Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development

Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development... Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development Howard R.. Hasler • Sensory and Consumer Rese

Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development

The IFT Press series reflects the mission of the Institute of Food Technologists—advancing

the science and technology of food through the exchange of knowledge Developed in

part-nership with Blackwell Publishing, IFT Press books serve as essential textbooks for

aca-demic programs and as leading edge handbooks for industrial application and reference

Crafted through rigorous peer review and meticulous research, IFT Press publications

rep-resent the latest, most significant resources available to food scientists and related ture professionals worldwide

agricul-IFT Book Communications Committee

Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development Howard R Moskowitz, Jacqueline H Beckley, and

Anna V.A Resurreccion

Titles in the IFT Press series

• Accelerating New Food Product Design and Development (Jacqueline H.P Beckley,

J.C Huang, Elizabeth J Topp, M Michele Foley, and Witoon Prinyawiwatkul)

• Biofilms in the Food Environment (Hans P Blaschek, Hua Wang, and Meredith E Agle)

• Food Carbohydrate Chemistry (Ronald E Wrolstad)

• Food Irradiation Research and Technology (Christopher H Sommers and Xuetong Fan)

• Foodborne Pathogens in the Food Processing Environment: Sources, Detection and Control (Sadhana Ravishankar and Vijay K Juneja)

• High Pressure Processing of Foods (Christopher J Doona, C Patrick Dunne, and

Florence E Feeherry)

• Hydrocolloids in Food Processing (Thomas R Laaman)

• Microbiology and Technology of Fermented Foods (Robert W Hutkins)

• Multivariate and Probabilistic Analyses of Sensory Science Problems (Jean-Francois

Meullenet, Rui Xiong, and Chris Findlay)

• Nondestructive Testing of Food Quality (Joseph Irudayaraj and Christoph Reh)

• Nonthermal Processing Technologies for Food (Howard Q Zhang, Gustavo V

Barbosa-Canovas, V.M Balasubramaniam, Editors; C Patrick Dunne, Daniel F Farkas, JamesT.C Yuan, Associate Editors)

• Packaging for Nonthermal Processing of Food (J H Han)

• Preharvest and Postharvest Food Safety: Contemporary Issues and Future Directions

(Ross C Beier, Suresh D Pillai, and Timothy D Phillips, Editors; Richard L Ziprin,Associate Editor)

• Regulation of Functional Foods and Nutraceuticals: A Global Perspective (Clare M.

Hasler)

• Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development (Howard R.

Moskowitz, Jacqueline H Beckley, and Anna V.A Resurreccion)

• Thermal Processing of Foods: Control and Automation (K.P Sandeep)

• Water Activity in Foods: Fundamentals and Applications (Gustavo V Barbosa-Canovas,

Anthony J Fontana Jr., Shelly J Schmidt, and Theodore P Labuza)

Food Technologists and numerous other professional societies, he has written/edited fifteen books, lished well over 300 papers in journals and conference proceedings, and serves on the editorial board of

pub-major journals With colleague E.P Koster, Moskowitz co-founded the journal Chemical Senses and

Fla-vor, now called Chemical Senses, the leading journal in the field

Jacqueline H Beckley is the founder of The Understanding & Insight Group™, Denville, NJ, an innovative

business development and strategy firm working with both large and small companies to integrate traditional approaches with new concepts and tools for business growth Previously, Beckley held positions within in- dustry and consulting, including director of consumer perception at Nabisco, Inc., group manager of sensory research and R&D for The Quaker Oats Company, and research scientist for Amoco Chemical Company

Anna V.A Resurreccion is a professor in the Department of Food Science and Technology at the

Univer-sity of Georgia, Griffin Campus She has published over 596 scientific and technical articles, including the

book Consumer Sensory Testing for Product Development, and 128 refereed journal articles in the research

areas of sensory evaluation, consumer acceptance, and food quality evaluation and optimization She is a

fellow of the Institute of Food Technologists, has served as associate scientific editor for the Journal of

Food Science, and is on the editorial board for the Journal of Sensory Studies Dr Resurreccion also served

as chair of the Product Development Division of the Institute of Food Technologists.

©2006 Blackwell Publishing and the Institute of Food Technologists All rights reserved

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First edition, 2006 Moskowitz, Howard R.

Sensory and consumer research in food product design and development / Howard R Moskowitz, Jacqueline H Beckley, and Anna V A Resurreccion.

p cm — (IFT Press series) Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN-13: 978-0-8138-1632-6 (alk paper) ISBN-10: 0-8138-1632-7 (alk paper)

1 Food—Sensory evaluation 2 Commercial products—Testing I Beckley, Jacqueline H.

II Resurreccion, Anna V A III Title IV Series

TX546.M68 2006 664'.07—dc22

2006000916 The last digit is the print number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

I dedicate this book with love to my dear wife, Arlene, who has encouraged me and tinues to inspire me daily to develop new ideas, invent new products, and push the limits.Thank you, Arlene, for being there, and for being you

con-Howard Moskowitz

To my dear sweet husband, Leslie, for supporting goals and dreams To Hollis Ashman forhelping keep the business fires burning To Howard for moving forward the field of sensoryand consumer research even through adversity

Jacqueline Beckley

To Rey, the love of my life, thank you To Howard, my gratitude for your relentless pursuit

in bringing sensory science to a new level

Anna Resurreccion

5 A Process to Bring Consumer Mind-Sets into a Corporation 97

6 Developing Relevant Product Concepts 115

7 High-Level Product Assessment 159

8 So What Can Sensory Do for Me (or for My Company)? 199

9 What Types of Tests Do Sensory Researchers Do? And Why

Do They Do Them? 219

10 So What Are the Practical Considerations in Actually Running

a Test? What Do I Need to Know? What Does the Rest of

11 Evolving Sensory Research 325

When Blackwell Publishing approached us in 2003 with the invitation to write about newdevelopments in the early stage world of product research, we were quite excited By theearly 21st century it was already becoming apparent that the field of product testing and so-called “sensory analysis” had matured far beyond those pained beginnings decades ago,developing into a partner with marketing and management

The real question that occurred to us is what would we write to our business colleagues,and to the next generation? What guidance could we provide them, especially in a world ofhypercompetition where products come and go in the blink of an eye, where success may

be measured in months, and where job security is no longer a hallmark of the field?

As a group we decided to write about new developments in the field, rather than centrating on the traditional approaches of discrimination, scaling and hedonics We de-

con-cided that the students of today and tomorrow—both in a college or university or in

busi-ness, might like to hear a different voice, and a different message; not so much a message

of “how to do it” as a set of ideas about what to do in certain business situations

And so we set down to write, from a combination of business and academia, more withthe goal of enthusing the reader about the potential than passing on simple prescriptions ofwhat to do; more with the idea of saying “here’s the way your world is working” ratherthan saying “here is what prescribed wisdom says.”

We hope we have been successful Should we be able to inspire students to move ward in a new direction, merging business and science, new developments and battle-tested methods, we will feel our book to have made a difference

for-Acknowledgements

This book would not have been possible without the ongoing editorial help of SuzanneGabrione and Joyce Mitchell, without the technology–graphics expertise of Paolo Gentile-Polese and all of Moskowitz Jacobs Inc Thank you so much for the hours, the effort, theguidance, and the superb results

Howard Moskowitz Jacqueline BeckleyAnna Resurreccion

Preface

Sensory and Consumer Research in Food Product Design and Development

During the past thirty years companies have recognized the consumer as the key driver forproduct success This recognition has, in turn, generated its own drivers—sensory analysisand marketing research, leading first to a culture promoting the expert and evolving intothe systematic acquisition of consumer-relevant information Styles of managementchanged as well At one time it was fashionable to laud the “maverick executive” as a su-perior being, perhaps the management equivalent of the expert Over time we have seenthis type of cowboy machismo decline into disrepute Replacing this maverick decisionmaking has been an almost slavish adoption of fact-based decisions, and the flight fromknowledge-based insight into the “soulless” reportage of facts

How does corporate decision making affect a discipline such as sensory analysis, whichhas only begun to come into its own during the past three decades? If one were to return tobusiness as it was conducted in the 1950s and 1960s one might discern a glimmer of fact-based decisions among the one or two dozen practitioners of what we now call sensoryanalysis These individuals—scattered in corporations, working quietly in universities, ex-ecuting food acceptance tests for the U.S military, and a handful of others scattered about

in other countries around the world—were founding the field that now provides this type offact-based guidance for product development and quality assurance In the early yearsmany of the practitioners did not even know that they were creating a science that wouldemerge as critical, exciting, and eminently practical These pioneers simply did the teststhe best they could, attempted to understand how people perceived products, and kept tothemselves, hardly aware of how they were to affect the food industry in the years to come

As the competition among companies to secure market share in consumer goods lessly increased, and as the consumer continued to be bombarded with new products, it be-came increasingly obvious to many that consumer acceptance would be increasingly para-mount Whereas before one might hear such platitudes as “people always have to eat” as anexcuse for complacent mediocrity, one would now hear catchphrases such as “consumertested” or “significantly preferred.” Companies were catching on to the fact that the con-sumer had to actually like the product The privations of World War II and before were fad-ing in memory The supply economy was giving way to the demand economy The con-sumer, surfeited with the offerings of countless food manufacturers, could pick and chooseamong new products that often differed only in flavor or in size from those currently avail-able In the face of such competition by fellow manufacturers, it became necessary for themarketer and product developer to better understand what consumers would actually buy,and in so doing perhaps understand what consumers really wanted

relent-3

1 Emerging Corporate Knowledge Needs:

How and Where Does Sensory Fit?

