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ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS WEATHER SIGNS WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY SIR ARTHUR HORT, Bart., M.A.. This is^ I believe,tlie firstattemptat anEnglish translation of the 'Enquiry into Plants.'

•'^"^hiCr

THE LOEB CLASSICAL LIBRARY

VILLAALBANI.

ENQUIRY INTO PLANTS

WEATHER SIGNS

WITH AN ENGLISH TRANSLATION BY

SIR ARTHUR HORT, Bart., M.A.

FORMERLY FELLOWOF TRINITV COLLEGE, CAMBRIlXiE

I

NEW YORK : G P PUTNAM'S SONS

MCMXVI

This is^ I believe,tlie firstattemptat anEnglish

translation of the 'Enquiry into Plants.' That it

should be found entirely satisfactory is not to be

expected,sincethetranslatorisnot, ashe shouldbe,

a botanist; moreover, in the present state at least

ofthetext,theGreekofTheophrastusissometimes

singularly elusive I should neverhave undertaken

sucha responsibilitywithout the encouragement ofthat veteran student ofplant-lore the Rev CanonEUacombe,who first suggested thatI should make

theattemptandintroduced metothe book Itisagreatgriefthathe did notlivetoseethecompletion

of the work which he set me IfI had thought

itessentialthata translatorofTheophrastus shouldhimselfgrapple with the difficulties of identifyingthe jilantswhich hementions,Imust have declined

a task which has otherwise proved quite onerousenough However the kindness and the expert

knowledge ofSir William Thiselton-Dyer came to

my rescue; to him I not only owe gratitude for

constant help throughout; the-identifications inthe

Index of Plants are entirely his work, compared

with whichthe compilation of the Index itselfwas

IL

but mechanicallabour Andhehas greatly increased

mydebt and the reader's byreading the proofs of

mytranslation and of the Index This is perhaps

the place to add a note on the translation oftheplant-names in the text:—where possible, I have

given anEnglish equivalent,though I amconsciousthat such names as 'Christ's thorn,' 'Michaelmas

daisy' must read oddlyin a translation ofa work

written 300 years before Christ; to print.Linnean

binary names would have been at least equallyincongruous Where an English name was not

obvious, although the plant is British or known inBritish gardens, I have usually consulted Britten

and Holland's Dictionary of Plant-names Where

no English equivalent could be found, i.e. chiefly

wherethe plantisnot either British or familiar inthiscountry, I haveeither transliterated the Greek

name(asamkhidria)or given aliteralrendering ofit

ininverted commas(as 'foxbrush'for d\u)7r€'Koupos) ;but the derivation of Greekplant-names being oftenobscure, I have not used this device unless the

meaning seemedto be beyond question In some

cases it has been necessaryto preserve the Greek

name and to give the English name after it inbrackets Thisseemeddesii-ablewhereverthe authorhas apparently used more than one name for the

sameplant,the explanation doubtless being that hewas drawing ondifferent local authorities;thusKcpacros

and Xafcapv; both probably represent 'bird-cherry,'

thelatterbeing the Macedonianname for the tree

Apart from this reason, in a few places (as 3.8.2;3.10.3.)itseemed necessaryto give both the Greekandthe English name in order to bring out some

particular jwint On the other hand one Greek

nameoften coversseveral plants,e.g.Xwro's; insuch

casesIhopethat a referencetotheIndexwillmake

all clear. Invertedcommasindicatethattheingis a literal translation ofthe Greek word; the

render-identificationofthe plantwillbe foundinthe Index

Thus(f>e\\68pv<: isrendered'cork-oak,'though'oak'wouldbe thecorrectrendering,—cork-oak(quer-cus Suber) being what Theophrastus calls <^eXA.o?,

holm-which is accordingly rendered cork-oak without

commas Asto the spelling of proper names,sistency without pedantryseems unattainable One

