A course of english for student of forestry resources management

Reading text For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations for timber and tree products.. Reading text In very early pioneer days, trees were

TABLE OF CONTENT

INTRODUCTION

Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES Page 2-5 Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION Page 6-10 Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I) Page 11-15 Further Reading: A GUIDE TO TREE IDENTIFICATION Page 16-17 Unit 4: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II) Page 18-20 Further Reading: TREE IDENTIFICATION Page 21-23 Unit 5: TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION Page 24-27 Further Reading: TREES AND FORESTS Page 28-32 Unit 6: FOREST AND FLOODING Page 33-37 Further Reading: WINDBREAKS Page 38-39 Unit 7: CREATING A NEW STAND Page 40-45 Further Reading: TREE MAINTENANCE Page 46-49 Unit 8: DIFFERENT TYPE OF CUTTING Page 50-56 Unit 9: FOREST MEASUREMENTS DEFINED Page 57-61 Unit 10: FOREST HARVESTING Page 62-66 Unit 11: FOREST TREE INSECTS AND HOW TO CONTROL THEM Page 67-72 Further Reading: TREES DISEASES Page 73-78 Unit 12: PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF WILDFIRES Page 79-82 Further Reading: FIRE MANAGEMENT Page 83 REFERENCES Page 84

Unit 1: THE ROLE OF TREES

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

For hundreds of years people have planted trees to serve the needs of future generations for timber and tree products In Europe and Asia forests were planted by rulers, church leaders and farmers – for the people By planting trees they particularly and symbolically showed faith and hope for the future

Trees are fundamental to life and the processes that maintain healthy soil, and clean air and water There

is evidence which shows that in regions where the trees are cleared

to less than 30% of their original surface area, other sustainable life processes begin to collapse Rivers silt up, soils wash away, and air quality declines James Lovelock, a renowned ecologist, claimed these breakdowns in natural systems will

in turn affect other word bio-areas continent or cyclones may occur more frequently It will be sad if these things happen before we change from consumers to producers

II Comprehension questions : Now read the text carefully, and try to answer the following

questions:

1 What do people plant trees for?

2 What do European and Asian people want to show by planting trees?

3 What are fundamental roles of trees?

4 What will happen to the area when the trees are cut down?

III Vocabulary

Fill in the gaps with words in the box

boundary ; slopes ; verges ; sanctuary ; shelter ; indigenous

pressures ; surrounding ; reptiles ; uncontaminated ; backbones

1.……… forests involved over millions of years with all the ………… of natural selection operating, so that finally what we see is a highly refined complex which is beautifully honed to survive in the ………… environment

2 If the forest is large enough it will offer ………… to indigenous mammals, birds and

………

3 Forest may be established in the areas such as: creeks, gullies, farm ………… , ridges and places with ………… greater than 15, and roadside ………

4 Your garden is the natural forest that are the ………… and security for the whole landscape

5 Like your food forest and structural forest, this assembly of trees and their organisms provides

……… and protection, and maintains air, water and soil in ……… states

B GRAMMAR COMMON COMBINATIONS WITH PREPOSITIONS

Many nouns, verbs and adjectives are generally followed by specific prepositions However, there are many exceptions to any rule listing certain words which must appear with certain prepositions This is something that one must learn from constant contact with and attention to the elements of a new language

Exercise 1: Complete these sentences with the correct preposition

1 It‟ very nice you to let me use your car Thank you very much

2 Why are you always so impolite ………… your parents? Can‟t you be nice …… … them?

3 It wasn‟t very polite ………….….him to leave without saying thank you

4 I can‟t understand people who are cruel to ………… animals

5 Why do you always get so annoyed ……… little thing?

6 We enjoyed our vacation, but we were disappointed ………….… the hotel

7 I was surprised ………….… the way he behaved It was out of character

8 These days everybody is aware ……… the danger of smoking

9 Mr Davis spends a lot of time gardening His garden is very well-kept, and he‟s very proud

……… … it

10 Bill has been doing the same job for too long He‟s bored …… ……… it

Exercise 2: Choose the correct preposition to fill in the blank

1 A sound understanding of trees and their growth should be important ………… somebody who participates in managing forests (on / for / to / with)

2 Forestry must be based ……… a sound understanding of botanical principles (on / for /

to / with)

3 Considering the growth of tree is important ……… the determination of the yield of lumber and other products (in / on / for / with)

4 Some areas tend to be crowded ……… bushes (in / on / by / with)

5 Biophysical life processes of broad-leaved trees are different ……… those of needle-like ones (with / at / from / for)

6 The life cycle of trees, similar ……… that of most plant, begins with germination (with /

to / as / by)

7 A tree may develop stunted roots if the soil is poor ……… nitrogen (with / in / at / on)

8 If the tree is deficient (not enough) ……… water, it is hard for nutrients to be carried to different parts (in / with / on / for)

9 The forest edge is essential ……… the lift of the wind (with / for / to / of)

10 In the soil, water may be valuable ……….soil organisms and plant roots (with / for / to / of)

11 The gross features of trees are more useful ……… quick field identification (with / for / to / of)

12 The positions of tree crown are relative ……… the general level of the forest canopy (with / for / to / of)

13 Some branches are capable ………… growing independently (with / for / to / of)

14 Glucose is rich ……… energy (with / in / for/ of)

15 Some forests are free ……… rotting diseases (with / for / to / from)

16 Trees are vulnerable ………… various diseases (with / for / to / of)

17 It is a good way to plant trees highly resistant ……… diseases (with / for / to / of)

18 Forest trees are prone ……… attacks by diseases (with / for / to / of)

19 The fungus causing wilt diseases used to be native ………….the Orient (with / for / to / of)

20 The rotting fungi are responsible ……….great volumes of wood worthless (with / for / to / of)

21 Cellulose is high ………… energy content (with / for / in / of)

Exercise 3 :