The end of the 20th century saw the professionalization of product testing What hadstarted out fifty years before as a small endeavor in corporations to “taste test foods” as onestep in the quality process became a vast undertaking (e.g., Hinreiner, 1956; Pangborn,1964) Company after company installed large market research departments reporting tomarketing and sensory analysis departments reporting to R&D Whether this was the opti-mal structure was unclear Often the two departments did similar studies The express pur-pose of these often-competing departments was to ascertain what consumers wanted, and

to feed back this information in a digested, usable form to those who either had to createthe product at R&D or those who had to sell the product The era of fact-based decisionmaking was in full swing Decisions would no longer be made on the basis of the responsefrom the president’s “significant other” (whether husband, wife, or child), but rather would

be made on the basis of well-established fact, such as the positive reaction by consumerswho would test the product under conditions that management would trumpet as being

“controlled and scientific.” Such fact-based decision making would be introduced into allareas dealing with consumers, first as a curiosity, then as a luxury, and finally as a desper-ate necessity for survival For the food and beverage industries the emergence of fact-baseddecision making would bring new methods in its wake

The Era of the Expert, and the Emergence

of Sensory Analysis Out of That Era

The real business-relevant beginnings of sensory analysis occurred in the 1950s and 1960sand can be traced to the quantum leap in business thinking provided by consultants atArthur D Little, Inc (ADL), in Cambridge, Massachusetts ADL was a well-known con-sulting company, with one division specializing in agribusiness In the 1940s, a group ofenterprising consultants at ADL developed the Flavor Profile, a then-revolutionary idea toquantify the flavor characteristic of foods (Cairncross & Sjostrom, 1950; Little, 1958) TheFlavor Profile was precedent-shattering on at least two fronts:

1 Systems thinking: No one was thinking about flavor in this organized, quantifiable ion It was certainly unusual to even think of a formalized representation of flavor Re-searchers had thought about flavors for years, but the formalization of a descriptivemethod was certainly new

fash-2 Anyone could become an expert—albeit after training: The expert reigned supreme, inbrewing, in perfumery, etc., but to have the experts created out of ordinary consumers

by a formalized training program was new thinking

Sensory analysis as an empirical discipline emerged out of the application of expert ments in formalized evaluation Before the Flavor Profile (Caul, 1957), the expert judg-ment would certainly be called upon, and relied upon as the last word The notion of con-sumer acceptance, or consumer input, was not particularly important, although thesuccessful product would be touted as filling a consumer need The Flavor Profile formal-ized the role of the expert in the situation of disciplined evaluation The expert was given anew task—evaluate the product under scientific conditions The consultants at Arthur D.Little, Inc., won numerous contracts based upon their proclamation that the Flavor Profile

judg-could assure so-called flavor leadership for a product.

At about the same time as ADL was selling its Flavor Profile, the U.S government was

winning World War II The popular aphorism attributed to Napoleon Bonaparte that “an army travels on its stomach” guided the development of new methods The Quartermaster

Corps recognized the importance of food to soldier health and morale The slowly ing scientific interest in measuring responses to food, appearing here and there in industry,took strong root in the military Measuring soldiers’ food preferences became importantbecause the commanders could often see firsthand the effects of food rejection Unlike theexecutives sitting at the heads of food companies, the commanders walked among theirtroops Failure to feed the troops meant a weakened army and the real prospect of a lostbattle or even war Food acceptance became a vital issue, and its measurement a key mili-tary task (Meiselman & Schutz, 2003)

emerg-The confluence of sensory analysis in the food industry and the military recognition ofthe importance of consumer-acceptable food produced in its wake the sensory analysis in-dustry The industry did not emerge overnight It emerged slowly, haltingly, like all suchnew creatures do, with false starts hampered by wrong decisions, but in its own way it ma-tured Expert panel approaches begun by consultants at Arthur D Little, Inc., matured tomore quantitative, statistics-friendly methods such as the QDA (Stone et al., 1974) Mili-tary interest in food acceptance led to advances in sensory testing and the 9-point hedonicscale (Peryam & Pilgrim, 1957) to actually measure level of acceptance The U.S govern-ment funded research into food acceptance (Meiselman, 1978) and eventually got into thefunding of taste and smell psychophysics, especially at the U.S Army Natick Laboratories,where Harry Jacobs built up a cadre of young scientists interested in the sensory evaluation

of foods (Meiselman & Schutz, 2003) Other organizations such as the Swedish Institutefor Food Preservation Research in Gothenburg (now Swedish Institute for Food Research)pioneered research methods and applications as well as recording the literature from theburgeoning field (Drake & Johannson, 1969)

Industrial efforts adopted methods for product testing, and the field grew, prospered,and of course heralded its maturity through journals and conferences The first major inter-national symposium involving sensory analysis took almost fifty years to come about fromthe start of the field in the 1940s This Pangborn Symposium held in Jarvenpaa, Finland,just outside of Helsinki, attracted over two hundred participants The organizing commit-tee headed by Dr Hely Tuorila had expected this conference to represent a one-off event,but the palpable excitement shared by the participants soon changed the committee’s mind.Eleven years later, the same conference, in its fifth convening, held in Boston, attractedover seven hundred participants Popularity increased so that from being held every thirdyear the conference is now held every second year Allied conferences, such as Sensomet-rics, also developed, to the point where the Sensometrics Conference is held on the yearsthat the Pangborn Symposium is not The field was well on its way Scientific decisionmaking in the food industry had given rise to a new discipline

The success of the Pangborn Symposia, and their continuing increase in attendance inthe face of decreases at other conferences, deserves a short digression that can also shedlight on the growing field of sensory analysis and the pent-up needs of the members Whenthe era of the expert was in its heyday there were no conferences to speak of, and the pro-fessionals in sensory analysis were few, scattered, and scarcely aware of each other, all la-

boring away in, as John Kapsalis had often said, “splendid isolation.” The Pangborn

Sym-posium brought these individuals together in a concentrated, four-day format, somewhat

longer than the more conventional professional organization such as IFT (Institute of FoodTechnologists) At least six things occur at such extended meetings:

1 Masses of people with very similar interests interact in a confined location The pants meet with individuals who are, by and large, sympathetic to them Rather thanparticipating in specialized symposia where the sensory specialists come together, al-beit as a minority, in the Pangborn Symposium they come together with many of thesame purposes This mass of people is an intellectual hothouse

partici-2 Easy meetings occur so that like-minded people can reach out to each other The personal nature of the meeting cannot be overemphasized Many people have knowneach other for years, so the close and long meeting allows these people to renew ac-quaintanceship

inter-3 Density plus time plus fatigue reduce interpersonal barriers The surrounding density ofpeople at the meeting and the continued stimulation over time from seeing people withcommon interests leads to fatigue, real reduction of barriers, and increased professionalintimacy

4 Long meetings make for more memories The four-day period suffices to imprint manypositive memories of interactions on the participants The scientist lives in the future,propped up by memories and propelled by hopes