con-cannot write names such as Arcadia or Alexander

otherwise than as theyare commonlywritten; but

Icannot bringmyselftoLatinise aGreeknameif it

canbe helped, whereforeIhave simplytransliterated

the less familiar names; the line drawn must ofcoursebearbitrary

The te.xtjjrintedisinthemainthat of Wimmer's

secondedition (see Introd.p xiv). Thetextual notes

are not intended as a complete apparatus criticus;

toprovide asatisfactoryapparatus itwouldprobably

be necessaryto collatethe manuscriptsafresh Ihavehadtobe content with givingWimmer'sstatements

asto MS.authority; this Ihavedone wherever any

question of interpretationdep^dedonthereading;butI havenot thoughtit necessaryto record mere

variations ofspelling Where the textual notesgobeyondbarecitationofthe readings of theMSS.,Aid.,

Gaza,and Pliny, it is usually because I have theredeparted from Wimmer's text The references to

Plinywill, I hope,be found fairly complete I am

indebtedformostofthemto Schneider, butI have

verifiedtheseandallother references

I venture to hope that this translation, with itsreferences and Index of Plants, may assist somecompetent scholar-botanist to "produce an edition

worthyoftheauthor

Besides those alreadymentioned I have to thank

also my friends Professor D'Arcy Thompson, C.B.,Litt.D.ofDundee,Mr A.W. HillofKew, Mr.E.A

Bowlesforhelp ofvarious kinds,andthe Rev.F.W,

Galpinfor hislearned expositionofa passagewhich

otherwisewould have been dark indeed to me —thedescription of the manufacture ofthe reedmouth-

pieces ofwood-windinstrumentsinBookIV SirJohn

Sandys, Public Orator ofCambridge University,wasgood enough to give mevaluable helpinmatters ofbibliography

Bibliography and Abbreviations used

A Textual Authorities

WiMMERdividestheauthoritieson whichthe text

—

FirstClass:

U CodexUrbinas:inthe Vatican CollatedbyBekker and Amati; far the best extantMS., but evidently founded on a much

corrupted copy See noteon 9 8 1.

Pg. Codex Parisiensis: at Paris Contains

con-siderableexcerpts; evidentlyfounded on a

good MS.; consideredbyWimmer secondonlyinauthoritytoU

(Of other collections of excerpts may

be mentioned one at Munich, called afterPletho.)

mdClass

:

Agree so closely that they may be

re-garded as a single MS.; considered by

authoritythan Aid

P Codex Parisiensis: at Paris Considered by

and more on a level with Aid

mP. Margin ofthe above Anote in the MS.

statesthat themarginal notesarenotscholia,butvalineleclio7iesautemendationes

V CodexVindobonensis: atVienna Containsthefirst fivebooksand twochapters of the

sixth; closely resembles M in style and

readings

ThirdClass:

Aid Editio Aldina: the editioprinceps, printed

at Venice H95-8 Believed by Wimmer

to be founded on a single MS.,and that

aninferioroneto thoseenumerated above,

andalsotothatusedbyGaza Itsreadings

seem often to show signs of a deliberate

attempt to produce asmooth text: hence

the value ofthis edition aswitness to an

independent MS authority is much

im-paired

(Bas Editio Basiliensis: printed at Bale,1541

Acareful copyofAid., inwhich a number

ofprinter's errors are correctedand afew

newonesiiitroduced(Wimmer)

Cam EditioCamotiana(orAldina minor,altera)

printedatVenice, 1552 Also copiedfrom

Aid.,butlesscarefullycorrected than Bas

the editor Camotius, in a few passages

altered the text to accord with Gaza's

version.)

