Khía cạnh lịch sử, xã hội và triết học phản ánh trong tiểu thuyết của một số nhà văn châu Phi

Therefore, the researcher intended to analyze the three novels by Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga respectively: No Longer at Ease 1960, Fragments 1971 and Nervous Conditions 1988 because

SocialistRepublic of Vietnam Republic of the Philippines HISTORICAL, SOCIOLOGICAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL

DIMENSIONS REFLECTED IN THE NOVELS OF SELECTED

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Philosophy in English Language and Literature

by

NGUYEN THI MINH LOAN (SUMMER)

2015

SocialistRepublic of Vietnam Republic of the Philippines

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

TITLE PAGE

APPROVAL SHEET

ABSTRACT

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

DEDICATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

CHAPTER I: THE PROBLEM 1

Introduction 1

Statement of the Problem 7

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study 8

Significance of the Study 10

CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF LITERATURE 14

Conceptual Literature 14

Literature and Philosophy of Life 14

Significant Works of African Writers 23

Literary Techniques 30

Critical Approaches for Novel Analysis 32

Research Literature 37

SocialistRepublic of Vietnam Republic of the Philippines

Synthesis of the Literature Reviewed 45

Theoretical Framework 48

Conceptual Framework 54

Definition of Terms 57

CHAPTER III: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 60

Research Design 60

Treatment of Materials 62

CHAPTER IV: ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 65

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 179

Findings 180

Conclusion 189

Recommendations 190

BIBLIOGRAPHY 222

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

Introduction

There is a close link between philosophy and literature While

philosophy supplies ideology and themes for literature, literature, on the

other hand, provides vivid illustrations of the meaning and abstract

thought of philosophy Literature is considered as a channel to show the

author’s philosophy of life Indeed, in literature the philosophical theme

is conveyed through literary works and is an essential part of their

aesthetic value There is a considerable number of well-known works in

the world literature in which philosophical views are put forward,

suggested, or play a central role such as Dostoyevsky’s Brothers

Karamazov, Crime and Punishment, and The Idiot; Tolstoy’s War and Peace; Proust’s In Search of Lost Time; Mann’s MagicMountain, etc By