5 Information intake and exchange allows people to take each other’s measure Theplethora of posters, of talks, of meals shared together allows people to come and go attheir convenience, spend time looking at other peoples’ work in an unhurried situation,and in general get comfortable with each other They size up each other, challenge, share,form opinions of character, of promise, and of expectations for each other’s future In asense people learn about each other in a way no journal article could ever hope to imitate

6 The laying on of hands, from the older to the young, occurs more readily in this ronment The young researcher can get to meet the older, more accomplished researcher

envi-on a variety of occasienvi-ons, some professienvi-onal, some social This opportunity to meeteach other produces in its wake a cadre of inspired young professionals who can receivethe necessary reinforcement from their older role models in this artificially created,short-lived “hothouse of kindred souls.” One should never underestimate the value ofinterpersonal contacts in science, and the effect on the morale, motivation, and joy of ayounger scientist who is recognized and encouraged by an older role model The Pang-born Symposium was set up, perhaps inadvertently but nonetheless successfully, to pro-duce that motivation and “laying on of hands” over its extended, four-day time

The Manifold Contribution of Psychophysics

Psychophysics is the study of the relation between physical stimuli and subjective ence (Stevens, 1975) The oldest subdiscipline of experimental psychology, psychophysicsmakes a perfectly natural, almost uncannily appropriate companion to sensory analysis.The study of how we perceive appearances, aroma, tastes, and textures of food might eas-ily be a lifelong topic of psychophysical research Indeed, many of today’s leading sensoryanalysts have been grounded either in formal education in psychophysics or at least haveenjoyed a long-term interest in the details of psychophysics Psychophysics did not startout as the conjoined twin of sensory analysis, although to many novices in the field the in-tertwining of the two areas seems uncannily tight and quite meaningful

experi-Psychophysicists are natural complements to sensory analysts, but with a slight change

in focus Sensory analysts study the product, using the person as a bioassay device edge of how we perceive stimuli does not help sensory analysts do their job better in terms

Knowl-of the specifics but does give the analyst a broader perspective in which to operate chophysics uses stimuli as probes to understand how the sensory system processes externalinformation Historically, and for a great many years, psychophysics confined itself to thestudy of “model systems,” such as sugar and water or simple chemical odorants In theirdesire to be pure, these psychophysicists valued systematic control over real-world behav-ioral meaning Psychophysics of taste and smell followed psychophysics of hearing and vi-sion, wherein the stimulus variability could be controlled by the researcher and then chan-neled into systematic stimulus variation

Psy-Psychophysics would expand its scope, however, in the early 1970s as a group of youngresearchers moved out from academia to the applied world During the 1960s psycho-physics underwent a renaissance, first begun by S.S Stevens at Harvard University buttaken up by others worldwide in a variety of fields These young researchers found thatthey could use Stevens’s method of magnitude estimation to measure the perceived inten-sity of stimuli Stevens had provided the tool These young researchers, such as Linda Bar-toshuk, William Cain, Donald McBurney, Herbert Meiselman, Howard Moskowitz, andothers would use the magnitude estimation method for direct estimation of sensory magni-tudes, applying it to model systems first, then to more behaviorally meaningful stimulisuch as foods, beverages, the environment, and so forth (e.g., McBurney, 1965) Barto-shuk, Meiselman, and Moskowitz would all begin their careers with some involvement atthe U.S Army Natick Laboratories, in Massachusetts, working with Harry Jacobs Natickwould stimulate all three to look at the application of psychophysics to food problems, astimulation that would have lifelong consequences for these researchers and for their con-tributions to the field

The Emergence of Statistical Thinking in Sensory Analysis

Quantitative thinking has been a leitmotif of sensory analysis, whether in the early days ahalf-century ago or today, whether in academia or in industry, whether in the United States

or abroad Indeed, with the founding of the Sensometrics Society (www.sensometrics.org)and the burgeoning number of quantitatively oriented papers in sensory analysis presented

at the different symposia, one might almost conclude that sensory analysis could not exist

as it does except based upon statistical methods The question is, why this reliance onquantitative methods? Why are numbers so important?

To answer this question we have to consider the hedonics or likes/dislikes, the tual history of sensory analysis, and the nurturing influences of both science and business.Sensory analysis deals with the response of people People are, by definition, variable.They lack the pleasing uniformity that delights a scientist Subjective data are messy.When it gets down to likes and dislikes, the pervasive variation across people become al-most unbearable to some, those who want to flee back to a world of ordered simplicity

intellec-If we imagine what it was like a half-century ago or longer, we notice first that many ofthe sensory professionals were chemists or other individuals in corporations who did notfathom that they were inventing a new field Chemists are not accustomed to variability.They are accustomed to regularity in nature, with variability constituting an unwanted sec-ondary influence to be dispensed with, either by controlling it or ignoring it When dealing

with the issues involving food and the subjective reaction to these foods, the natural nation of a chemist is to ask simple questions, such as magnitude of intensity and magni-tude of acceptance Not having any other intellectual history, such as sociology, the earlypractitioners relied on simple quantitative methods by which to make conclusions Itshould come as no surprise, therefore, that the statistics used by these chemists/sensorypractitioners would be simple inferential statistics It was not the nature of the problem butindeed the nature of the worldview The intellectual history and quantitative predilections

incli-of such practitioners would be those incli-of a chemist thrust into a world far beyond that whichhad formed his or her intellectual character years before

Fifty years later it would no longer be cadres of chemists who were the main ers of sensory analysis It would instead be people with newer, more informed, more so-phisticated worldviews, coming from statistics, from experimental psychology and thelike The predilections of these professionals for measurement and modeling would bemore profound because they were nurtured on worldviews that could handle variability,rather than perceiving it as an intractable nuisance Not content to find differences betweensamples, these new practitioners had been schooled to search for relations between vari-ables and to represent these relations either in terms of equations or in terms of maps (e.g.,Heymann, 1994) They were looking for laws or at least generalities, not coping with theoften more profound and equally disquieting issue of, how do I measure this private sen-sory experience?

practition-What does all this have to do with sensory analysis? Quite simply, quantitative thinkinghas emerged as a major facet of sensory analysis, and not just the ability to do analyses ofvariance Most meetings with sensory analysts have some portion of the meeting devoted

to quantitative methods Indeed, quantification using “modern methods” has become sovery popular that researchers in sensory analysis have formed a group, the aforementionedSensometrics Society, to promote the approach Sensometrics is growing and thriving, em-bracing more and more adherents and acolytes each year

A sense of the growing power of quantitative approaches in the field can be readily seenfrom the nature of conference presentations Whereas four decades ago interest focused onnew methods for removing variability in analysis of variance, today interest focuses onmethod for representing data and gleaning insights Four decades ago the researcher in-volved in quantitative methods was happy to show that some effect occurred, as revealed

by significant treatment effects in analysis of variance The focus for new methods lay inthe ability to provide added types of analysis, cautiously remaining, however, within theframework of inferential statistics, descriptive statistics, and kindred approaches The no-tion of insights in the data as empowered by statistics would have to wait three decades forthe birth of available, easy, cheap, and powerful computing The PC revolution also revo-lutionized statistics, as the more adventurous and inquiring statisticians began to exploreother methods with this available computing power, such as mapping

Increased quantitation, especially beyond the more conventional tests of differences

among products generated at least three outcomes:

1 Infused intellectual vitality: The sensory analyst, armed with these new techniques, feltempowered to advance beyond a simple service role and do more scientific work.Whereas before the sensory analyst was many times relegated to “tray pusher” despitethe protestations of being a professional, all too often that is exactly what happened.The ability to collect data, then create maps and equations, reveal novel relations among

product stimuli, and apply this information to many types of stimuli producing a sense

of pride in one’s capability

2 Increased ambition in the corporate world: The ability to understand aspects of productsthrough high-level statistics led to the realization that this information was valuable tothe business Knowing the strengths and weaknesses of the in-market competitors gavethe sensory analyst some degree of power to influence business decisions This powerled to increased ambition, or at least to a desire for greater roles in corporate decisionmaking