The Latin version of Theodore Gaza,^ the

Greek refugee: first printed at Treviso

(Tarvisiuni) in 1483 A wonderful work

for the time at which it appeared Its

present value is due to the factthat the

translationwas made froma different MS.

to any now known Unfortunately

how-ever this does not seem to have been abetter text than thaton whichtheAldine

editionwasbased MoreoverGazadid not

stick to his authoi'ity, but adopted freelyPliny'sversionsofTheophrastus,emendingwhere he could not follow Pliny There

ai'eseveraleditionsof Gaza'swork: thusG.Par.G.Bas.indicate respectivelyeditionspub-

lished at Paris in1529and at Balein1534and1550 Wimmerhasno doubtthattheTarvisian is the earliest edition, and he

givesitsreadings,whereas Schneider oftentook thoseof G.Bas

Vin.Vo.Cod.Cas.indicatereadingswhichder believed to have MS. authority, but

Schnei-which are really anonymous emendationsfromthemargins ofMSS.used byhispre-

decessors, and all, in Wimmer's opinion

SeeSandys, History ofClassical ScJiolarship, ii p 62, etc.

traceable to Gaza's version Schneider's

so-called Codex Casauboni he knew,

ac-cordingto Wimmer, onlyfrom Hofmann's

edition

B Editions

H EditioHeinsii,printedatLeyden, 1613:founded

on Cam and very carelesslyprinted,repeatingthe misprints of that edition and adding many

others In the preface DanielHeins^pretends

tohave had accesstoacriticaleditionandtoa

Heidelberg MS.; this claim appears to be

en-tirelyfictitious. Thebookindeed containswhat

that' all the good things in it Heinsius owed

to the wit of others, while all its faults and

follieswe oweto Heinsius.' Schneider calls it

editioomniumjjessima.

Bod Editio Bodaei (viz. of Joannes Bodaeus aStapel),printedatAmsterdam,1644 Thetext

of Heinsiusiscloselyfollowed; themargin

con-tainsanumberofemendations taken from the

marginofBas.andfromScaliger,Robertus

Con-stantinus, and Salmasius,with afewduetothe

editor himself The commentary,accordingtoSir William Thiselton-Dyer, is 'botanically

monumental and fundamental.'

' See Sandys,op cif p.313etc.

Stackhouse, Oxford, 1813: a prettily printed

editionwithsomeillustrations;textfounded on

Aid The editor seems to have been a fairbotanist,butanindifferent scholar,thoughocca-

sionallyhehitson a certain emendation The

notes are short and generally of slight value

Thebookishowever ofinterest,asbeingrently the onlywork onthe'Enquiry'hithertopublishedinEngland

appa-J. G Schneider (and Linck), Leipzig: vols, i.-iv.publishedin1818,vol v.in1821; contains

re-printof Gaza's version (corrected) The fifth,

or supplementary, volume, written during the

author'slast illness,takesaccount of theCodex

Urbinas, which, unfortunately for Schneider,did not become known till his edition was

finished It is remarkableinhow manvplaces

heanticipatedbyacuteemendationthe readings

of U Thefifthvolumealsogivesanaccount of

criticismsoftheearliervolumes bytheeminentGreek AdamantiosKoraes^ and KurtSprengel.This is a monumental edition,despitethe ver-

bosityofthenotes,somewhatcarelessreferences

andreproduction of the MSS.readings,and an

imperfect comprehension of the compressed

style of Theophrastus, which leads to a good

deal of wild emendation or rewriting of the

text For thefirst timewefindan attemptatSee Sandys,op cit iii pp.361foil.

xiii

Ik

providing a critical text, founded not on theAldineedition,butoncomparison of themanu-

scriptsthenknown; theMedicean and Viennesehad been collatedafewyears beforebyJ.Th.Schneider Wefind also full use made of theancient authors, Athenaeus, Plutarch, Pliny,

Dioscorides, Nicander, Galen,etc.,whoquotedor

adapted passages of Theophrastus,andcopious

references, often illuminating, to those who

illustrate him, as Varro, Columella, Palladius,

Aelian, theGeoponica

Spr Kurt Sprengel, Halle, 1822 This is not an

edition ofthe text, but a copiouscommentary

withGermantranslation Sprengelwasabetter

botanist than scholar; Wimmer speaks paragingly of his knowledge of Greek and ofthe translation (See note prefixed to the

dis-Index ofPlants.)