1 The American chestnut once accounted ………… as much as one half of the trees in many forest stands (with / for / to / of)

2 Any tree consists ……… the roots, stem and leaves (with / for / to / of)

3 The tree provides habitat ………… the animals (with / for / to / of)

4 The word „crown‟ refers ……… the branches and leaves of a tree (with / for / to / from)

5 Four sections of layers make ………… the outer part of a tree trunk (with / for / to / of)

6 The outer bark protects the tree ………… radical changes in temperature, diseases, insects and dying (with / for / to / from)

7 Nature supplies the tree ………carbon dioxide from the air, minerals and water from the soil and light energy from the sun (with / for / to / of)

8 Metabolism is the process of building ……… and breaking ……… substances containing carbon (of-of / up-of / down-up / up-down)

9 The cycle including respiration and photosynthesis results ……… several net effects (with / for / in / from)

10 Biomass production should depend …… the tree species and their spacing and age (up / on / upon / of)

11 Chemical substances can prevent trees ……… being attacked by fungi (with / for / from / of)

Unit 2: THE DEVELOPMENT OF CONSERVATION

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them However, the significance of trees was indicated as early as the 1620s by the Plymouth Colony, when an ordinance was passed prohibiting the felling of timber on any colony land without official consent A little later in Pennsylvania, William Penn, the governor, ordered that, for every 5 acres of forest land cleared, 1 acre was to be left uncut

After the United States was established, laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests In the early 1800s Congress authorized the president to protect live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida and to use the Army and Navy for enforcement During this same period the first step in forestry was taken by the government by providing for the growing of live oaks in the southern states for ship timbers A federal act also provided for preservation of nearly 250.000 acres of forest land in Florida, Mississippi, and Louisiana According to another act passed in that decade, any person cutting down or destroying living red cedar, live oak, or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government These laws and regulations, through which the government tried to control the forest land, helped call attention to the importance of forests and led to the development of conservation at the state level

In January 1867, the first state committee on forest protection was appointed in Michigan, and Wisconsin followed in March of that year Two years later the State Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees Minnesota created a law in 1871 that granted bounties to encourage the planting of forest

trees The first Arbor Day, a day in late April or early May observed by the planting of trees was celebrated the following year in Nebraska

The federal government adopted the Timber Culture Act in the early 1870s It provided that the government would donate 160 acres of land to any person who planted 40 acres of that trees with trees not more than 12 feet apart and kept the trees growing and healthy for one decade This act, however, was repealed after 10 years because of serious abuses; too many recipients of these grants were not honoring their commitments by failing to follow the rules and regulations pertaining to the grants

In many instances, while employing fire to prepare their land for cultivation, the settlers disregarded caution relating to neighboring land Gross carelessness often resulted in destruction

of property well

II/ Comprehension questions

A/ True or False?

1 Trees were cut with thought of replacing them in very early pioneer days

2 The importance of trees was known in the 17th century

3 Before USA was founded laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forests

4 In the early 10th century, live oak and red cedar timber in the state of Florida were protected

5 Red cedars were grown by the government in southern states for ship timbers in the early 19thcentury

6 In some states of America, about 250.000 acres of forest land were preserved by a federal act

7 Any persons cutting down one acre of living red cedar, live oak or other trees on federal land could be punished by the government

8 In the early 19th century police were used to enforce forest laws and regulations

9 In 1896 the state Board of Agriculture of Maine appointed a committee to develop a state policy for the preservation and production of trees

10 These early laws and regulations played an important role in the establishment of forestry in USA

B/ Answer the questions:

1 In very early pioneer days, why were trees cut with no thought of replacing them?

2 What was the content of the ordinance passed in 1620?

3 What did William Penn order?

4 In the early 1800s, what did the congress authorize the president to do?

5 When was the planting of trees started?

6 When was the timber culture Act adopted and what was its content?

III Vocabulary

A

1 Look at paragraph 1 again Which word has the same meaning as:

B without thinking of D banning

2 Look at paragraph 3 again Find the synonym of the words:

1 The……….…of Eucalyptus on waste land is becoming popular

2 In Sweden, machines have been used to……….….trees

3 It is very important to……….….all the valuable wood species

4 Shifting cultivation causes a lot of forest……….…

5 Nowadays, most of people are aware the………of forests

6 Forests……… …….is a very important subject for us

7 Long, long ago, trees were………with no thought of replacing them

8 ……… consumption of Japan has been increasing since the Second World War

9 Everybody should respect the……….………

10 New forest laws have……… ……people from destroying forests

B GRAMMAR

Some verbs in English must be followed by the - ing form:

He admitted taking my book

Others are followed by the infinitive, “to”:

He agreed to lend me his book

Verbs followed by a particles like „in‟, „from‟, ect are followed by the -ing form:

He insisted on going to a film last night

Some verbs are followed by either gerunds or infinitives:

It began raining

It began to rain

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY GERUNDS

Enjoy: I enjoy working in my gardent

Finish: Bob finished studying at midnight

Stop: It stooped raining a few minutes ago

Quit: David quit smoking

Mind: Would you mind opening the window?