3 New currency for interchange with fellow scientists at meetings: Whereas in the 1960sand 1970s, the birthing years of sensory analysis, there was little really to talk about ex-cept one’s hope for the future, now in the early 2000s, with high-level statistical analy-ses there is always something to talk about at meetings Having a thriving, robust corpus

of statistical methods allows the researcher to analyze data many different ways and topresent the data and the analysis at conferences Different types of analyses are alwaysmore interesting to scientists than, say, the consumer acceptance of yet another flavor ofdessert pudding This statement is not meant to denigrate the old data but rather to em-phasize that as the sensory scientist became familiar with statistical techniques, that fa-miliarity led to new ways of analyzing data that would become the basis for presentingpapers and posters at meetings Simple research, of the disciplined, well-executed typepromoted by Rose Marie Pangborn, doyenne of sensory analysis in the 1960s through1980s, and that of her associates could never have produced this “currency” for scien-tific meetings It would take a new generation of skilled, quantitatively-oriented profes-sionals to leap the barriers that circumscribed and limited sensory analysis for so manyyears

Rose Marie Pangborn: From Focus on Experts to Focus on Consumers

The early history of sensory analysis is a history of studies with small numbers of subjectsand a focus on their ability to detect differences and describe perceptions (Amerine, Pang-born, & Roessler, 1965) To some degree this focus came from the intellectual heritageshared by the chemists and product developers who found themselves in sensory analysisjobs, even before the field was recognized They turned to the literature and found the work

of perfumers, flavorists, winemakers, brew masters, and the emerging science promoted byconsultants at Arthur D Little, Inc It did not take the researchers long to conform to thestandard that sensory analysts were developing The field was to focus on the description

of sensory characteristics (descriptive analysis) and perhaps on the discrimination of smalldifferences The descriptive efforts were part of the Linnaean tradition, which was preva-lent first in biology, then in psychology, and then in sensory research Linnaeus confrontedthe unknown world by describing it Description was a natural task It seemed reasonablethat one could learn about the product properties by first elucidating them Experimentalpsychologists just a half-century before had done the same by describing the characteris-tics of sensory experience in the psychological school of “structuralism.” Edward BradfordTitchener had laid the groundwork at Cornell by the methods of introspection Sensory an-alysts took these methods and ran with them (Boring, 1929)

Decades later, and with the influence of business objectives as motivation, sensory searchers evolved away from pure descriptive analysis to understanding consumer behavior.Descriptive analysis was fine but not particularly cogent in a highly competitive business

re-world One could, of course, link descriptive analysis to ongoing product quality, as manyresearchers did and did effectively However, the bigger picture demanded from the sensoryanalyst that he or she concentrate on the consumer It was acceptable to “keep one’s foot inthe profiling world” as stated by more than one researcher, as long as the sensory researcherdealt with consumers The focus on consumers would grow in the 1980s but emerge verystrongly in the 1990s to constitute the prime direction One reason was the call of busi-ness—those employed by corporations had to stay relevant or lose their jobs and their raisond’etre Another, and a more subtle reason, was the premature death of Rose Marie Pang-born, a founder in the field and a purist Pangborn trained many of the students at the Uni-versity of California, Davis, and in some ways single-handedly crested the academic field.Pangborn was part scientist, part teacher, 100% rigorous, but with an inspiration to intro-duce her students to the scientific method She encouraged purism on the part of her stu-dents, many of who went into descriptive analysis While she lived, many of her studentsmaintained an unspoken level of scientific purity through descriptive analysis, even thoughPangborn was more sympathetic to psychophysics than to descriptive analysis From de-scriptive accounts of her classes, Pangborn was clearly a mother figure, but one who spared

no criticism if her student departed from the path of rigid, pure, and puritanical science ter her death, however, the rigid purity that she so strongly espoused and the elevation ofmethodological correctness and orthodoxy became less evident The unique force of herprofessional personality waned, as it must wane after one’s death Those fortunate studentswho had gained her respect through tightly controlled descriptive analyses were somewhatfreer to pursue consumer research, and many did so Thus, through that fortuitous combina-tion of focus by business on facts and sales, and the passing of Pangborn’s influence, thesensory analyst would be liberated to focus more on consumers

Af-Destroying Old Myths in the Crucible of the Marketplace

Having been influenced by science, sensory analysis would also be influenced by ing This nascent discipline was caught in another emerging current, the whirlpool of busi-ness, filled as it is with currents, countercurrents, cabals, capriciousness, and yet at thesame moment unbelievable opportunities Business requires different ways of thinkingthan science does, and the direction sensory analysis grew in the fertile ground of businesswas quite different Sensory scientists often began their career with dreams of understand-ing the way products work, at least at the subjective level Business issues soon dis-abused industry-based sensory scientists of many such idealistic visions The businessworld demands obedience, demands delivery, demands success Sensory scientists couldpractice their field and craft, but under the strict auspices of a research director, held ac-countable for splashy product introductions, unerring product quality, and profitable mar-ket success

market-It should come as no surprise, therefore, that in the crucible of the marketplace the sory scientist should change course What had been in the 1950s and 1960s a slow dancebetween scientists studying sensory perception and business-oriented researchers studyingproducts changed to a set of silos that would inevitably discourage cross-fertilization TheArthur D Little, Inc Flavor Profile, so carefully constructed by Cairncross, Sjostrom,Caul, and others during the 1940s and 1950s had matured into big business, supporting in-frastructures in ADL and in laboratories of their corporate clients The introduction of theirdescendent methods, such as the QDA method (Stone et al., 1974) in the 1970s and the

sen-Spectrum method in the 1980s (Munoz & Civille, 1992), found fertile, protected ground.However, it would be some years before scientists would publicly scrutinize the methods(Zook & Pearce, 1988) In the meanwhile, sensory analysts quickly flocked to profilingmethods, leaving psychophysicists and their research methods far behind The story wouldnot end there, however, as we will see later However, it is worth noting that the 1970s andthe 1980s witnessed the paths of sensory analysis and psychophysics diverging What hadoriginally been a conjoined, developing, and occasionally intimate relation in the 1960s,with psychophysics invited to food science meetings, turned somewhat colder a decade ortwo later on A great deal of the polarization came from the need of sensory analysts to doroutine, ongoing profiling work The success of sensory analysis in industry came at theprice of increased demands on the sensory analyst to do maintenance work That successturned sensory analysis away from its psychophysical roots, as the practitioners in the fieldenjoyed their acceptance, but they paid the price in corporate demands on their time.

The Inevitable Slide into Turf Wars

Turf wars for control of primary research among consumers characterized much of the lation between the growing field of sensory analysis and the incumbent field of marketingresearch Both disciplines had responsibility to understand the consumer but came at theirtasks from radically different directions As discussed earlier, sensory analysis came fromthe tradition of physical and chemical science, and indeed many of the early practitioners

re-of sensory analysis during its terra incognita stage were bench scientists involved in uct development They knew the products well and the subjective perceptions less well Wecan contrast this group of explorers with their somewhat counterparts sitting in marketing,the so-called marketing or consumer researchers These individuals were rarely if evertrained in science, tended to be professionals who studied social science (and now busi-ness), and were in general not particularly comfortable in high-level mathematics Theydid understand inferential statistics, and generally they could trace their intellectual her-itage to sociology, or at least acted as if they had come equipped with a sociological back-ground They were interested in market performance of the product and had no sympathyfor the product itself except as the topic of research They focused on how the consumerbought the product or accepted the product, but for the most part the products could besubstituted for each other, willy-nilly, without making any particular impact to the waythese market researchers analyzed their data

prod-From the perspective of top management, sensory analysis and market research dealwith many of the same issues Indeed, in 1974, then Professor Erik von Sydow, head of theSwedish Institute for Food Preservation Research (SIK) in Gothenburg, said that the even-tual roles of the sensory analyst and the market researcher would merge to become oneproduct-focused role It would take over thirty years for von Sydow’s insight to take hold,but in the meantime the similarity of function and the desire to provide valuable corporatefeedback about products had an unexpected outcome That outcome was an ongoing turfwar lasting more than two decades, which in its wake created barriers and silos that onlytoday are being torn down

Ironically, the turf wars came about because both groups wanted to do a good job inproduct research and now in what is colloquially called “consumer insights.” The sensoryanalyst, poorly prepared at first to battle in the corporation, retreated to scientific methods,

to esoteric charts from newly developing methods, and to presentation of himself as the

low-cost supplier The sensory analyst fighting these turf wars was poorly equipped tomake his case as a strategic partner in marketing, primarily because the personality of thesensory analyst in those early days of the turf wars (1980s) was focused on science andvalidation of himself, not on success in a corporation In contrast, the marketing researcherdid not carry around the burning desire to found a science and to be judged acceptable andworthy by professionals in other sciences There were no self-avowed physical or biologi-cal scientists working in marketing, as there were in the biology and psychophysics of tasteand smell Hence the marketing researcher was unconstrained by many agendas Somemarketing researchers had academic aspirations and would teach on the side as adjuncts inthe university, but for the most part the marketing researcher focused on doing a good job.Smart enough to acquire a discretionary budget to hire outside suppliers, the market re-searcher became a purchasing agent for talent and information, and was able to use some

of the better brains in the industry to work on projects and provide necessary insights sory analysts, however, unaccustomed to a budget to “outsource” their efforts, did not askfor nor did they receive this outsourcing budget Rather, they grew organically in size,overhead, and responsibility in the organization They were content to fight the turf wars

Sen-by showing that they could do everything internally, or at least claimed to be able to do so

at a lower cost It was now a classic fight between the outsourcing model and the internalcapabilities model In business this is the ever-present tension between “buy” versus

“build.” Does one buy a capability in the way the market researcher buys, or does one build

a capability as the sensory analyst builds? When these two approaches vie for the samecorporate task—insights about the product—turf wars break out

Where Are We Heading Today—and Why Are We Heading There?

