminds you of; the oxalis family all have the same acidic taste, so do the sorrels

(Notes: it is very hard to poison yourself by _simply a test taste and then

spitting the leaf out.)

Look at the plant……… - all the thyme family have small hairy leaves; other……… can be similarly recognised by sight Now you can probable see that this plant is like……… you know Think about it and then check its growing place

Examine ………- soil, aspect, slope- and the plant‟s habit- tree, shrub, herb or Identify its yields and - mulch, groundcover, shelter food, and so on

Now tell yourself where and _you would use it in a permaculture design

B GRAMMAR TIME CONNJUNCTIONS

Example

The moment I see Ian tonight I‟ll tell him to call you

NOT: The moment

I will see

Other conjunctions used with this tense with a change in meaning

Until / till Until I go there, I won‟t know what it‟s like

Before Before she begins the race, she‟ll do some warm-up exercise

Until / till Until they moved house they won‟t have any free time Before/ after After we‟ve been

on holiday, we‟ll fell much better when/ as soon

as/ once/ the

When I saw Ian last night, I said hello

Until / till Until I saw it for myself, I didn‟t believe it

Before Before she left the office, she closed all the windows

Until / till Until you‟d worked there for a while, it was hard

to make friends Before/After After they‟d been

to the zoo, they went home to bed

AFTER+ -ing

- Use to talk about the past, present or future and to say that one thing happens and then another thing happens

- Can only be used if the subject of both verbs is the same

Example: After arriving at the hotel, guests will be invited to a special welcome party

Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense must be used

Example: After guests have arrived at the hotel, a special welcome party will be held

THEN/ AFTERWARDS/ AFTER THAT

- After can not be used alone as a linking word to join one thing that happens with

another thing that happens after it Instead, use (and) then (and) afterwards,

or(afterwards), or(and) after that

Example: We went to a restaurant and after we went to a night club

 BEFORE+-Ing

- To talk about the past event, present or future

- can only be used if the subjects of both verbs are the same

Example: I finished all my work before leaving

Note: if the verbs have different subjects, the second subject and the appropriate verb tense must be used

Example: I finished all my work before she got back

EXERCISE: Complete the second sentence so that it means the same as the first, using the

word given

1 Make up your mind and then tell me what your decision is

ONCE

Tell me what your decision is ……… your mind

2 The judges will hear all the evidence and then they will decide

AFTER

The judges will decide ……… all the evidence

3 Answer all the questions and then check your answers

BEFORE

Don‟t check your answers ……… all the questions

4 I‟m going to her party next week but I won‟t see her before then

UNTIL

I ……… to go to her party next week

5 I made sure she wasn‟t badly injured and then I called a doctor

AFTER

I called a doctor ……… she wasn‟t badly injured

6 I‟m going to think about this carefully and then give an opinion

BEFORE

I won‟t give an opinion ……… about this carefully

7 I‟m going to save enough money and then I‟ll be able to have a holiday

UNTIL

I won‟t be able to have a holiday ……… enough money

8 He said that he had worked extremely hard and he hoped he would be successful

AFTER

He said that ………, he hoped that he would be successful

9 She spoke to me and then I found out that she had an accent

UNTIL

I didn‟t find out that she had she had ……… to me

10 The train was still moving when she opened the door

BEFORE

He opened the door ……… moving

Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION

A READING & COMPREHENSION

to the general level of the forest canopy, the covering created by the crowns interweaving each other

Dominant: A tree having a

well-developed crown that extends above the general level of the other crowns and is exposed to full light from above and partial light from the sides

Co-dominant: A tree with

smaller crown than the dominants that helps form the general level

of the canopy and receives full light from above but limited amount from the sides

Intermediate: A small-crowned tree crowded into the general level of the forest

canopy, receiving some light from above and virtually none from the sides

Suppressed: A tree with poorly developed crown, beneath the level of the canopy

(overtopped), receiving very little light from above or the sides

Foresters refer to a measure of the number and size of trees in a given area as stand density It indicates whether the forest is under stocked, medium stocked, or well stocked For example, if the canopy of a tract of timber is closed over as much as 40 to 70 percent, it is medium- stocked

II/ Comprehension questions : True or false?