studying literary works, readers are introduced central philosophical

issues relating with freedom, responsibility, religious belief, personal

identity, etc

Beside reflecting on philosophy, literature also reflects the historical

and sociological dimensions of the society That literature is a reflection

of the society has been widely acknowledged Literature influences the

society, and the society is reflected in literature; therefore, there has

been a close interaction between them The readers can explore a

variety of historical and socio-political themes in many works of famous

writers such as colonialism, post-colonialism, morality, racial identity,

oppression, politics, leadership, gender issues, war, etc According to

Diamond (1989), a literary work can provide a more detailed picture of a

society in terms of cultural, social, religious, and political dimensions

more than any history textbooks and anthropological records do This is

exemplified in the works of many world famous writers For example,

Wordsworth creates wonderful poems to praise humanitarian aspect of

the French revolution in the earlier phase, but later his poetry focuses on

its bloodiness and violence Another example is Charles Dickens’ novels

whose themes consist of the consequences of industrialization like the

sufferings of the poor, hypocrisy of the privileged class, government

corruption, and many others

Africa experienced a variety of cultural clashes and political crises

from the early colonial days when the Europeans came and conquered

this continent Achebe, a Nigerian writer, wrote that the time and place in

which he was raised was “a strongly multiethnic, multilingual,

multi-religious, somewhat chaotic colonial situation” (Achebe, The Education

of a British-Protected Child: Essays, 2009, p.39) These words describe

Nigeria in particular and other countries in Africa in the period from the

end of the 19th century to the 21st century

For the countries in Africa, the experience of colonialism is

considered as the one of the most important factors in understanding the

present condition of the African continent, the African people and their

history Therefore, a close examination of the phenomenon of

colonialism is essential to assess not only the economic and political

development in Africa but also the African people’s perception of

themselves

African literature has increasingly gained much interest in literary

research for the last three decades Many critics have devoted much

energy to identify western influence on modern African literature

However, the concept of influence have been subject to re-evaluation

and revision because critics often impose Western norms on analyzing

African literary works in terms of themes, techniques of writing,

philosophy, etc While these studies have made insight interpretations of

content and meaning of the African works, less is known of the influence

of the African traditional roots on African literature and the influence of

African writers as philosophers on African people’s perception

From the beginning of colonial situation, literature was the sharp

weapon of African writers to oppose colonialism and proudly assert the

values of the cultures that the colonials had tried to destroy Fictional

works in many African nations has been very much influenced by the

cultural and political experiences of the country Therefore, many of

African writers chose to use their works to explore, portray, and expose

these social experiences in their different works As Ojaide states, “there

is, culturally speaking, no art for art’s sake in Africa Every literary work has a social function” (Ojaide, Modern African Literature and Cultural Identity, 1992, p.44) Among African writers, Chinua Achebe, Ayi Kwei Armah and Tsi-tsi Dangarembgaare the pioneers in using the pen

as the weapon against colonialism

Chinua Achebe defines his writings as part of a “process of

re-storing peoples who had been knocked silent by the trauma of all kinds

of dispossession” (Achebe, Home and Exile, 2000, p.79) Achebe takes

up the responsibility as an Igbo writer who is to help his people regain

belief in itself and dignity that is destroyed by Western colonialism

Ayi Kwei Armah is undoubtedly one of the most excellent writers of

the second generation of African writers which comes after Achebe In

an autobiographical article, “One Writer's Education” (West Africa,

1985), Armah described himself as not simply a Ghanian and a West

African but “ most significantly as an African” One of the strengths of his

writing is his use of African history and myths to emphasize the

originality and complexity of African cultures before the incursion of

colonialism into the continent His writings are realistic descriptions of

the African continent in such a way that his novels can be seen as a

sociological report on the social and politcal situation of Africa

Tsi-tsi Dangarembga is a fabulous African female writer Her

writings transmit political messages regarding female oppression and

colonial domination She earned much praise from literary critics

because of her complex depiction of racial and gender struggles in a

rural African society

Therefore, the researcher intended to analyze the three novels by

Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga respectively: No Longer at Ease

(1960), Fragments (1971) and Nervous Conditions (1988) because an

exploration of the three chosen writers of the three different African

countries (Nigeria, Ghana and Zimbabwe) and of two sexes would

reveal a number of common concerns in terms of historical, sociological

and philosophical dimensions The historical basis for this search is that

throughout Africa there are close similarities in both traditional cultures

and contemporary situations The researcher attempted to make

comparisons and drawing parallels among these novels by Achebe,

Armah and Dangarembga in oder to generalize the whole Africa

The wisdom embodied in the selected works of these African

writers could be one of the motivating factors that could help readers in

the world understand about internal and external pressures African

people suffered as well as the values they lost in colonial and

post-colonial periods Therefore, the readers may establish their high

appreciation of African culture and history

Besides, many scholars have already studied the various themes of

No Longer at Ease, Fragments and Nervous Conditions such as

classes, cultures, corruption, etc However, there is not much analysis

on the historical, social and philosophical insights of these novels Also,

these African writers’ philosophy of life gleaned from the three novels

has not received enough attention from the literary circles

Last but not least, Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga’s life, works

and life philosophy exemplify noble values of a person and a nation,

which is worthy of attention Therefore, as a teacher, the researcher

would like to expose her students to literature and culture outside of an

Eastern country She wants her students to gain an appreciation of a

foreign culture while also gaining insight into their own culture, seeing

their own society through a different and objective lense Moreover, she

wants to equip her students with a sense of values to guide and allow

them to embrace a good philosophy of life and clarify life goals

With this objective in her mind, the researcher was deeply

motivated to explore and undertake an analysis of how historical,

sociological, philosophical perspectives reflected in the selected works

to bring out the philosophy of life of Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga

Statement of the Problem

This study primarily aims to analyze the historical, sociological,

philosophical dimensions in the novels of selected African writers

Specifically, the study answered the following questions:

1 What historical events are reflected in the novels of Chinua Achebe,

Armah and Dangarembga?