Where is sensory analysis going? If we look at the number of practitioners in the industry

or the number of papers published by academics we might feel justifiably proud that here

is a field, which is burgeoning The life force is almost palpable at meetings, with youngresearchers actively seeking to show their work to their older counterparts All the signs oflife are about us Yet, there is some trouble brewing Many of the young researchers areheavily involved in measuring, rather than in thinking The plethora of new technical meth-ods, the ease and availability of computation, and the willingness of companies and fund-ing institutions to sponsor research all combine to nurture a thriving business in “stimulusassessment” (viz., applied product testing) On the other side of the coin is the recognitionthat the younger researchers don’t have a chance to think Their very success depends uponusing some of the latest research techniques to grind through data The young researchersare caught in a race with methods Each group wants to be the first to use new computeranalysis techniques Each young researcher wants to be the first to win approval by show-ing prowess at these new techniques, and often sacrifices the slow, methodical, often notapparently productive thinking for the frenetic pace of analysis

We might look at the field of sensory analysis in the way that the poets write about theirworld—a world of nature becoming increasingly sophisticated, losing its way, losing con-tact with its origins We can see some problems emerging in our world These problems,often disguised as opportunities, are rapidity of data collection, the plethora of tools, theabundance of conferences These influences pull us in two directions One direction ismore professionalization, better science, far more rapid advance in knowledge The other

direction is narrow specialization and the creation of sensory professionals instead of truescientists Perhaps that polarization and dichotomy are inevitable, and comes to all fields,such as sensory analysis, that have the fortune to survive their own childhoods.

Mind-Sets and How the Sensory Professional Might Cope with Data

How do different sensory researchers cope with data since they have been confronted withdata and data analytic methods for a half-century or longer? An interesting organizingprinciple for people was propounded in the Crave It!®Study but might have applicationhere Beckley and Moskowitz (2002) suggested from a set of large-scale conjoint analysisstudies that consumers fall into three mind-sets when it comes to how they respond to con-cepts about foods and beverages (see chapter 6 on conjoint analysis for a discussion of themethod)

One group, called Elaborates, responds strongly to descriptions of the sensory

charac-teristics of food, and responds strongly when these are romanced A second group, called

the Imaginers, likes the characteristics of food, but also wants other things such as

am-biance, emotion, and brand Imaginers respond to non-sensory cues as well, although they

are strongly affected by the sensory ones The third group, Classics, likes foods in the

tra-ditional way

According to Beckley, perhaps the same typing occurs for sensory researchers ing more than six hundred researchers at the Dijon Pangborn Symposium (2001) and overseven hundred researchers at the Boston Pangborn Symposium (2003) led Beckley to notethat the same typology emerged for research papers and posters Some researchers went

Watch-profoundly into the data and could be called Data Elaborates Others incorporated a

vari-ety of non-data sources not strictly in the study but using current trends, and could be

called Data Imaginers Still others remained on the straight and narrow path and could be called Data Classics because they maintained the conventional analytic techniques, with

constraints, applying those techniques simply to a new dataset

Where Are We Today? Mind-Sets about One’s Role

in the Sensory Analysis World

Another way to approach the history of sensory analysis and the relevance of its mission in

business and science focuses on one’s mind-set Mind-set refers to the predisposition of the

individual, to the way the individual responds to external stimuli, and to the nature of tions that the individual engages in We saw different mind-sets previously, regarding one’streatment of data How about mind-sets for one’s own job in the sensory world?

ac-One might consider all sensory analysts to be similar, and perhaps divide them by theirscientific background and ways that they solve research issues Another approach comesfrom the way that sensory analysts think about their jobs and responsibilities to their em-ployers and to their field This way of dividing the professionals emerges from a study ofthe mind-set of employees, reported by Ashman and Beckley (2002) as the “professional-ism study.” The professionalism study was conducted twice The goal of the study was tobetter understand what it meant to be a sensory professional Ashman and Beckley discov-ered, probably not surprisingly, that the sensory analyst does not constitute one simple per-sona We might have expected this Sensory professionals appeared to fall into one of three

different segments (see Table 1.1), based upon their pattern of responses to a variety ofconcepts that portrayed them:

Segment 1—the Academic: This segment, comprising 26%, are not necessarily demics as in university professors Rather, this segment exists and flourishes as well

aca-in aca-industrial settaca-ings For the most part, sensory analysts aca-in segment 1 want to keep

up with the literature, want to keep abreast of the newest and best methods They ten come from academia, which is not surprising They show little real interest in theapplications of the method to practical business problems

of-Segment 2—the Helpful Staff: This segment, comprising 44%, better reflects what ple have thought the sensory analyst to be The Helpful Staff segment takes littlerisk Segment 2 seems to want clean and neat studies One might liken the HelpfulStaff segment to the middle manager The Helpful Staff can be found in many com-panies They are the backbone of the field

peo-Segment 3—the Business Builder: This segment is characterized by an understanding

of how sensory analysis can help build a business From a total of 137 respondents,the Business Builders comprised 30% The existence of this Business Builder seg-ment was not expected, because for the most part sensory analysts who participated

in the study to understand mind-sets did not come from a marketing or businessbackground Rather, they came from scientific backgrounds The Business Builder is

an integrator who always keeps an eye on the business implications

Whether a person falls into a single segment and stays there all his or her career, orwhether the person changes from one segment to another as a function of changes in joband responsibility, remains an interesting topic for further research Certainly, however, thesegmentation of the sensory professional by mind-set gives one food for thought, espe-cially as it mirrors the nature of the different types of behaviors in the field One might ex-

pect a dynamic tension in the field as the Business Builders go about pulling the company into the future, the Helpful Staff dutifully and loyally contributing, all the while as the Aca- demics stand back, take matters a little more slowly, spend more time, and “worry more”

about the appropriateness of the tools used

As noted previously, the sensory analyst continually deals with data in one form or other The sensory analyst, generally challenged to provide newer, better, more actionableanswers to problems, all too often feels overwhelmed by the never-ending, two-pronged as-sault of business problems and new techniques Such assaults promote growth by the sheerdemands they make The classification of sensory analysts according to the way that theyapproach a problem, the data they collect, and the work-product they generate provides anovel, provocative, and possibly fruitful area to study this emerging profession, one thathints of deep cross-currents The dynamic tension between mind-sets, the ever-changing demands of business, and the maturation of sensory scientists from idealistic novices to battle-hardened professionals promise to make sensory analysis a field worth watching and

an-a potentian-ally good home ban-ase in which to spend pan-art or even an-all of an-a can-areer

Table 1.1 Utility values for 24 concept elements describing the sensory professional.

Total Seg 1 Seg 2 Seg 3

Helpful Business

Elements driving the Academic segment

Recognized as an expert in his/her field 5 15
3 7 Maintains thorough knowledge of technical literature 0 12
12 8 Maintains close liaison with other practitioners

Actively promotes new and innovative approaches

Elements driving the Helpful Staff segment

Adept at applying knowledge and follow-through on the tasks required to complete the job 4
1 9 2 Shows others how to integrate product, consumer, and

Elements driving the Business Builder segment

Applies creativity and critical thinking to move the

Remains authentic to his/her personal values while considering the values of others or the values of the organizational culture (politics)
1
5
3 5

Provides a role model for individuals new to the field 2 1 2 4 Takes action when discovering that something was done

wrong or inappropriately by a functional group 0
8 4 1 Makes difficult decisions under pressure
2
11 1 1 Passionate about listening to the needs and ideas

Oriented towards new possibilities and open to change

Uses coaching and negotiation to motivate coordinated

Continues to seek out new internal & external ways to

Personally tries out new and innovative approaches
2 5
1
8 Publishes articles in various journals and books
19 8
41
10 Shows humility in presenting his/her ideas while

accepting constructive criticism and contrary opinions

Note: The study was run using the method of conjoint analysis The utility is the conditional probability that a

re-spondent will agree that the statement describes a sensory professional.