a A pure stand is made up of different species

b Trees can not be classified by the positions of their crowns

c In a forest, each crown of each tree stays away from each other

d A dominant tree receives some light from the sides

e A co-dominant tree gets no sunlight from the sides

f A suppressed tree receives no light at all

g An intermediate tree does not have any light from the sides

h Stand density is the number and sizes of trees in a given area

i Basing on the crowns of trees that are relative to the general level of the forest canopy, trees can be classified into four types

j If the canopy of a tract of timber is closed as much as 55%, it is medium-stocked

III Vocabulary

1 Look at paragraph 1 again Which words have the same meaning as:

A newly born tree

B trunk

2 Look at paragraph 2 again Which words correspond to the definitions?

A unique

B a forest of different species

C mixing with each other

3 Look at paragraph 3, 4 and 5 Can you find the synonym of the following words?

A face to the sun

B layer of forest

C actually

D not any

4 Find out an appropriate word in the text to fill the blank:

a How many…………does your nursery produce per year? (paragraph 1 )

b I think these pines are……….enough to be cut (paragraph 1)

c This stand is……….…….because it is made up principally one species (paragraph 2)

d This………of pine grows very fast (paragraph 2)

e He has been a………… ….for twenty years (paragraph 7)

f The roots of this tree have……….over a lot of land (paragraph 3)

g Dominant trees receive full…… …….from the sun (paragraph 3)

h Biomass production is affected by stand……… (paragraph 7)

i The economic………of Japan is admirable (paragraph 7)

j A given area of trees, which is consisted of species is called a…… ……… (paragraph 7)

B GRAMMAR The form of Definition

Definitions often take one of the following forms:

1 [ A] is / are, may be defined as [ B ] which [ C ]

E.g A soil profile [ A ] is defined as a succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from the surface of the soil to the parent rock

2 [ B ] which [ C ] is / are called, is / are known as [ A ]

E.g A succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from the surface of the soil to the parent rock [ C ] is called a soil profile

Extends from the surface

of the soil to the parent rock

Can live in the presence of air

Take place through the tissues of living plants

Utilizes energy from the sun in the manufacture of food

Absorb sunlight and manufacture food

Lead to the interior of the leaf and the chloroplasts

8 Chlorophyll The chemical Enable sunlight to convert

carbon dioxide into food and other substances

Definition of Terms: Combine the items in Column A with the ones in column B to make

the correct definition of each term You will need to add some necessary words (articles, pronouns and adjectives, forms of the verb “be”) where appropriate

Collection of trees which are more or less uniform (i.e

more or less the same) in species, age distribution etc

Rather like a stand but more extensive- group of similar stands defined by the species composition

Physical factors which affect the productivity of the trees, concerning the thing like the soil, the slope and exposure (wind, rain)

Height of tree and diameter

Measured at one point three five metres from the surface

of the soil

Measurements used for the diameter of trees (dbh:

diameter at breast height)

UNIT 6: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (Part 1)

I READING & COMPREHENSION

A Reading text

Tree are woody plants that have roots well anchored in the ground and that, for the most

part, grow upright The main stem is called a bole or trunk The bole supports branches and leaves, refered to as the crown, and transports minerals and water from the soil

Trees usually start from seeds The evergreens, for example pines, have cones from which naked, nutlike winged seeds fall The cottonwood and other poplars have very tiny seeds with fine silky hairs that become airborne and often land many miles from the parent tree Birds and mammals may transport seeds great distances, carrying such fuits as pits from cherries, beans from the locust; nut like the soft-shelled acorns, fleshy, winged seeds of maples, and hard-shelled hickory nuts and walnuts These carriers plus the winds and floodwaters help account for the widespread distribution of most species

The tiny, frail seedlings push up from the ground‟s surface and often are attacked by animals and birds that pick at them for food Hardwood seedlings require about 3 or 4 weeks

to become miniature trees Trees may also regenerate by sprouting from roots or from stumps Another type of tree propagation is layering, the rooting of an undetached branch

lying on or partially buried in the soil Such a branch is capable od independent growth, and eventually is separated from the original plant

The underground part of a forest is made up of the roots of trees, shrubs, and

herbaceous plants, those having little or no woody tissue and usually singled-seasoned Roots

of trees are seldom dug up except where land is being reclaimed for agricultural or construction purposes, where the roots are to be used for medical or artistic purposes, or where, especially in the southeastern United States, residual stumps and taproots of old-growth longleaf and slash pines are used to make turpentine, rosin, and various pine oils