Postpone: I postponed doing my homework

Put off:I put off doing my homework

Keep: Keep working Don’t stop

Keep on: Keep on working Don’t stop

Consider: I’m considering going to Hawaii

Think about: I’m thinking about going to Hawaii

Discuss: They discussed getting a new hat

Talk about: They talked about getting a new car

COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES want refuse need appear

would like pretend would love forget hope can’t afford expect

plan intend mean decide promise offer agree

1 Make sentences from the following notes Think whether you should use the infinitive or

the – ing form after the verbs

It/no use/leave/your work/last minute

I/miss/watch/college football match/last week

He/ hope/get/ good results/his examination

I/expect/grow/more vegetables/next year

I/not want/risk/fail/my exams

Unit 3: IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (I)

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

Trees are woody plants, but not all woody plants are trees A tree usually grows upright to

at least 20 feet (15.5 metres) at maturity and has a single stem, often called bole or trunk The stem supports limbs and leaves, forming the top or crown Other woody plants are vines and shrubs Vines may have woody stems but do not have a distinct crown of upright branches Shrubs may have several woody stems growing from a clump, and they usually are smaller than trees

Trees generally develop a typical shape when they grow in an open area Trees that grow

in crowded forests usually have trunks of greater clear length Essentially, we have no timberline resulting from high elevation in the East, but at timberline and at higher mountain elevations in the West many trees are knurled, twisted, and sometimes prostrate Such tortuous form is the result of many factors, including thin soils, limited growth periods, deep snows, and continuous exposure to strong winds However, under favorable conditions, most species develop characteristic shapes Several field trips with a good identification manual showing local species should enable an inexperienced person to become rather proficient in identifying trees

Identification features are also found in bud, flower, fruit, leaf, twig, and bark structure The precise botanical characteristics by which trees are classified (primarily flower parts) are too small or fleeting to be useful in field identification for those with little experience The gross features (shape, leaf, and bark structure, buds and twigs) are more useful for quick field identification

II/ Comprehension questions

1 All woody plants are trees or not?

2 At maturity, how high is a tree?

3 How many stem does a tree have?

4 What does the stem support?

5 Do vines have distinct crowns?

6 How do trees develop when they grow in an open area?

7 What kind of trunk does a tree often have when it has to compete for light?

8 Why are some trees knurled or twisted?

9 In what conditions do most species develop characteristic shape?

10 In order to have quick field identification what should be used?

characteristics

1 ……… is very important for the growth of trees

2 Trees……… is a subject that we are going to study next week

3 The……… of this tree is very thick

4 Many………affect the growth of a tree

5 After the flood, the……… of the river banks changed so much

6 This kind of Pine has got a lot of……….…

7 We used to play under the……….of this old, big tree

8 The……… of this bamboo is 10 metres long

9 Yesterday, a car run into that tree, but only the……….is damaged

B Comprehension check

1 A tree usually grows………

2 A tree usually has………

3 Vines has got………

A great crown B small crown C complex crown D indefinite crown

4 The branches of a vine are………

A big B long and thin C not upright D hard

5 When growing in an open area, trees often have a…………

A nice form B popular form C great form D dense form

6 The tree that has to compete for light often has …………

A a long stem B many branches C thick bank D a beautiful crown

7 The tree that grows on very adverse place generally has…………

A a long stem B a usual shape C an unusual shape D a dense brown

B GRAMMAR COORDINATORS

You can remember the seven coordinators by the phrase FAN BOYS

FOR AND NOR BUT OR YET SO

for Women live longer than men, for they take better care of their health

(The second clause gives the reason for the first clause.)

and Women follow more healthful diets, and they go to doctors more often

(The two clauses express equal, similar ideas.)

nor Women don‟t smoke as much as men do, nor do they drink as much

alcohol (Nor means „and not‟ It joins two negative independent clauses Notice that questions word order is used after nor.)

but Men may exercise harder, but they may not exercise as regularly as

women do (The two clauses express equal, contrasting ideas.)

or Both men and women should limit the amount of fat in their diets, or

they risk getting heart disease (The two clauses express alternative possibilities.)

yet Women used to be known as the „weaker sex‟ yet in some ways, they

are stronger than men (The second clause is a surprising or unexpected contrast to the first clause.)

so Men are less cautious than women, so more men die in accidents (The

second clause is the result of the first clause.)

Exercise1:

A Add another independent clause to the following independent clauses to form compound sentences Be sure to write a complete clause containing a subject and a verb Underline the coordinator and add punctuation

Example:

The college campus is located in the center of the city, so it is very easy to do my shopping

1 Students can attend day classes and ………

2 Students can live in dormitories or ………

3 I have finished my math homework but ………

4 I have studied English for six years yet ………

5 My adviser suggested a word processing class for ………

6 Some students do not like to write term paper nor ………

7 The instructor gave us eight weeks to write our term papers yet ………

8 Most students had not even chosen a topic nor ………

9 The instructor was very upset for ………

10 My roommate scored very high on the English placement test so ………

B For each pair of sentences below, choose a coordinator that best fits the meaning, and join the two independent clauses to form a compound sentence Use each FAN BOYS coordinator once Write your new sentences on a separate sheet of paper, and punctuate them correctly

2 Solar heating systems are economical to operate The cost of installation is very high

3 Energy needs are not going to decrease Energy sources are not going to increase (Use nor and question word order in the second clause, deleting the word not.)

4 Burning fossil fuels causes damage to our planet We need to develop other sources of energy

5 Ecologists know that burning fossil fuels causes holes in the ozone layer People continue to do it

6 Poorer nations especially will continue this harmful practice They don‟t have the money

to develop “clean” energy sources

7 All nations of the world must take action Our children and grandchildren will suffer the consequences

Notice: Words, phrases, and clauses that are joined by and, or and but are written in

parallel form Notice the parallel structures joined by coordinators in the following sentences:

The Federal Air Pollution Control Administration regulates automobiles exhausts, and the

Federal Aviation Administration makes similar regulations for aircraft

The States regulate the noise created by motor vehicles but not by commercial aircraft Pesticides cannot be sold if they have an adverse effect on humans, on animal life, or on

the environment

Exercise 2: Complete the sentences with and, so, because, then or but

1 We didn‟t have any money ……… we couldn‟t go to a restaurant

2 He closed all the doors and windows, and ……… he left the house

3 I was feeling very tired, ……… I went to bed very early

4 Romano is usually on time, ……… tonight she arrived half an hour late

5 I couldn‟t sleep ………… there was a party next door

6 It was very cold outside, ……… I put on my warmest clothes

7 I phoned my friends ………… invited them to come to my house

8 We couldn‟t go out ……… the weather was so bad

9 He looked through the window for a minute or two, ………… went inside

Exercise 3: Paragraph writing

Match the following clauses together, using and, but, when, after, so and because

a the next evening he needed them

b he arrived at the canteen

c they did not please Andrew very much

d Last night Andrew lend Robert his

lecture note

e Andrew needed his notes immediately

f He had waited for an hour

Robert could not attend Robert finally arrived

he went to the canteen to look for Robert

Robert has not returned them Robert was not there

he decided to wait

FURTHER READING:

A GUIDE TO TREE IDENTIFICATION

It is possible to identify many of our native trees by looking at their leaves Strictly speaking, identification should involve examination of the flowers which are far less variable than leaves However, in most cases, it is possible to make an identification using just a few features of the leaves and twigs

The leaf blade

Leaves are generally speaking broad, flat, and thin: these features allow them to intercept light for photosynthesis and allow gases to enter or leave the leaf easily The flat surface of the leaf is termed the leaf blade or lamina, as seen to the left The top surface of the leaf is often very different from the lower surface For example the lower surface may be hairy, or

a different colour, or the veins of the leaves may be more obvious The leaf is usually joined to the stem of a plant by a stalk; this is called the petiole The angle that the petiole makes with the stem of the plant is termed the leaf axil The tip of the leaf is sometimes referred to as the apex of the leaf

The leaf margin

The edge of the leaf is known as the leaf margin Looking at the margin of the leaf can be

an important in identifying the leaf Leaf margins may be described as entire, toothed, or lobed

Simple or compound

A leaf is said to be simple if its lamina is undivided; that is, any „teeth‟ or lobes do not reach down to the main vein of the leaf A compound leaf consists of several leaflets, all of which join up with a single leaf stalk or petiole It is important when looking at the leaves

of a tree to look for the petiole – as a single leaflet of a compound leaf can look like a single, simple leaf

Leaf arrangement

Leaf arrangement is another feature of leaves that may help in you in identifying a tree is how they are arranged on the shoots or twigs of the tree Look at a shoot (not too near the tip), how are the leaves arranged? Do they occur in pairs? If the pairs of buds are set at right angles to each other, then this arrangement is described as decussate (as seen in the Horse Chestnut) Or are they arranged singly and alternately, as in Beech and Birch

Buds

The buds are usually encased in modified leaves – scale leaves These may be tough protective structures, they may be coloured or they may be sticky (as in the horse chestnut) When the scale leaves fall, they often leave distinctive scars on the twigs The size, colour, position of the buds can often help identify a tree in winter, when the leaves have been shed

Shoots and twigs

When examining shoots and twigs, it is sometimes useful to look for lenticels Lenticels

are small areas on the stem, where the cells are less densely packed so as to allow for the

exchange of gases Depending on the species, they can be small, round „spots‟ or minute

„slits‟ and the colour of them can also vary

Bark

In more mature trees, another feature that can help in identification is the bark The bark protects the underlying tissues from damage The outermost part of the bark consists of dead cells and often has a characteristic colour and texture

Unit 4 : IDENTIFICATION OF TREES (II)

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

Trees and other plants often have several common names, which vary with locality or local use To make specific identities world-wide, botanists employ Latinized names, which remain constant since Latin is a language that no longer changes The scientific name consists of two parts: the genus (a collection closely related species) and the specific epithet or species (a collection of individuals so similar that they suggest common percentage and produce like offspring) The generic name always appears first and is capitalized, while the specific name follows and begins with a lowercase letter Because general and regional guides to field identification of trees and government publication that describe local or native trees are readily available, only a few of the important commercially significant trees of the major forest regions will be studied in this chapter Most of these are valued for their wood products

Prior to studying individual tree species, it is necessary to know that trees are divided into two main groups These are the conifers (gymnosperms) or softwood trees and the broadleaf (angiosperms) or hardwood trees Conifers have mostly needle-like or scale-like leaves and bear their seeds in cones or cone-like structures The conifers or evergreens do not shed all their leaves annually, with the exception of larch and bald cypress Deciduous trees, those that shed all their leaves in the fall, generally are broad-leaved hardwoods

The term hardwood and softwood can be misleading because the wood of some hardwood trees is softer than that of some softwood trees For example, the wood of yellow poplar and basswood is much softer than that of the longleaf pine

We will first study the conifers, which are very widely distributed in the various regions and are very significant in the production of lumber and paper

I/ Vocabulary

Find word or combination of words that means:

1 some (paragraph 1) 6 types (paragraph 2)

2 definite (paragraph ) 7 accurate (paragraph 1)

3 the same (paragraph 1) 8 sawn wood (paragraph 4)

4 before (paragraph 2) 9 easily to be seen, bought (paragraph 1)

5 classified (paragraph 2) 10 different (paragraph 4)

II/ Comprehension questions

1 How many names do trees and other plants have?

2 Why do they have many names?

3 Why do botanists have to use Latin to name trees?

4 How many parts does the scientific name consist of? What are they?

5 How are trees classified?

III Vocabulary

A/ Find an appropriate word to fill the blank

1 He is a very famous……… (paragraph 1)

2 These trees do not………….leaves in the autumn (paragraph 2)

3 In old time, people used to………to construct bridges (paragraph 4)

4 ……….….is often used to produce paper (paragraph 4)

5 It is difficult to store the………… of this tree, because their germination capacity is decreased by the time (paragraph 2)

6 To conserve valuable……… ….resources is a task of great importance (paragraph 1)

7 This kind of trees are often………on high mountains (paragraph 4)

8 Names of trees………with different regions (paragraph 1)

9 The generic name always………first (paragraph 1)

10 ……… ….do not shed all their leaves annually (paragraph 2)