Amerine, M.A., R.M Pangborn, & E.T Roessler 1965 Principles of Sensory Evaluation of Food New York:

Academic Press.

Ashman, H., & J Beckley 2002 The mind of the sensory professional Unpublished manuscript.

Beckley, J., & H.R Moskowitz 2002 Databasing the consumer mind: The Crave It!, Drink It!, Buy It! & Healthy You! Databases Presented at the Institute of Food Technologists Conference, Anaheim, CA.

Boring, E.G 1929 Sensation and Perception, in the History of Experimental Psychology New York: Appleton

Century Crofts.

Cairncross, S.E., & L.B Sjostrom 1950 Flavor profiles—a new approach to flavor problems Food Technology

4:308–311.

Caul, J.F 1957 The profile method of flavor analysis Advances in Food Research 7:1–40.

Drake, B., & B Johansson 1969 Sensory Evaluation of Food Annotated bibliography, supplement 1968–1973.

Vol 1, physiology, psychology; Vol 2, methods, applications, index SIK-Rapport Nr 350 Svenska Instituet for

Konserverings Forskning, Goteborg, Sweden.

Heymann, H 1994 A comparison of free choice profiling and multidimensional scaling of vanilla samples

Jour-nal of Sensory Studies 9:445–453.

Hinreiner, E.H 1956 Organoleptic evaluation by industry panels—the cutting bee Food Technology 31(11):62–

67.

Little, A.D 1958 Flavor Research and Food Acceptance New York: Reinhold Publishing Corporation McBurney, D.H.A 1965 Psychophysical Study of Gustatory Adaptation Dissertation Abstracts 48:1145–1146 Meiselman, H.L 1978 “Scales for Measuring Food Preference.” In Encyclopedia of Food Science, ed M.S

Petersen & A.H Johnson, pp 675–678 Westport: AVI.

Meiselman, H.L., & H.G Schutz 2003 History of food acceptance research in the US Army Appetite 40:199–

216.

Munoz A.M., & G.V Civille 1992 “The Spectrum Descriptive Analysis Method.” In Manual on Descriptive

Analysis Testing for Sensory Evaluation, ed R.C Hootman, pp 22–34 West Conshohocken,PA: ASTM.

Munoz, A.M., & G.V Civille 1992 “The Spectrum Descriptive Analysis Method.” In Manual on Descriptive

Analysis Testing for Sensory Evaluation, ed R.C Hootman West Conshohocken, PA: ASTM.

Pangborn, R.M 1964 Sensory evaluation of foods: A look backward and forward Food Technology 18:63–67 Peryam, D.R., & F.J Pilgrim 1957 Hedonic scale method of measuring food preferences Food Technology

11:9–14.

Stevens, S.S 1975 Psychophysics: An Introduction to Its Perceptual, Neural and Social Prospects New York:

Wiley.

Stone, H., J.L Sidel, S Oliver, A Woolsey, & R Singleton 1974 Sensory evaluation by quantitative descriptive

analysis Food Technology 28:24–34.

Zook, K., & J.H Pearce 1988 “Quantitative Descriptive Analysis.” In Applied Sensory Analysis of Foods, ed.

H.R Moskowitz, pp 43–72 Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

The data you own as a company—tracking, insights, sensory, trends, marketing, productdevelopment, market research, supply chain, manufacturing, quality, operations, sales, andretail successes and failures—represent the single biggest productivity tool for food devel-opment Most companies today—large or small—have access to more data, lists, and in-formation than they effectively make use of on a regular basis Turning this informationinto knowledge that will lead to actionable results is the challenge The key step in turninginformation into knowledge is to understand the context in which the data were originallycalculated, reframe the data for the current situation, and then creatively manage the dataquickly, effectively, and affordably for greater clarity of perspective And, of course, do all

of these things quickly and at lowest possible cost since time and money factor into all cesses in today’s supermarket, grocery store, or foodservice establishment

suc-This chapter discusses why barriers occur, suggests one approach for making existingand new data more actionable, and then demonstrates how to use existing information forfocused problem solving and decision making

Learning from the Past

The clever retexturing and reanalyzing of what is known within a company is the ultimatesource of so-called “white spaces,” that area of undefined yet tantalizing present possibili-ties We have often heard teachers say, “Students often dislike history because they do notsee it as relevant to their lives or necessary to know” (www.HistoryMatters.gmu.edu) Theclassic Greek philosopher Heraclitus is said to have declared, “Lovers of wisdom mustopen their minds to very many things” (Von Oech, 2001) Why do these thoughts pertain tofood development today? After one hundred years of sustained food development, we haveentered an era of more than enough supply of just about every food item Whereas there areissues with food distribution in some of the least well-developed countries, by and largethere are more than enough choices of any type of food group available in the grocery orsuperstores across the United States and other developed countries This overabundance ofchoice, in which a thousand items in a food store have now multiplied to more than fortythousand (Trout, 2000), provides the food industry with a much more complex scenario inwhich to develop new products for markets that have become demand driven

Survey results suggest that the areas of innovation and product development can rankfirst and second on the list of factors that CEOs consider as sources of competitive advan-tage (PriceWaterhouseCoopers, 2002; Sopheon, 2002) The question is not “innovation”but rather “innovation—how?”

NPDP, the new product development process (Lynn, 2000) teaches us the concept ofsystematic product development wherein understanding previous successes and failures is

17

2 Making Use of Existing Knowledge and Increasing Its Business Value—the Forgotten Productivity Tool

How you gather, manage, and use information will determine whether you win or lose.

Bill Gates, Business @ The Speed of Thought

important But few food companies have practiced or even installed a robust process ofconducting “postmortems.” There are no examples of industry commitment to celebratingthe best of the year, as with theater, music, and movies (the Tonys, Grammys, and Oscars,respectively), so that those who want to understand what the industry thinks is the best canstudy the selections, and by so doing continue to evolve Whereas there are small groups ofpeople within food companies whose job it is to deal with the company’s business strategy,there are few individuals whose function focuses on product development strategy andonly one group that we are aware of today that does strategic sensory research This is anarea for consumer research/consumer insights, though many in the different research disci-plines bemoan their lack of a “seat” at the planning/strategy table.

Reasons abound to explain why thorough understanding of a product business situationhas not been respected as an ongoing discipline in food companies At least eight reasonscome to mind:

1 Human nature: Difficulty embracing that which one has not created An example thatcomes to mind is the project manager at a grain-based company who tried to interest agroup of associates in her findings and could not get them to pay attention, since theyhad not been part of the exercise

2 The old standby of lack of time: Time compression is a very common factor in businesstoday There is always a rush to get a project started and meet a timetable that someoneelse has set As a result, doing things thoroughly from the beginning is thought to be a

“luxury.” Example: A breakfast snack went from concept to manufacture within a shortperiod of time—avoiding any product design or evaluation It failed in the test marketand then was “tweaked” for two more years before the project was killed, allowing theproduct to die the abysmal death that was built in at the start because of poor planning

3 Failing to recognize what the company already has learned: Few organizations ate how much knowledge they actually have and tend to feel that the history they have

appreci-is too dated or does not apply to a specific initiative So there appreci-is a lack of recognition ofthe value of past learning One well-known company studied the same idea over thecourse of four years, four times, but with different consulting firms being asked to come

up with the “true” answers After four different PowerPoint presentations, the answerwas still the same but with slightly different words and segments

4 Recognizing what is important: Big shifts in thinking or behavior are fairly easy to spot.When these changes come about from subtler interrelated forces they are more difficult

to observe These changes, called “weak signals,” are easy to dismiss as trivial or quantitative The popular story about the development of Post-it®Notes is a classic ex-ample of a weak signal that took time to watch and understand and then capitalize upon

non-5 Go do: Americans have been a go do, go get it done society Except for a few ics, the study of the past seems to interfere with this quintessential American human na-ture of pioneer spirit and the inward nagging desire to get out and do something As aresult, a knowledge-collecting phase of a process appears slow, overly deliberate, andfairly archaic The nature of most product development people is “to go make a recipe

academ-or a facadem-ormulation”—do something, anything, to reduce the anxiety of a goal unfilled.One consequence is that the disciplined organization, analysis, and thus assessment ofdata and learning from the past just does not look like or feel like work Examples arenumerous of product development teams who talk about the joys (and pain) of bringing

up a line to manufacture a product Somehow piecing together knowledge of what isknown is not viewed with the same level of excitement and joy.