2 How do the novels convey the sociological character of the time as

3 What literary techniques are utilized to highlight African way of life in

5 What philosophy of life of the writers may be gleaned from the

analyses of the novels?

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

This study analyzed the historical, sociological and philosophical

dimensions embodied in Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga’s selected

literary pieces pointing out their philosophy of life Likewise, this paper

tries to present the historical events, sociological character of the time,

the literary devices and literary approaches used in unveiling these

African writers’ philosophy of life

This study employed the qualitative method of research in

analyzing the authors’ philosophy in the representative literary works

chosen Likewise, this analysis made use of the historical, sociological

and philosophical approaches as the bases for analysis In particular,

the historical and the sociological approaches are supported by the

theory of Postcolonialism and Cultural Relativism while Frankl’s Theory

on the Meaning of Life was used to investigate Achebe, Armah and

Dangarembga’s life philosophy behind their writing Other approaches in

literary criticism that may be employed in the analysis like the

biographical criticism and psychological criticism are not part of this

study

This paper also involved content analysis, which is a systematic

technique in analyzing message content and message handling The

data analysis in this research centered on data seeking and the

extraction of meaning from Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga’s

selected literary works Much effort was focused on the task of recording

data or making notes through concepts and categories; linking and

combining abstract concepts; extracting the essence; organizing

meaning; writing an understanding; and drawing conclusions

The essential features in the treatment of materials were

considered by the researcher in the conduct of this study The general

rules cited by Alkiere (2014) as regards the four standards a piece of

literature particularly that of a novel should abide to in order to be

considered literary guided in the selection of works under study

The representative literary works were analyzed: No Longer at

Ease by Achebe, Fragments by Armah and Nervous Conditions by Dangarembga The said selections were chosen because of the