B/ Choose A, B, C or D

1 Trees and plants have…………

A very few names B many names

2 The scientific name of a tree has………

A only one part B two parts C four parts D many parts

3 The specific name stands…………

4 ……….is written or printed in capital letters

A the generic name B the specific name

5 Trees are classified into………

A three types B four types C two types D several types

6 Conifers are often………

A hardwood trees B softwood trees

7 Most of softwood trees do not change their leaves………

A in autumn B in spring C in summer D in winter

8 The wood of……… hardwood trees is hard

C Reading test

Complete the following text by filling in the blank spaces with the expressions given below A dotted line………requires a phrase to be added and a straight line requires a word

the leaf of the surrounding environment

very carefully how unfamiliar plant

plant groups for example functions

identifiable grass smell

some other plant doing

If you want to identify an………, use your natural senses Feel the texture of the leaves Then the plant- crush the leaves and see if the scent reminds you other plants you know All the mints are by smell, and so are the lavenders, eucalypts and citrus Taste……… and spit it out, and again see what it reminds you of; the oxalis family all have the same acidic taste, so do the

sorrels (Notes: it is very hard to poison yourself by _simply a test taste and

then spitting the leaf out.)

Look at the plant……… - all the thyme family have small hairy leaves; other……… can be similarly recognised by sight Now you can probable see that this plant is like……… you know Think about it and then check its growing place

Examine ………- soil, aspect, slope- and the plant‟s habit- tree, shrub, herb or Identify its yields and - mulch, groundcover, shelter food, and so on

Now tell yourself where and _you would use it in a permaculture design

FURTHER READING:

TREE IDENTIFICATIONThere are many ways to identify a tree - the shape of the crown or leaves, the color of the fruits and flowers, the shape or arrangement of twigs and buds, and the nature of the bark These characteristics are unique for each species and help in the identification

process Knowing the characteristics of the leaves, twigs and buds is the most useful way

to identify a tree especially when using a botanical (dichotomous) key The different parts

of a tree are described below Illustrations for these characteristics are on the pages that follow

Types of Trees

There are two general types of trees based on leaf type - deciduous and coniferous

Deciduous trees drop their leaves in the fall Coniferous trees, such as hemlocks, pines and spruce drop and replace their needles gradually Each needle lives about one year This gives coniferous trees an evergreen appearance Not all conifers are evergreen and not all broadleaf trees are deciduous

Leaves

Leaves are the easiest and most common way to identify trees Leaf arrangement, form, blade shape, and margin are different for every tree species Knowledge of leaf terminology is important when using summer identification keys

Types

Broad leaf Broad flat leaves mostly deciduous but not always

Needlelike Mostly evergreens, but some deciduous like larch

Scale-like Flat leaves that overlap like scales on a fish and are soft to

touch (cedars and junipers)

Leaf Form And Arrangement

Simple One leaf blade per petiole (leaf stalk) with bud

Compound Many small leaflets on one petiole with bud

Alternate Leaves and stems alternately spaced along stem

Opposite Leaves and buds across from each other

Whorled Three leaves and buds across from each other

There are only four common opposite branching trees in our area They are maple, ash, dogwood and horse chestnut (or M-A-D-C-A-P) The "CAP" stands for caprifoliaceae, the botanical name (genus) for horse chestnut

Leaf Shape, Tips And Bases

The overall shape of the leaf and the shape at the tip and base are useful in tree I.D For example, willows have long and narrow (linear) leaves Little Leaf Linden and Elms have

a oblique base (not symmetrical) Some leaves have pointy tips (ashes, elms, red oak) while others are rounded at the tip (white oak) Some leaves have lobes like maples and oak, while many do not

Buds And Twigs

Buds are recognizable based on many things including their shape, arrangement and scales What color are the twigs? Are they hairy? Does the bud have overlapping scales? Are they long? The American beech has a long, narrow, sharp and scale like bud

Twigs also have distinct characteristics including whether they are opposite (maples) or alternately arranged (oaks), stout (Tree of Heaven) or slender (honey locust), chambered pith (butternut) or solid pith

There are six basic tree forms: columnar, ovate, pyramidal, rounded, "V" shaped, and

weeping Crown form varies within species and cultivars of those species Crown form is

an important factor in determining where to plant trees

Columnar Good for tight spaces like city streets and areas with

pavement The 'Freeman' maple is columnar but grows over 40' Therefore, do not plant it under utility lines

Ovate Narrow at the bottom and top, wide in the middle Some

ashes, oaks and crab apple varieties are this shape and grow between 20' to 50' tall

Pyramidal Cedars, pines and spruces are pyramidal

Rounded Maples, oaks and sycamores tend to be large and rounded,

providing shade for parks and wide streets

V-Shaped Japanese zelkova has this inverted triangle form

Weeping Willows have branches that seem to hang from the tree

giving it a weeping form

Unit 5 : TREE SIZE AND TYPE CLASSIFICATION

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

Tree age and size can be described in a general and approximate way by use of such words as seedling, sapling, pole-size, mature, and veteran A stand of trees can be even-aged or all-aged

A forest made up principally of one species is

a pure stand, while one composed of several species is a mixed stand Trees are also classified by the positions of their crowns relative to the general level of the forest canopy, the covering created by the crowns interweaving each other

Dominant: A tree having a

well-developed crown that extends above the general level of the other crowns and is exposed to full light from above and partial light from the sides

Co-dominant: A tree with smaller crown than the dominants that helps form the general

level of the canopy and receives full light from above but limited amount from the sides

Intermediate: A small-crowned tree crowded into the general level of the forest canopy,

receiving some light from above and virtually none from the sides

Suppressed: A tree with poorly developed crown, beneath the level of the canopy

(overtopped), receiving very little light from above or the sides

Foresters refer to a measure of the number and size of trees in a given area as stand density It indicates whether the forest is under stocked, medium stocked, or well stocked For example, if the canopy of a tract of timber is closed over as much as 40 to 70 percent,

it is medium- stocked

II/ Comprehension questions : True or false?