analysis, critical notes, and Sprengel's ficationsoftheplant-names; Breslau, 1842

identi-(2) A further revised text with new Latin

translation,apparatuscriticus, and full indices;theIndex PlantarumgivestheidentificationsofSprengelandFraas; DidotLibrary,Paris,n.d.(3) Arepi'intofthistextinTeubner'sseries,1854

Thesethreebooksarean indispensablesupplement

toSchneider's great work Thenotesintheeditionof

1842are inthemaincritical,but theeditor'sremarks

on the interpretation of thorny passages are oftenextremelyacute, andalways worth attention The

mass of material collected by Schneiderisputinto

anaccessibleform Wimmerisfarmoreconservative

intextualcriticismthan Schneider,andhas a betterappreciation of Theophrastus' elliptical and some-whatpeculiaridiom,thoughsomeofhisemendations

appear to rest on little basis. A collation of the

Paris MSS. (P and P,) was made forWimmer; for

the readings of U and M he relied on Schneider,

who, in his fifth volume, had compared U withBodaeus' edition A fresh collation of the ratherexiguousmanuscript authorities is perhaps requiredbefore anything like a definitive text can be pro-

\ided Wimmer's Latin translation is not helpful, since it slurs the difficulties : the Didot

very-edition, in which it appears, is disfigured with

numerousmisprints

(Sandys' HistoryofClassical Scholarship(ii p.380)

mentions ti-anslations into Latin and Italian by

Bandini; ofthiswork1knownothing.)

C OtherCommentators

Seal J.C.Scaliger: Commenlariietanimadversioneson

by his son Sylviusat Leyden, 1584 (Healso

WTote a commentary on the Trepi atriwr, whichwasedited by Robertus Constantinus and pub-

lished atGenevain 1566.) The most accurate

andbrilliant scholarwhohas contributedtotheelucidationof Theophrastus

R.Const Robertus Constantinus(seeabove) Added

notes ofhisown,manyofthemvaluable,which

aregivenwithScaliger's inBodaeus'edition

Salm Salmasius(ClaudedeSaumaise) Made many

happy corrections ofTheophrastus' text in hisExercitationes Plinianae

Palm Jacobus Palmerius (Jacques de Paulmier).His Exercitationes in optimos auctores Graecos

(Leyden, 1668) contain a certain number ofacuteemendations; Wimmerconsiders that hehad a good understanding of Theophrastus'style.

Meurs JohannesMeursius (JandeMeurs) Author

of some critical notes on Theophrastus

pub-lished at Leyden in 1640; also of a book on

Crete

Dalec Jean Jacques D'Alechamps: the botanist

Author of Histona plantarumuniversalis,Lyons,

1587,andeditorofPliny'sNaturalHistory

Mold J J P. Moldenhauer Author of Tentanien

in Historiam pkmtarum Theophrasti, Hamburg,

1791 This book,which I have not been able

toseeandknowonlyfrom Wimmer's citations,contains,accordingtohim, very valuable notes

on the extremely difficult Introduction to the

'Historia'(BookI.chaps,i.-ii.).

II.—Theophrastus' Life and Works

Such informationas we possess concerning thelife of Theophrastus comes mainly from Diogenes

Laertius' Lives ofthePhilosophers, compiled at least

fourhundredyearsafter Theophrastus' death; it isgiven therefore here for what it may be worth

there is no intrinsic improbabilityin most ofwhatDiogenesrecords

Hewas bornin 370 b.c. at Eresos in Lesbos; at

anearlyagehe wenttoAthens andthere became apupilofPlato, ^t maybesurmised thatitAvasfromhim that he first learnt the importance of that

principleofclassificationwhichruns throughall his

extant works, includingeventhebrochureknownas

the 'Characters' (if it isrightly ascribed to him),

and whichis ordinarily considered as characteristic

ofthe teaching ofhissecondmasterAristotIe7\ But

in Plato'sownlater speculations classificationhad averyimjxtrtant place, sinceitwasby groupingthings

in their'natural kinds'

that,according to his later

metaphysic,men wereto arrive at an adumbration

of the 'ideal forms' ofwhich these kinds are the

phenomenal counterpart, and which constitute theworld of reality. QV'hether Theophrastus gatheredtlie principleofclassificationfrom Platoorfromhisfellow-pupil Aristotle, it appears in his hands to

the vegetable wor^ Throughout his botanical

xvii

t{.