6 Information technology for wiser product development is not well defined or even ulated: Other than technology solutions that speak to the strength of knowledge man-agement, there are few examples of how to apply a structured approach to knowledge

artic-mining to directly and measurably benefit the product development effort It is known

that around 80% of the real knowledge in a food company is non-quantitative (Hawver,2004), so we know that most IT knowledge management systems are missing a lot ofthe critical information on any given subject

7 Universities do not teach integration across disciplines: There are few people in thefood development area who have been taught to appreciate the value of knowledge ofthe past, how to understand it, how to make use of it, and how to think about a problem

or business situation once the information is presented in one place There are fewcourses in the science curriculum that educate individuals with respect to critical think-ing and connecting science with business So where then would the skill set comefrom—a skill set that could foster a deep-seated commitment to understanding, think-ing, and creatively influencing others with respective “historical” knowledge about abusiness or product class? Certainly not with today’s curricula

8 Power from knowledge is often hoarded, not shared: Keeping track of how decisionswere made in the past and what knowledge a company has is very empowering If sen-ior managers want to control situations and “spin” information to suit their purposes or

to hide mistakes, then one’s access to and understanding of the knowledge hoard within

a company can reduce the senior manager’s perceived power base

Valuing an Available Asset

Within most food companies, the most stable group of individuals (i.e., people who havebeen in their roles for a significant period of time) are those who are part of product re-search or food technology Reasons today suggest that the path for rapid growth that is em-braced by the marketing/business side of a company is just not a part of the slower-moving,more dutiful research groups Whereas academic achievement of leaders of researchgroups has grown in the past thirty years, not one leader of a research group in a food com-pany has emerged as the leader of a food organization So, if the head of the organization

“tops out” at vice president or chief technology officer and is not felt to have the necessaryskills to move higher within the organization, then it makes sense that those individualschoosing to follow the research path will experience a slower rise up the corporate ladder.And whereas downsizing and rightsizing have been the norm for most of modern foodproduct development, greater stability is found in the food research teams than any otherpart of the organization

It is logical that the major drivers for knowledge management, strategic product opment, and user/product understanding should be in the product development groups Butthis is not where the proponents of knowledge integration have been found Additionally,the groups that work with the product design, in the form of sensory scientists or consumerresearch professionals, should clearly be able to participate in leading the thoughtful un-derstanding and thinking about the brands for the organization—the knowledge about theproducts and the reasons for their success or failure The brand champion, marketing, has

devel-generally maintained the role of knowledge proponent We do see this role of knowledgemanagement beginning to emerge for the consumer research group, but very slowly Yet

we do not see this role at all for the sensory scientist The transformation for the sensoryscientist in the company is an unexploited opportunity Thus the roles of product develop-ment and its supporters like sensory have been framed in the past as necessary—the means

to the end—but never critical for strategic decision making regarding the business

We see examples of the problems faced by consumer and sensory researchers in Figures2.1 and 2.2, which present timelines and available tools The consumer and sensory re-search timeline acknowledges and applauds techniques, tools, and analytical assessments.Most of these elements are tactical These are the elements needed to assure that the prod-ucts were good enough to survive in a “picky” world So, if a person can be defined bywhat he does, then both sensory and consumer research have been tactical associates, to-gether assisting the even more tactical product development effort

If tactical behavior is what has been rewarded and accepted over the years in food velopment and sensory and consumer research, then it begins to become clear why thereare so many more product failures (some claim up to 90% failure) than successes Have thepragmatic needs of producing foodstuffs actually created a vacuum of critical thinking?Has the amazing success of the U.S food industry created the situation where there is alack of honest understanding about why products actually succeed or fail?

de-Robert Cooper, the developer of Stage-Gate™, has conducted extensive research in thearea of improving the odds of winning at new product research His most recent findingssuggest that the best success is found during the development, testing, and commercializa-tion phases, whereas the lowest level of success is found during exploration (6–13% success

at this phase) Effective use of knowledge within the company could definitely improve thethree poor-performing areas of exploration: preliminary market assessment, detailed marketstudy, and prototyping Failure in these categories across industries occurs between 48 and74% of the time (Cooper, 2002), an astounding proportion when the reader stops to thinkabout the implications Early stage understanding simply is given short shrift

It is important to understand why marketing discipline (brand management) has hadmore appreciation for the study of brands than the food development discipline has had forthe study of products Brands have been studied and appreciated because they have gener-ally been designed to last a long time—many of today’s well-known food brands havebeen around for over a hundred years In the past, products themselves have been viewed

as much more transitory and therefore less valuable The consequence of this perspective isthat there has been less appreciation and consideration for specific food products, either in-side or outside of a company Longinotti-Buitoni suggests that this paradigm is changingwhen we understand the message of selling a “dream”; the author writes that “Senses arethe vital ability to bring the environment inside us so we can relate to it They offer thechance to live and feel the palpitation of time They keep life from fading away, linking us

to the past in ways far more dynamic than any rational memory A sight, a sound, a smell,

a texture, or a taste can bring to life, in the most resonant ways, moments of pleasure orpain that are long gone” (Longinotti-Buitoni, 1999) This is what food development andsensory and consumer research can bring to the innovation dialog

The need today is for the product development organization all the way from productmanagement and design, down to sensory and consumer research groups, to take their in-tegral role in helping the rest of the organization understand the implications of why suc-cess or failure has occurred and to identify strategies that will cut paths around the issues

going forward Linking well-studied brand attributes to the thoroughly studied product tributes and understanding the connecting threads between the two is an absolute necessityfor moving through the development process successfully.

at-A very clear and developed path is that the use of patterned thinking, systems thinking,personal mastery of these disciplines, and construction of physical, visual mental modelsmay well constitute the cornerstone of evolved sustained development and innovation(Barabba & Zaltman, 1991; Buzan & Buzan, 1994; Cooper, 2001; Davis, 1993; Hamel,2000; Hirschberg, 1999; Macher & Rosenthal, 2003; Mahajan & Wind, 1999; Pickover &Tewksbury, 1994; Ratneshwar et al., 1999; Reinertsen, 1997; Senge, 1994; Struse,1999/2000; Vriens, 2003; Webster, 1994)

Embracing Knowledge

Product development management and sensory and consumer research must embraceknowledge, not just suffer it soullessly in a pro forma fashion Classically, brand manage-ment has been given the job of being the keeper of brand knowledge, carrying that brandpromise to the consumer Whereas this is a traditional role, there are groups of business-people who suggest that product development is really a series of strategic decisions(Sopheon, 2002), and therefore should work with issues formerly considered to be only inthe marketing arena Figure 2.3 illustrates the intertwining of product development within

a product lifecycle management (PLM) process and how that adds impact to the business

The more knowledge-centric a company is, the more productive can be its product

de-velopment process Figure 2.4 shows an example The figure illustrates four groups ofprocesses a company can put into place They are (1) unstructured, (2) structured “gated,”(3) automated, (4) knowledge-centric “smart.” Most companies operate at level 2, in whichthey have a decision process established, priorities are understood, and resources alloca-tion is managed The benefit of moving farther along the process efficiency path to level 4,knowledge-centric, is increased revenue from new product development efforts This oc-curs because all parts of product development have heightened knowledge of what needs tooccur proactively for the company, and they thus are empowered to sense and respond tothese needs what almost appears to be intuitively

Integrating More than Your Sphere of Interest

To be successful, companies might find it useful to increase the pace of change within theirorganizations, open up the decision-making process, and relax conventional notions ofcontrol Relaxed control, faster change, and open processes will foster the nourishing envi-ronment for the product development team with product development scientists and sen-sory and consumer professionals doing far better and contributing more to take advantage

of business opportunities The much-heralded economist Joseph Schumpeter called thisprocess “Creative Destruction” (McMillan, 2004) The secret of being able to creatively

destroy is to know what part to eliminate during the destruction and what parts are

ab-solutely critical to maintain

The product development teams with their sensory and consumer specialists are the dividuals within the company who might best direct these changes Their stability, back-ground with products, and day-to-day experience solving development quandaries are all

in-“pluses.” But they need to understand the entire business construct or the wrong parts can

Figure 2.1 Timeline from before 1920 until 1960.