a A pure stand is made up of different species

b Trees can not be classified by the positions of their crowns

c In a forest, each crown of each tree stays away from each other

d A dominant tree receives some light from the sides

e A co-dominant tree gets no sunlight from the sides

f A suppressed tree receives no light at all

g An intermediate tree does not have any light from the sides

h Stand density is the number and sizes of trees in a given area

i Basing on the crowns of trees that are relative to the general level of the forest canopy, trees can be classified into four types

j If the canopy of a tract of timber is closed as much as 55%, it is medium-stocked

III Vocabulary

1 Look at paragraph 1 again Which words have the same meaning as:

2 Look at paragraph 2 again Which words correspond to the definitions?

A unique

B a forest of different species

C mixing with each other

3 Look at paragraph 3, 4 and 5 Can you find the synonym of the following words?

A face to the sun

B layer of forest

C actually

D not any

4 Find out an appropriate word in the text to fill the blank:

a How many…………does your nursery produce per year? (paragraph 1 )

b I think these pines are……….enough to be cut (paragraph 1)

c This stand is……….…….because it is made up principally one species (paragraph 2)

d This………of pine grows very fast (paragraph 2)

e He has been a………… ….for twenty years (paragraph 7)

f The roots of this tree have……….over a lot of land (paragraph 3)

g Dominant trees receive full…… …….from the sun (paragraph 3)

h Biomass production is affected by stand……… (paragraph 7)

i The economic………of Japan is admirable (paragraph 7)

j A given area of trees, which is consisted of species is called a…… ……… (paragraph 7)

B GRAMMAR The form of Definition

Definitions often take one of the following forms:

1 [ A] is / are, may be defined as [ B ] which [ C ]

E.g A soil profile [ A ] is defined as a succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from the surface of the soil to the parent rock

2 [ B ] which [ C ] is / are called, is / are known as [ A ]

E.g A succession of soil horizons [ B ] which extends from the surface of the soil to the parent rock [ C ] is called a soil profile

Extends from the surface

of the soil to the parent rock

Can live in the presence of air

Take place through the tissues of living plants Utilizes energy from the sun in the manufacture of food

Absorb sunlight and manufacture food

Lead to the interior of the leaf and the chloroplasts Enable sunlight to convert carbon dioxide into food and other substances

Definition of Terms: Combine the items in Column A with the ones in column B to make the correct definition of each term You will need to add some necessary words (articles, pronouns and adjectives, forms of the verb “be”) where appropriate

Collection of trees which are more or less uniform (i.e more or less the same) in species, age distribution etc

Rather like a stand but more extensive- group of similar stands defined by the species composition

Physical factors which affect the productivity of the trees, concerning the thing like the soil, the slope and exposure (wind, rain)

Height of tree and diameter

Measured at one point three five metres from the surface

of the soil

Measurements used for the diameter of trees (dbh: diameter at breast height)

FURTHER READING:

TREES AND FORESTS

A mature forest cannot be precisely measured nor cost However, it is clear that forests have special functions In addition to providing habitats for animals and contributing to environmental stability, forests influence wind patterns, rainfall and nutrients turnover

The Function Of A Forest

The waru

The trees are the fixed elements

of a forest and the associates of trees- fungi, bacteria, squirrels, possums, insects, birds, and other animals- can be seen as the

mobile elements The whole- the

tree and its associates- can be

imagined as a guild or waru (the

Australian Aboriginal word

waru expresses the sense of all

organisms belonging together and working co-operatively.) the tree provides habitat for the animals (shelter, food, nesting materials); in return animals carry out the tree‟s needs for pollination, seed dispersal, pruning, cultivation and fertilising

In permaculture, you are aiming to create landscapes and ecosystems that function with the wonder, diversity and efficiency of a waru

Trees and wind

Trees are “pruned” or deformed by prevailing winds and from this you can predict local wind direction and intensity, and assess the need for windbreaks

Heavy trees with large canopies, such as oak trees, rely mainly on their weight to withstand severe winds Trees with lighter canopies insert roots deeply into the ground to anchor themselves It is important to use anchoring trees in cyclone areas

Wind carries a “load” It carries ice particles, sand, dust, bacteria, viruses and seed Trees with small fine leaves can “trap” the load and deposit the nutrients for their own growth Because fine-leaved trees are often found on the edges of forests, you will sometimes find that the edge facing the prevailing wind has richer soils than the edge on the leeward side

Typically, in a forest about 60% of the windstream is deflected up and over the trees The remaining 40% that enters the “edge” or forest closure is absorbed and warms the forest with its energy Within 100m the wind dies At this point in the forest the air is clean, warm, still and slightly humid This is a perfect growing place

The deflected wind is compressed in a region up to 20 times the height of the tree canopy

If the air is humid, it will be compressed and cooled, and it will rain

The forest edge is essential to the lift of the wind The species growing on the edge are dense, small-leaved and thick-stemmed, and can withstand the force of the wind The edge must be kept intact because if it is destroyed the plants in the forest may suffer from windburn and abrasion, and diseases and weeds can enter the forest and destroy its integrity

Trees and temperature

Forests can be seen as nature‟s air conditioners because they clean the air and modify extremes of humidity and temperature

Trees absorb the sun‟s light energy and turn it into chemical energy

If leaves are dark green or reddish in colour, as often found in the tropics, more light as absorbed and local temperatures are reduced

Trees transpire water into the atmosphere as humidity (one medium-sized elm will transpire 7000 litres of water on a clear day.) this evaporation is accompanied by cooling

so that by day it is cooler in and near a forest than it is in unvegetated areas At night, in humid conditions, water condenses on the leaves and warms the surrounding air

In very dry areas, the evapotranspiration from trees will humidify air which is uncomfortably dry; in very damp areas, water captured by trees dehumidifies the air by absorbing water