Theophrastus appearstohavebeenonlyAristotle's

juniorbyfifteenyears OnPlato'sdeath hebecame

Aristotle's pupil,but,thedifference inagenotbeing

verygreat,heandhissecond masterappeartohavebeen on practically equal terms We are assuredthat Aristotle was deeply attached to his friendwhileas earnestofan equally deep attachment on

the other side Theophrastus took Aristotle's son

under his particular care after his father's death

Ai-istotle died at the age ofsixty-three,leavingtohis favourite pupil his books, including the auto-graphs of his own works, and hisgarden in the

groundsoftheLyceum Thefirstofthese bequests,

if the information is correct, is of great historical

importance; it may well be that we owe to

Theophrastus the publication of someat least of

his master's voluminous works And as to the

gardenit is evident that it was here that the firstsystematic botanist made manyofthe observations

whicharei*ecorded in his botanicalworks Diogenes

has preserved hiswill,and there is nothing in theterms of thisinteresting documentto suggest that

it is not authentic Of special interest is the

provisionmadeforthemaintenance ofthe garden

it isbequeathed to certain specified friends andtothosewhowillspendtheirtime withthemin learn-

ing and philosophy; the testator is to be buried

in it without extravagant expense, a custodian is

apjx)inted,andprovisionismade for the

emancipa-tion of various gardeners, so soon as they have

earnedtheirfreedom bylongenoughservice

Accordingto Diogenes Theophrastus diedat theage ofeighty-five Heismadeindeedtosayintheprobably spurious Prefacetothe'Characters'thathe

iswritingin hisninety-ninth year; whileSt.Jerome'sChronicleasserts that he lived to the age of 107

Accepting Diogenes' date, we may take it that he

died about 285 b.c ; it is said that he complained

that*'we die just when we are beginning to live."

His life must indeed have been a remarkably full

and interesting one, when we consider that he

enjoyed the personal friendship oftwosuch menas

PlatoandAristotle,and that he had witnessed the

whole of the careers of Philip and Alexander of

Macedon To Alexander indeed he was directly

indebted; the great conqueror had not been for

nothing the pupil of the encyclopaedic Aristotle

He took with him to the Eastscientificallytrained

observers, theresultsofwhose obser^^ations wereat

Tlieophrastus' disposal Hence it is that his s^criptions of plants are not limited to the flora of

de-(jreeceandthe Levant;tothe reports ofAlexander's

followersheowedhisaccounts of suchplants asthe

(otton-plant,banyan, pepper, cinnamon, myrrh and

frankincense It has been a subject of some troversy whence he derived his accounts of plants

con-whose habitat was nearer home Kirchner^ in an

able tract,combats the contention ofSprengel that

his observations even ofthe Greek flora were not

made at first hand Now at this period the patetic School must have been a very importanteducational institution; Diogenes says that underTheophrastus it immbered two thousand pupils

Peri-Moreoverwe mayfairlyassumethat Alexander,from

his connexion with Aristotle, was interested in it,

while we are told that at a later time Demetrius

Phalereusassisteditfinancially May wenot hazard

andguess that a number of the students were propriatelyemployed in the collection offacts and

ap-observations? The assumption that a number of'travellingstudents'wereso employed Avouldatallevents explain certain references in Theophrastus'

botanical works He says constantly'The

Maced-onians say,' 'The men of Mount Ida say'

and soforth Now it seems hardly probable that he is

quoting from written treatises by Macedonian or

Idaeanwriters Itisat leastaplausible suggestionthat insuch referenceshe is referring to reports of

the districts in question contributed by students

oftheschool In that case'TheMacedonianssay'would mean 'This is what our representative was

told in Macedonia.' It is further noticeable thatthe tense usedis sometimes past,e.g 'The men of