The root system of a tree may consist of four parts: (1) a tap root, which when present anchors the tree firmly in the ground and supplies the main support for the tree; (2) lateral

roots, which usually extand beyond the crown spread and help keep the tree in an upright

position; (3) fibrous roots, a mass of fine roots most found in the upper soil; and (4) walled root hairs, which grow from the smaller fibrous roots and aborbs water and minerals

thin-They may live only a few days

Because roots hairs die off after a few days, trees are always growing new ones to reach

more soil Many trees also depend upon mycorrhizae, a fungus which grows on or within

roots that acts in the same manner as the root hairs Mycorrhizae form a sheath around the

roots, enabling fingerlike mycelia to grow and extend into the soil, thus allowing the tree to

absorb moisture and mineral food

II Comprehension questions

1 What is the main stem of a tree called?

2 What part of a tree transports minerals and water from the soil?

3 What do trees start from?

4 What are the seeds of cotton wood like?

5 At maturity, where do seeds of cotton wood fall?

6 What cause the wide spread distribution of most species?

7 How long does it take a seedling to become a miniature?

8 How many parts does the root system of a tree consist of?

9 What is the function of each kind of root?

3 Checking your understanding

1 The seeds of cotton woods and other poplars are often ………

2 Generally, the seeds of cotton woods fall:

a just under the tree b far away from parent tree

3 The widespread distribution of most species is caused by ………

c birds, mamals, flood-water, & winds d the monkeys

4 Seedlings are often damaged by the feeding of:

5 It takes hardwood seedling ……… to become miniature tree

6 A tree can be developed from ………

a a sprout growing from a root or a stump b a flower

c a branch layered in the soil d a leaf

7 When a tree is cut, the stump is often ………

c used to produce another tree d left as it is

8 A tree usually has ………

9 Fibrous roots of a tree are often found:

a on the ground surface b in the upper soil

10 The longevity of root hair is :

B GRAMMAR Active or Passive Voice

Form: We form passive verbs with the different tenses of be (e.g is, was, is being, have been)

+ past participle

Present Simple am/is/are + past participle

The office is locked every evening

Present Continuous am/is/are +being + past participle

The house is painted at the moment

Past Simple were/was + past participle

My car was stolen last night

Past Continuous were/was + being + past participle

The bridge was being repaired last week

Present Perfect Simple have/has + been + past participle

Sarah has been invited to the party

Past Perfect Simple had + been + past participle

I thought that you had been told the news

Use:

- We often use the passive when we do not know who or what does something

My car was stolen last night (I do not know who stole the car)

- We also use the passive when we are not interested in who or what does something

The factory was painted during the war

Sarah has been invited to the party

In these sentences we are interested in the factory and Sarah, not who painted the factory, or who invited Sarah

Exercises1: Contrasting Active Sentences and Passive sentences

Complete the sentences using a verb from the box If a sentence requires a passive form, change the verb to the passive Change active verbs to the simple past when necessary Some of the verbs may be used more than once

bring / choose / destroy / sing / fall / kill / watch / play

1 During World War II, many buildings in London were destroyed by bombs

2 The world‟s best athletes together every four years at the Olympic Games

3 The International Olympic Committee Athens as the site of the 2004 games

4 Do you ever wonder how a city as the site for the Olympics?

5 Natural disasters thousands of people every year

6 The Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989

7 The important event by people all over the world

8 People all over the world the moon landing on July16, 1969

9 How many of us witnessed the explosion of the Challenger shuttle on January 28, 1986, when everyone on board ?

10 The Internet together computer users all over the world

11 The world Cup by hundreds of millions of people all over the world

12 Over 5,000 people during the earthquake in Kobe, Japan in January, 1995

13 Judy Garland “Somewhere Over the Rainbow” in the musical film, “The Wizard of Oz.”

14 The famous jazz musicians John Coltrane and Miles Davis together for several years

15 Every time Frank Sinatra song on the radio, my mother cries

16 “Happy Birthday” on a person‟s birthday

Exercises2: Change the following sentences into passive or active voice

a During our country‟s development, people cleared large areas of forests from the shed of rivers

water-b Rainfall removes dust from the atmosphere

c Shelterbelts protect agricultural fields from winds and snowdrifts, speed of air movement

d After the United States were established, laws with penalties were passed by several states

to prevent thoughtless waste of the forest

e In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them

UNIT 7: THE ANATOMY OF A TREE (Part 2)