Trees and precipitation

Where the air stream is very humid (i.e coasts and islands), air flows rapidly and condenses on leaf surfaces In these conditions dense rainforests will grow and the condensation from leaf surface can be 80-86% of the total precipitation

Trees pump moisture into the air as they transpire- up to 75% of precipitation is returned to the atmosphere in this way The Tasmanian Blue Gum, Eucalyptus globulus, which averages about 60 trees to a hectare in a natural mixed forest, pumps 4000 litres/ day This

is a huge return of moisture to the airstreams

The environmental effects of forest removal are dramatic, both in the local area and further field It has been calculated that as much as 60% of inland water comes from forest transpiration Hence, forest removal in one area may relate directly to drought in another area

Forests protect the soil from erosion In one heavy deluge up to 80 tones/ hectare of soil can be lost from bare earth In addition, the topsoil and subsoil start to dry out if water runs across the surface and off the land into waterways Dams and rivers silt up and eventually flood, carrying the valuable topsoil downstream

When it rains………

When it rains over a forest the impact of each rain drop on the soil is reduced and the rain

is spread as a film of water, bound by surface tension, over all the leaves of the trees It is caught in stems and bark, in webs, flowers and insect nests The amount caught is influenced by the crown thickness and density For 100% of rain falling, 10- 15% is caught

by the tree canopy, branches and trunks of deciduous trees; more is caught in evergreen trees This is called interception

The rest of the rain- the throughfall- drifts through the canopy as mist and droplets It contains organic salts, dust, plant exudates, insect droppings and sheddings It is nutrient-rich and is directed towards the outer plant canopy (also known as the drip line) and the underlying feeding roots

Before the water reaches the roots however, the organic humus layer of the soil acts like a great water blotter and soaks up 1cm of rain for every 3cm of depth This moisture is held for later use, when the soil begins to dry out again

In the underlying 40-60cm of soil, the throughfall is filtered into water and air channels, nests and burrows, and is absorbed by soil fungi and bacteria, and of course, the tree roots This water is first bound by particles of clay and humus and then the excess percolates slowly through the soil At any time some of this water is valuable to soil organisms and plant roots

Once all this has been accomplished, water starts to flow very slowly to rivers and the sea And when it does, it is clean

I Comprehension:

1 Can a mature forest be precisely measured or cost?

2 What is the definition of the term “waru”?

3 How can you predict local wind direction and intensity?

4 How can trees withstand severe wind?

5 Are fine-leaved trees benefit? Where can we find them in a forest?

6 What is the perfect growing place?

7 What tree species usually grow on the edge of a forest?

8 Why can forests be seen as nature‟s air conditioners?

9 When does air flow rapidly and condense on leaf surface?

10 Can trees pump moisture into the air? When?

11 How can trees help the soil?

12 Which acts like a great water blotter?

II Vocabulary

1 In paragraph 3, line 1, the word “that” refers to:

A permaculture B landscapes C ecosystems D B & C

2 In paragraph 6, line 2 , the word “their” refers to:

3 In paragraph 7, line 3, the word “its” refers to:

A 40% B forest closure‟s C windstream‟s D forest‟s

4 In paragraph 8, line 2, the word “it” refers to:

5 In paragraph 9, line 4, the word “its” refers to:

6 In paragraph 11, line 1, the word “it” refers to:

7 In paragraph 14, line 1, the word “which” refers to:

A areas B evatranspiration C air D trees

8 In paragraph 16, line 1, the word “they” refers to:

9 In paragraph 23, line 2, the word “it” refers to:

Unit 6 : FOREST AND FLOODING

A READING & COMPREHENSION

I Reading text

conditions, streams establish channels sufficient to carry the water discharged into them However, prolonged torrential rains and rapidly melting snow can fill streams beyond their capacity The resulting overflow causes damage to property and in some instance loss of human life Flood damage usually is correlated with population density along main rivers Rapid rise of water in headwater streams (tributaries) results in flooding of the main rivers, the destruction of bridges, buildings, and roads, and the deposition of debris on land and in buildings

During our country‟s development, large areas of forest were cleared from the water-sheds

of rivers such as the Ohio, Mississippi, Missouri, and Columbia river basins, to make way

of farming, industry, and urban areas, thus making them more prone to flooding than before, and local and downstream flood control much more difficult It became necessary

to build levees, usually walls of dirt or of sandbag construction, to prevent excess water from spilling ever the banks Good forest management regulates runoff, which moderates extremes in stream flow in headwater regions and, in turn, helps prevent downstream floods

In this chapter, the science called ecology was defined and various aspects of ecology were touched upon, such as the ecology of forest wildlife, the impacts of human activity upon the environment, possible interaction between climate and the forests supply and forests, and so on

Rainfall removes dust from the atmosphere, provides the water necessary for tree growth, replenishes the underground water table, dissolves nutrient materials in the soil, sometimes creates erosion, fills the river headwater streams, and may result in disastrous floods Lack

of rainfall, wind and barren soil caused the famous Dust Bowl

Forests are affected by climate and in turn produce some effects upon climate Air and ground temperatures within forests differ somewhat from those outside Forests affect the speed of air movement Shelterbelts protect agricultural fields from winds and snowdrifts, while windbreaks protect farmsteads by changing wind direction and reducing wind speed Ground litter retards flow of rainwater and also serves as a thermal insulator, reducing the rapidity of changes in forest temperature Excessive conversion of forest land into agricultural fields has contributed to soil erosion, silted streams, and contributed to the need for levees