Mount Idasaid'

; an obvious explanation of thisis

suppliedbytheaboveconjecture Itisevenpossible

thatinoneplace(3. 12.i.)thenameofoneof thesestudentshasbeenpreserved

Theophrastus, like his master, was a very

fromhispen,coveringmosttopicsofhumaninterest,

as Religion, Politics, Ethics, Education, Rhetoric,Mathematics, Astronomy, Logic, Meteorology and

other naturalsciences His oratoricalworks enjoyed

ahigh reputationinantiquity Diogenes attributes

tohimtenworkson Rhetoric, ofwhich oneOnStyle

was known to Cicero, who adopted from it the

classification ofstyles into the'grand,' the' plain,'

and the'intermediate.'^ Ofoneortwo otherlost

workswehavesome knowledge Thusthe substance

ofan essay on Piety is preserved in Porphyryde

Abstinentia.^ The principal works still extant arethe nine books of the Enquiryinto Plants,andthe

sixbookson theCauses of Plants;theseseemtobe

complete We havealso considerable fragments of

treatises entitled:—ofSense-perceptionand objects

ofSense, of Stones, of Fire,ofOdours, of Winds,ofW^eather-Signs, of Weariness, ofDizziness,ofSweat,Metaphysics, besidesanumberofunassignedexcerpts

Thestyleofthese works,asof the botanical books,suggests that, as in the case ofAristotle,whatwe

jjossess consists of notesforlectures or notes taken

of lectures There is no literary charm;the

sen-1 Sandys,i p 99.

'Bemays,Theophrastus,1866.

tences are mostly compressed and highlyelliptical,

tothe pointsometimesofobscurity Itfollowsthat

translation, aswithAristotle,mustbetosomeextentparaphrase The thirty sketches of 'Charactersascribed to Theophrastus, which have found many

imitators,and whichare wellknown in this country

throughSir R.Jebb's brilliant translation,standon

a quite differentfooting; the object ofthiscurious

and amusing work is discussed in Sir R Jebb'sIntroduction and in the more recent edition of

Edmonds and Austen Well may Aristotle, as we

are assured,have commended his pupil's diligence

It issaid that,whenheretiredfromtheheadship oftheschool,he handeditoverto Theophrastus We

arefurthertold thatthe latter wasonce prosecuted

forimpiety, but the attackfailed; alsothathewas

once banishedfrom Athens for a year, itdoes notappear under what circumstances He was con-sideredanattractiveand livelylecturer Diogenes'sketch ends with the quotation of some sayingsattributed to him, of which the most noteworthy

are'Nothingcostsusso dearas thewaste oftime,'

'One had better trust an unbridled horse than

an undigested harangue.' He was followed tohis grave, which we may hope was, in accordancewithhis own wish,in somepeaceful corner ofthe

Lyceumgarden,bya greatassemblage ofhisfellow

townsmen

The principal references in the notes are to thefollowing ancient authors:

—

ApoUonius, HistoriaMi^acidorum

Aristotle. Bekker,Berlin, 1831.

Arrian Hercher(Teubner)

Athena«us Dindorf,Leipzig, 1827.

Columella, dere nistica. Schneider,Leipzig, 1794.Diodorus

Pedanius Dioscurides, de materia medica

Well-mann,Berlin, 1907.

Geoponica Beckh(Teubner), 1895.

Nicander, Theriaca Schneider,Leipzig, 1816 Palladius,dere rustica. Schneider,Leipzig, 1795.Pausanias Schubart (Teubner),Leipzig, 1881 Plinius,NaturaUs Historia. Ma3hoff(Teubner),

1887. (Referenceby book andsection.)Plutarch Hercher(Teubner),Leipzig, 1872.Scylax,Periplui. Vossius,Amsterdam,1639.