Figure 2.2 Timeline from 1965 to 2003.

Figure 2.3 Illustrating the roles of product development

in the product lifecycle management (PLM) process.

Source: Sopheon PLC, Improving the Business Impact of

Product Development™, December 2002.

Figure 2.4 Illustration of relationship between knowledge-centric and business value Source: Sopheon

PLC, Improving the Business Impact of Product Development™, December 2002.

get recombined Frito-Lay understood exactly what they needed to do with their productelements to drive consumers who had become disenchanted with Snackwell’s cookies tobegin to purchase Baked Lay’s, a salty snack Frito-Lay’s launch of Baked Lay’s was thebeginning of the decline for the Snackwell’s brand Snackwell’s never really recoveredfrom that assault (Riskey, 1996).

The use of cross-functional teams within the new product development (NPD) process

is well established The front-end team for NPD needs to own the knowledge assimilationprocess The largest issue is maintaining a given subject knowledge base for the company

as individual teams move their specific projects through the process Peter Senge (1994) in

The Fifth Discipline clarifies the issue well: “The first challenge concerns the need for

sus-tained effort It is relatively easy to get people to be interested in new ideas like systemsthinking and mental models Sustaining effort at ‘practicing the disciplines’ is another mat-ter—especially since the practice goes on forever In building learning organizations, there

is no ‘there,’ no ultimate destination, only a lifelong journey.”

Alongside the struggles for sustained effort and corporate memory, a third issue ariseswith cross-functional teams in contemporary food development This issue is the level ofdisengagement of the regular team member The food industry was one of the first places forlarge-scale consolidation Whereas the thought that “people always need to eat” motivated alot of people to enter the multifaceted food “field,” the food industry has gone through thesame tribulations as the rest of American industry One overarching outcome is that whereaswell-qualified and trained professionals still populate the food firms, they constitute an in-creasingly battered group of individuals who confront the worries of job loss and corporateloyalty with their struggle to balance work stress and other life issues (Ashman, 2003) Thedata from research studies suggest that when teams lack real trust, owing to these differentstruggles, many behavioral events happen that can lead to quality problems in one’s busi-ness work-product (Lencioni, 2002) Keeping the momentum of any given project high for

as short of a duration as possible helps battle-weary teams to complete their quest to collectand use complex knowledge needed for successful product development and marketing Ithas been suggested that fast-cycle capability actually leads to flexibility, which then be-comes a powerful tool in rapidly changing situations (Smith & Reinertsen, 1998)

Solutions for carrying knowledge forward once it has been collected rely upon databasesand software At this writing (2005), there are some limitations in this area, but those willprobably diminish over time with increasing focus on the problem, along with improvingtechnology and process Zahay, Griffin, and Fredericks (2003) pointed out that there is cur-rently no standardization in software The limitations that exist relate to what is being auto-mated (process management, information control) as well as what is not being captured (all

of the qualitative, merging of the qualitative, figuring out how to integrate data other thanwords, and using data across time) The biggest issue for companies is that they all have cre-ated slightly different organization structures, preventing standardization and the efficienciesthat come with a common structure A consequence of such variability rather than standardi-zation is that there are few enterprise-wide examples of tools for product lifecycle manage-ment that flexibly work with the dizzying array of databases and archives and functionalgroups (like marketing and product development) possessed by the various companies.Despite the lack of standards, companies recognize the need to archive knowledge Mostcompanies are developing systems that are archiving based upon “silos,” so that people indifferent silos have access to information that the company believes they should have, rather

than having access to all of the information We know of systems that have been developed

on a custom basis (Breitbart, 2004; Gates, 1999) and new tools that are being introduced,some of which are emphasizing more fluid programming to deal with the flexible and lessstructured information found in most front-end processes (see www.Sopheon.com,www.ide.com) Given the need, new solutions will be developed, but those solutions willtake time Another approach is to design into the knowledge gathering system strategies thatmove qualitative information into a more quantifiable form (Friedhoff & Benzon, 1989).That in itself is a major undertaking and deserves attention as a profitable future directionfor companies

Enabling Broader Understanding of

Information to Create Knowledge

With all these situations, people, training, and technology barriers to utilizing knowledge acompany has to cope with, why bother? The simple answer is that in truth there are noother options Corporate survival today, and the profitable use of talent, including that ofsensory scientists, depends upon making the most of the human ability involving knowl-edge and moving forward with this knowledge into an increasingly competitive world

Visualization of Knowledge to Understand Complexity

One key method to use a company’s knowledge base and the wisdom of its people is

known as knowledge mapping We will discuss this in detail because it is both currently

very useful in many situations and holds the promise of evolving into far more powerfultechniques in the future

What we present here is a stepwise approach to take to develop a culture within food velopment in which knowledge of the past is incorporated into each new project The ap-proach is highly affordable, easy to implement, low cost, and provides for record archivingfor future reference, all key factors for use by increasingly beleaguered corporations.Knowledge mapping is constructed using the tenets of a learning organization (Senge,1994) Its five key components are systems thinking, personal mastery, mental models,building a shared vision, and team learning Knowledge mapping is, perhaps, the most ro-bust way to rapidly capture both implicit (tacit) and explicit information (see Table 2.1 forexamples) Knowledge mapping combines the practices of thorough data selection andprovides for ease of data summarization, idea organization, and concept linkage

de-It is clear from Table 2.1 that knowledge mapping selects a broad array of information

to use The information is deep and wide As a way to cast as wide a net as possible,

infor-mation contained in a knowledge map may comprise more objective quantitative sources along with what is considered more subjective sources such as the tacit knowledge from

experts, thoughts from current and past employees, and current articles gleaned from themedia Other sources of information might be the content of interviews with executiveswho have points of view

Knowledge mapping uses a number of tools designed to spur on the acquisition ofknowledge and the creation of new insights Some, but certainly not all, of the tools, are

1 Room with empty walls

2 Rolls of white or brown butcher paper

3 Post-it®Notes Each participant (so-called knowledge mapper) has his or her own colornote.

4 The knowledge (in paragraph above and information from Table 2.1)

5 Various writing instruments that allow individuals to pick the writing instrument thatworks best for them

6 Tables on which to write

7 Participants—at least two; ten to twelve people are better

8 Three to four hours

9 Clear definition of what the question is that must be answered and mapped

Tools without content, without structure, without steps, are simply things The processcomes alive when the facilitator follows defined steps, designed to make the knowledgeemerge from the mind of the individual participant into the public view of the participants

In so doing the knowledge has been mapped, made explicit, and morphed from a set of choate thoughts in one person’s mind to a formalized idea that can be discussed by others.The ideas become clearer, the insights sharper, the opportunities emerge We see the sixkey steps for implementing a knowledge mapping exercise in Table 2.2

in-The Importance of Making Information Real

In today’s work environment tools such as Microsoft Word, PowerPoint, and Google, alongwith extensive archiving systems, can fool one into thinking that it is very straightforward,almost trivial to have plans and know what one is doing without really thinking about whatthe data, words, or information means When food development teams take a few hours tomap the knowledge they possess for a given issue, what becomes immediately clear is

1 The team knows a lot

2 The team does not know what they have

3 There is more information and knowledge in common than not

4 The subject or question they are trying to develop an initiative against may not be asclear as the team leader had imagined at the outset

Table 2.1 Sources of data used in knowledge mapping.

Tacit Knowledgeable people within the organization Outside sources of knowledge on the subject

Fact based and opinions/“intuition.” from business, academic, and other Suppliers to the organization individuals.

Stories about events within the organization “Facts” and factoids that are commonly

available.

Explicit Data, documents, reports, research results, Academic and business-oriented publications.

written information, completed studies, Media (written, audio, video) Sources that are commercials, ads, video, images, packaging both non-fiction and fiction.

from all parts of the organization (product development, consumer insights, sensory insights, analytical, financial, marketing, strategy, etc.).