I READING & COMPREHENSION

A Reading text

If you cut through a tree, across the bole or a branch, you may see light-and coloured rings The light rings are produced from fast growth in the spring and the dark ones from slow growth in the summer These serve to reveal the age of the tree, since a light and dark ring together constitute a year‟s growth To determine the age, one may count either light

dark-or dark rings It is easier to count the dark ones because they are mdark-ore conspicuous

A tree increases its diameter by producing new cells just under the bark.Growth takes place just beneath the bark Rings that are one or more year old keep the same size they had when they were produced It follows that what goes on just below the back is vitally

important The often dark- coloured interior wood near the tree‟s center is called heartwood

and is no longer living

The outer part of a tree trunk, that outside the most recent annual ring, is made up of four sections of layers, as follows: the outer bark, which protects the tree from radical changes

in temperature, injuries, diseases, insects, and drying; the inner bark, called phloem, which

translocates sugars made in the leaves to the branches, trunk, and roots, where it is converted

into vital growth substances; the cambium, a layer of cell where the growth that produces the annual ring and the phloem take place; and the sapwood, called xylem, which transports a mixture of mineral nutrients, water, and other substances called sap to the leaves

The cambium increases the size of the trunk by making a layer of new wood each year Its outer cells form phloem, while its inner cells form xylem, which is wood Bark is produced

by special cambial cells and by old non-living phloem cells Xylem cells made in the spring are large and thin walled; those made in the summer are smaller, thick walled, and darker in colour As indicated previously, spring and summer growth taken together made an annual ring The heartwood, the major function of which is mechanical gives strengh and stiffness to the tree trunk

II Comprehension questions

1 What may we see if we cut across the stem of a tree?

2 When are the light rings made?

3 When are the dark rings produced?

4 What constitutes a year‟s growth?

5 How can we determine the age of a tree?

6 Which ring is easily counted? Why?

7 How does a tree increase its diameter?

8 Where does the growth take place?

9 Which rings keep the same size?

10 Which wood is called heartwood? What is the major function of the heartwood?

11 How many layers does the outer part of a tree consist of?

12 What is the function of each layer?

2 Find out the appropriate word in the text to fill the blank

1 I think his action have ……… his point of view clearly

2 How wide is the ……… of the tree

3 The ………… of this log has been decayed

4 The annual ……… can be used to determine the age of a tree

5 As a matter of fact , the trunk of a tree is made from different ……… of wood

6 The ………… makes the trunk bigger and bigger by producing new wood each year

7 The ……… of this tree is very sticky

8 Water is the ………… of hydrogen and oxygen

9 Plants grow fast in Spring and ………

10.Those houses have got the same ………

3.Checking your understanding

1.The light rings are born in

2 A year‟s growth is made of

c one light ring, and one dark ring d one light ring, and two dark rings

3 The age of a tree can be discovered by

a the number of light rings b the number of dark rings

c the size of the tree d the total of light and dark rings

4 Rings at the age of one or more

a are changed by the time b unchanged

c become bigger year after year d are red

5 The outer part of a tree bole consist of

6 The annual rings are born in the

7 The tree trunk is given strengh and stiffness from

8 The heart-wood is often :

9 Xylem cells made in the Spring are than those made in Summer

B GRAMMAR

RELATIVE CLAUSES Introduction

A relative clause is a dependent clause that functions as an adjective; that is, it modifies a

noun or pronoun For this reason, relative clauses are also called adjective clauses

The first American thanksgiving feast, which took place in 1621, lasted three days Everyone who studied for the exam passed it easily

In the first sentence, the dependent clause which took place in 1621 is a relative clause that modifies the noun phrase the first American thanksgiving feast This noun phrase is the

antecedent of the relative clause

What is the relative clause in the second sentence? What is the antecedent? Is the antecedent a noun or a pronoun?

Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

A Relative clause begins with a relative pronoun or relative adverb

Pronouns who, whom, whose, that

which, that, whose

refer to humans refer to nonhumans and things Adverbs when, where refer to a time or a place