Introductory:Howplantsare tobeclassified ; ditfieulty

of definingwhataretheessential 'parts' ofaplant, especially ifplants are assumedtocorrespond to

Theessentialpartsof plants,andthe materialsofwhich

Definitions ofthe variousclasses intowhichplantsmay

OFPROPAGATION, ESPECIALLY OFTREES

Ofthewaysinwhichtreesandplantsoriginate stancesofdegenerationfrom seed 105Effects of situation, climate,tendance 115

In-Ofspontaneous changesinthe characterof trees,and

Ofspontaneousandother changesinother plants . 123

Ofmethodsofpropagation,with notes oncultivation 127

Of the propagation of the date-palm; of palms in

Further notes on the propagationof trees 145

Ofthecultivation of trees 145

Ofremediesfor tliesheddingofthefruit : caprification 151

OFWILD TREES

Ofthewaysinwhichwildtrees originate 159

Oftlie differencesbetweenwildandcultivatedtrees 165

Of mountaintrees : ofthedifferencesfoundinwildtrees 171

Ofthe timesofbuddingandfruiting of M'ild, as

com-pared withcultivated, trees 179

Ofthe seasonsofbudding 185

Ofthecomparativerate ofgrowthin trees, andofthe

Oftheeffects ofcuttingdownthewholeorpartofatree 197

Of other things borne by trees besides their leaves

Of*male'and'female' in trees :theoakasanexample

of thisandotherdifferences 203

Ofthedifferences in firs 211

Ofbeech,yew,hop-hornbeam, lime 221

Ofcornelian cherry,cornel, 'cedars,' medlar, thorns,

Ofbird-cherry, elder,willow • 243

Ofelm,poplars, alder,[semyda, bladder-senna] 249

Ofcertainotheroaks,arbutus,andrachne, wig-tree . 259

Of cork-oak, Icobitta, koloitia, and of certain othertreespeculiarto particular localities 265

Ofthedifferences invariousshrubs—buckthorn, withy,Christ's thoni, bramble, sumach, ivy, smilax,

OFTHE TREES AND PLANTSSPECIAL TOPAKTICCLAR

DISTRICTSANDPOSITIONS

Oftheimportanceof positionandclimate 287

Ofthetrees special to Egj'pt,andofthe carob 291

Ofthetreesandshrubsspecial toLibya 303

OfthetreesandherbsspecialtoAsia 309

Ofthe plantsspecial tonorthern regions 323

Ctftheaquatic plantsoftheMediterranean 329

Ofthe aquatic plantsofthe 'outersea' {i.e Atlantic,Persian(iulf , etc ) 337

Oftheplants of rivers, marshes,andlakes, especially

Copals), especially its reeds,andofreedsingeneral 361

Of the length or shortnessofthelife of plants,andthe

Ofdiseasesandinjuriesdonebyweather conditions. 391

Oftheeffectson trees ofremovingbark, head,wood,roots, etc ; ofvarious causesofdeath . 405

heart-BOOK V

OFTHE TIMBEROF VARIOUSTREESANDITS USES

PAGE

Ofthe seasonsofcutting 417

Oftheeffectsontimberofclimate 427

Ofknotsand' coiling ' intimber 429

Ofdifferences inthe textureof differentwoods 431

Ofdiff'erences intimberas tohardnessandheaviness 4.39

Ofdiff'erences inthekeeping qualityoftimber 441

Whichkindsofwoodareeasyand whichhardtowork

Ofthe coreandits eff'ects 445

Whichwoodscan best support weight 451

Of the woods best suited forthe carpenter's various

Of thewoodsusedinhouse-building 459

Of the usesofthewoodof particular trees 459

Ofthelocalities inwhichthebesttimbergrows. 463

Ofthe usesofvariouswoodsinmakingfire : charcoal,

BOOK I

HEPI OrmN ISTOPIAS

Ị T(ov (f>VTa)V TÚi Biăf)opa<; koX rrjv aXkrjv

<j)va-ivXrjTTTeovKararerafieprjkoXra irđr) /cal ră; y€V€crei<iKottov<;ySiow i]dr]yapkoX 7rpd^€i<i