correlation between the aforementioned themes, literary devices and

approaches which helped in unveiling the authors’ philosophy of life

Typical for African novels, No Longer at Ease, Fragments and Nervous

Conditions address the cultural and social changes in African society

They illustrate the effects of the social, economic and political situation

on the behavior and mental conditions of the characters Although these

novels have been the subject of much critical study and debates within

and outside the literary circles, but enough attention has not been paid

to a study of these novels to bring about Achebe, Armah and

Dangarembga’s philosophy of life

Significance of the Study

The germaneness of literary analysis as a vital part of a research

study is emphasized in terms of its implication to a number of

individuals Therefore, it is vital to spell out how this study is beneficial to

academic managers, working professionals, college instructors of

literature, students of literature, members of the community, and other

researchers

Academic Managers This paper will help them include

developmental priorities, programs, projects and policies in the

educational institutions to ensure that literary appreciation and critiquing

may be integrated in the academe This will also inspire them to spawn

activities related to humanizing education through the study of literature

in the curricula that will educate the academic community about the

study of literature which is about human being: their daily lives as well as

their exceptional, towering experiences

Working Professionals This study will be beneficial for them in

the sense that at whatever circumstance they may find themselves their

own philosophy of life from their readings of the selected works These

works humanize as they educate them in the art of living At their

maturity these professionals reminisce their past and realize that their

readings have broadened and revitalized their life It has given a deeper

meaning to their existence Likewise, they may be inspired to highly

appreciate the folklore and culture in the past and their roles in affirming

the dignity of their people These initiatives may help these working

people to embrace a good philosophy of life, clarify life goals, and

revitalize working relationships within their workplaces

College Instructors of Literature This dissertation will be helpful

in the instructor’s methodology in teaching literature as an inquiry into

using the appropriate literary theories and approaches in literary

analysis This will lead to treating literary criticism as a worthwhile

exercise that includes, among others, the identification of a meaningful

theme and the investigation of devices and approaches to reveal such

themes In addition, this will provide them with opportunities to touch the

concept of historical, sociological and philosophical dimensions in

selected works in their literature classes and open their students’ mind

and hearts to the philosophy of life of the author that may be drawn from

them

Students of Literature This study will give them an extensive and

profound outlook in life as regards the historical, sociological, and

philosophical dimensions of literature through the lives and experiences

of the characters in the selected literary pieces It will also make them

realize that literature may be the writers channel for philosophical human

transformation In addition, this paper will make them treat literature as a

work of art distinguished from other texts through content and form, and

eventually intensify their appreciation of novels and inspire them to

engage in literary analysis as an academic activity

Members of the Community This paper will make them more

mindful of their social responsibility in the community This will make

them understand that some of the belief systems and practices at home

and the community do not often help in establishing equal and valued

roles for young students, and thus should be sidestepped

Other Researchers Researchers will be benefitted by this study

through the analysis and treatment of materials, and through the careful

investigation of both theme and form in literary genres Likewise, this

paper will enlighten them on the process of drawing out literary theories

and utilizing critical approaches in literary analysis

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the review of literature that is critical in the

establishment of concepts and theories that would effectively

substantiate the study

Conceptual Literature

The review of conceptual literature yields four constructs, which

may be used in the analysis and interpretation of the works dissected

These constructs include: literature and philosophy of life, significant

works of African writers, literary techniques and critical approaches in

novel analysis

Literature and Philosophy of Life

It is widely acknowledged that literature reflects society and depicts

human life According to Plato, literature imitates life, that is, it

represents the world as it is As an imitation of human action, literature

presents a picture of what people think, say and do in the society

through characters who convey certain messages for different purposes

through their words and actions A literary piece is based on authors’