II/ Comprehension questions

A/ Fill in the blank with one word from the text

1 Streams…….establish channels sufficient to carry the water discharged into them

2 Flood damage is usually correlated with the……

A forests along the main rivers

B shelter belts along the main rivers

C population density along the main rivers

D construction along the main rivers

3 ………results in flooding of the main rivers

A Storms

B Forest destruction

C Population density in headwater streams area

D Quick increase water in headwater streams

4 Levees can be built with………

5 Proper rain fall has got………

6 Over-raining causes only……

7 Air and ground temperatures within forests are………

A the same as somewhat from those outside

B different from somewhat from those outside

C higher than somewhat from those outside

D lower than somewhat from those outside

8 Shelter belts fights against………

B/ Answer the questions

1 In what condition do streams establish sufficient to carry the water discharged into them?

2 In what condition do rivers and streams cause flood?

3 What can a flood damage?

4 What are the relationships between floods and forest destruction?

5 Can you illustrate the above mentioned relationship?

6 To lessen the impact of flood, what must be done?

7 What are the advantages of proper rain fall?

8 What are the disadvantages of over raining?

9 What can forest do to the climate and vice versa?

10 What are the functions of shelter belts and windbreaks?

9 fills up again (paragraph 4)

10 too much/ too great (paragraph 5)

B/ Put the right word in the blank (use the words in the text)

1 One million dollars is………to plant one thousand hectares of forest (paragraph 1)

2 The……….… of this water pump is 500 cubic meters of water per an hour (paragraph 1)

3 People living in the down region of Mekong river are often threatened with…… …… (paragraph 1)

4 Last year, he took part in a……….management workshop which was organized by FAO in Bangkok (paragraph 2)

5 Forest……… is one of the main causes that lead to floods (paragraph 1)

6 The presence of forest……… the flow of streams (paragraph 2)

7 Rainfalls……… the underground water table (paragraph 4)

8 Excessive……….… of forest land into agricultural fields is happening in most

of developing countries (paragraph 5)

9 People in the poor countries are killing themselves by……… their forests (paragraph 5)

10 The population……… of America is 365 persons on a square kilometer (paragraph 1)

B GRAMMAR Active or Passive Voice

Form: We form passive verbs with the different tenses of be (e.g is, was, is being, have

been) + past participle

Present Simple am/is/are + past participle

The office is locked every evening

Present Continuous am/is/are +being + past participle

The house is painted at the moment

Past Simple were/was + past participle

My car was stolen last night

Past Continuous were/was + being + past participle

The bridge was being repaired last week

Present Perfect Simple have/has + been + past participle

Sarah has been invited to the party

Past Perfect Simple had + been + past participle

I thought that you had been told the news

Use:

- We often use the passive when we do not know who or what does something

My car was stolen last night (I do not know who stole the car)

- We also use the passive when we are not interested in who or what does something

The factory was painted during the war

Sarah has been invited to the party

In these sentences we are interested in the factory and Sarah, not who painted the factory,

or who invited Sarah

Exercises1: Contrasting Active Sentences and Passive sentences

Complete the sentences using a verb from the box If a sentence requires a passive form, change the verb to the passive Change active verbs to the simple past when necessary Some of the verbs may be used more than once

bring / choose / destroy / sing / fall / kill / watch / play

1 During World War II, many buildings in London were destroyed by bombs

2 The world‟s best athletes together every four years at the Olympic Games

3 The International Olympic Committee Athens as the site of the 2004 games

4 Do you ever wonder how a city as the site for the Olympics?

5 Natural disasters thousands of people every year

6 The Berlin Wall on November 9, 1989

7 The important event by people all over the world

8 People all over the world the moon landing on July16, 1969

9 How many of us witnessed the explosion of the Challenger shuttle on January 28,

1986, when everyone on board ?

10 The Internet together computer users all over the world

11 The world Cup by hundreds of millions of people all over the world

12 Over 5,000 people during the earthquake in Kobe, Japan in January,

15 Every time Frank Sinatra song on the radio, my mother cries

16 “Happy Birthday” on a person‟s birthday

Exercises1: Change the following sentences into passive or active voice

a During our country‟s development, people cleared large areas of forests from the shed of rivers

water-b Rainfall removes dust from the atmosphere

c Shelterbelts protect agricultural fields from winds and snowdrifts, speed of air movement

d After the United States were established, laws with penalties were passed by several states to prevent thoughtless waste of the forest

e In very early pioneer days, trees were cut down with no thought of replacing them

Nutrient traps (wind and water)

Every site has a predictable wind pattern Sometimes you can find this out from weather records; otherwise you will use your observations of how tree shapes are deformed (wind pruned) and the amount of wear on buildings

Every windbreak should be designed to work many ways, and to yield a variety of products such as mulch, bee folder, animal browse, firewood and building timber

It should be noted that a line of pine trees is not an efficient windbreak Once the lower branches fall off, the wind velocity under the trees is increased Also, the long black shadows cast by the trees reduce the land‟s productivity

How windbreaks work

There must be some movement of air through a windbreak or the wind forms into eddies, which can be quite destructive, on the other side of the barrier The principle is to create the equivalent of the forest “edge” which will lift the wind up and over the area you wish

to protect The wind can then be “shaped” so it tapers off at the ends and wind velocity is reduced

The most effective shape for a windbreak planting is a boomerang or parabola shape This allows the wind to be diverted around the site In addition these windbreaks work as suntraps

How to design your windbreak

The design is based on the concept of succession You start off your windbreak with smaller-growing plants and nurse species which prepare the environment for the final (climax) species

Plants with the following characteristics should be included in the windbreaks:

Hardy species with deep anchoring root systems

Plants with fibrous stems and fleshy leaves- these are more likely to be wind and fire resistant

Plants with fast early growth, i.e pioneer species

Nitrogen-fixing plants

Self-mulching plants, i.e plants which have good leaf fall

Windbreaks for orchards: Several parabola-shaped windbreaks can be planted in the orchard to protect individual trees or small groups of fruit trees

Windbreaks for small areas: These are very important an need not be permanent For example, Jerusalem artichokes make an excellent summer windbreak or suntrap in cool climate- they may be just what is required to collect and focus sun on ripening tomatoes Even knee-high windbreaks, such as small hedges or herbs, can provide protection for plants growing nearby