ovK€-)(ovai,vwaireprâcoạ elalS' al fiev Kara

TrjvyevecnvKalraTrdOr) Kaltou9^iOv<i Torepai Kal paov<i, al he Kara ra /xé/j?; TrXeioủe-)(ovat rroLKiXiậ avro yap rovro irpoirov ov^

evOewprj-lKav(o<; d(f)(opiaTatrairoia Selfieprj Kal fir] jxeprjKaXelv,dW êet Tiva diropiav

2 Topievovvfxepo<;areeK rr}^ ISiái <^vcreo)<;ovdel

BoKel Siafieveivrj aTrXw?•;7oravyevrjrai,KaOdrrep

iv rot<i ^(ooi<ira varepov yevrjaop^eva, irXrjvei ri

^ TO, ins Sch.,om.Ald.H

^irđr], a more general word than Swdfifis, 'virtues':

' behaviour,' in relation toenvironment Instancesof wdOriaregiven4 2 11 ; 4 14 6.

3 fXovffi conj.H.; €x<"'<'^«'W.with Aid

Introductory: How plants are to he classified; difficulty

ofdefining ivhat are the essential ^parts' of a plantespecially ifplantsareassumedtocorrespondtoanimals

I. In considering the distinctive characters ofplants and their nature generally one must take

into account their^ parts, their qualities,^ the

waysin which their life originates,and the course

whichitfollows ineach case:(conductandactixities

wedonotfind inthem,aswedoinanimals) Now

the differences inthewayinwhich theirlifeates,intheir qualitiesandintheir life-historyarecom-

origin-paratively easy to observe and are simpler, whilethose shewn^ in their 'parts' present more com-

plexity Indeed ithas noteven been satisfactorily

determined whatought andwhat ought not to be

called 'parts,' and some difficulty is involved in

makingthedistinction

Now itappears that bya ' part,' seeing thatit is

something whichbelongstotheplant'scharacteristicnature,we meansomethingwhichispermanenteither

absolutelyorwhen once ithasappeared (like those

|iartsofanimalswhich remainforatimeundeveloped)

Siavoaovr)yrjpa^r)7n]pa>aivairo^aXKeraL twv

8'iv TOi<;^fTOi?evia roiavr ecrTtv &crr' eTrereiove'xeLV Tr)v ovaiav, olov dv6o<; ^pvov (jivWop

Kap'TTO'i, d7r\c!)<i oa-q, irpo roiv Kupiroiv 7) afiaytverai rol<; Kapirol^' ere Be avTOf 6 /SXatrro?*alel yap iiric^vaiv Xafi^dvei to. hevhpa Kar

iviavrov6fioi(o^ev re Tol<i dvco koX iv Toi<i ireplrd<ipl^a<i' cocTTC, el[lev rt? ravraOijcrei p-eprj,roT€irXrjdo'id6pi(TT0v earai xal ovSeirore to avro

T(t)v fiopicov' el S'av/xr) fiepyj, crv/j,^7]creTai, St'mv

reketa ylveraLKoi(paiverai,ravra/xrjelvai ixepyy

€'X,ovra irdvra KaWico koI reXeiorepa koI BoKelKal eariv al fiev ovv drropiai, a'xehov elcnv

avrai

Td^^a Be ov')( ofiolcot; diravra ^Tjrrjreov oijre

iv Tot<? aA,Xoi9 ov0^ 6era 7r/309 rrjv yevecnv,

avrd re rd yevv(i>fieva /neprj dereov olov rov'iKap7rov<i ovBe yap rd e/n^pva rwv ^docov el

Be iv rfi wpa oyfrei rovro ye KaXKiarov,

^ i.e. themale inflorescence ofsome trees ; tlie term is

ofcoursewider than' catkin.'

* i.e flower, catkin, leaf, fruit, shoot.