intention and includes the attitudes, morals and values of the society

because no writer can live out of the world around him Tomeldan, et al

(1986) also said that literature is a product of life and about life It offers

an experience in which people can participate as they read and test

what they read by their own experience By reading literature, people

can get something of value such as an understanding, a new

awareness, a feeling of pleasure, etc In essence, life illuminates

literature as much as literature illuminates life

Besides, writers create characters with their words, actions and

reactions to convey certain messages for the purpose of education,

information and entertainment It is not possible to find a work of

literature without any attitudes, morals and values of the society

Therefore, literature is one of the best media people can use to

understand their society and even themselves

There are different forms of literature among which writers can

choose one suitable for his needs and intention such as essays, short

stories, dramas, or novels However, in terms of representation of

different aspects of the society’s life, novels becomes increasingly

popular compared with other forms of literature

One reason is their expansion of social scope It means that novels

most addressed the domestic and social concerns of different classes in

the society, even the middle and working classes A good illustration is

Leo Tolstoy’s War and Peace, which consists of nearly six hundred

characters of different classes from the aristocracy to the poor

Besides, novels engage the readers’ thought and immerse them in

the world of ideas and themes Indeed, each novel consists of a variety

of subjects of social significance such as class, race, politics,

economics, etc In terms of the writer’s choice of materials, the novels

may be psychological, historical or social in content A good example is

Stowe’s Uncle Tom’s Cabin and Sinclair’s The Jungle Other novels are

personal or psychological regarding human relationship, conflicts,

desires, and fears like Charlotte Bronte’s Jane Eyre or William

Makepeace Thackeray’s Vanity Fair

Another explanation for the popularity of novels is the range of the

kinds of novels- scientific fiction, adventure, detective, romantic, etc

Hence, writers are free to choose his favourite form to express his

intentions and purposes Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn

is a good example of adventure novels

Furthermore, a novel is long enough for writers to describe fully the

world around them and to create a large number of incidents where

characters can express their personality, a more complicated plot, a

more elaborative use of setting and a greater complexity of themes It is

capable of revealing both a broader and deeper view of human nature

and human experience

Last but not least, novels can reveal the spirit of the times so subtly

that they have potential for shaping the consciousness of hundreds of

generations F.Scott Fitzgerald’s The Great Gatsby and Graham

Greene’s The Quiet American are typical illustrations

Hence, novels help readers understand social realities in different

periods of time To do this, a writer should interpret the world and even

himself to transfer his ideas to his readers and inspire, guide and

challenge them

Novels commonly trace the depth of an individual, a group of

people, or a world Novelists make a work of art and offer both a

representation of and a response to reality For example, the African

novels shared a similar theme of reaction to the negative views about

the history of Africa and Africans The writers aim to reconstruct and

assert the true cultural identity of the African people and assure them

“that their past with all its imperfections was not one long night of

savagery from which the Europeans acting on God’s behalf delivered them” (Achebe, The Novelist as Teacher, 1988) Besides, Said has

deeply explored the role of the novel in the colonial and imperial

enterprise of Western colonialism He argues eloquently that “stories are

at the heart of what explorers and novelists say about strange regions of the world, they also become the method colonized people use to assert their own identity and the existenceof their own history” (Said, Culture and Imperialism, 1993, p.xii) This approach appears in the works of

African writers such as Achebe, Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Elechi Amadi, Alan

Paton, and Camara Laye

The present study follows the notion that “literature has no

autonomy outside reality” and that its analysis aims “to show the literary work as a significant statement with a direct relevance to the African experience” (Irele, The Criticism of Modern African Literature, 1971,

p.41) The novel’s capacity to map and reorganize reality has made it

the most convenient medium for African writers seeking to rethink their

social worlds intransitional and postcolonial times

To sum up, novels are one of the best tools for writers to reflect any

changes of the society and the writer’s intentions Writers like Achebe

have shown that the role and function of novels must change to suit the

cause of the user Therefore, the notion that a novel is a reflection of

social reality is a highly acknowledged medium in the analysis of the

historical, sociological and philosophical perspectives of Achebe, Armah

and Dangarembga’s novels, No Longer at Ease, Fragments and

Nervous Conditions

Philosophy of life may be defined as an overall vision or attitude

toward life and the purpose of life There are some ways of

understanding philosophy of life

The first viewpoint by Peck (in Schmidt, 2002), a contemporary

psychiatrist, explains that people need a “map” to find their way through

life Maps do not exist naturally; therefore, if people want to have their

maps, they have to create their own maps, which requires great effort

The more effort they spend appreciating and perceiving reality, the

larger and more accurate their maps will be Some people stop making

it early, so their maps are small and sketchy Only a small number of

people continue making their maps until they die; therefore, their maps

are enlarged, refined and redefined The philosophers affirm that people

should revise their maps continually because the world always changes

The second viewpoint is from the ancient philosopher Plato (in

Schmidt, 2002) He uses the cave to illustrate his belief that people are

trapped by their imperfect, subjective impressions of the world People

need to use their reasoning abilities to escape from this trap and to find

a more accurate understanding of themselves and their world

In the third viewpoint, Keen and Valley-Fox (in Schmidt, 2002)

explain that people need a “myth” to explain their lives, which is similar

to Peck’s concept of a map which guides their culture, families, and

even their individual lives The authors explain that all humans need a

myth, which puts life together into a meaningful whole

Whether philosophy is consciously or unconsciously adopted or

followed in life, a fundamental philosophy is constructed as the basis of

one’s own life, which shapes his whole attitude to life Therefore, all

people live in accordance with the philosophy of life that they have

framed for themselves Even those who claim that there is no need of

any philosophy or the uneducated have a philosophy of their ownthough

it may be only a superstitious belief in God or Buddhist Therefore, it is

certainly essential for people to frame a philosophy for their lives

Philosophy is a complete world-view and a general attitude to life It

gives an explanation of the universe, always the deepest of known facts

Philosophy is harmoniously related to the other views of life and fulfils

the needs of man to the highest degree of satisfaction Philosophy

makes a person strong to criticize his outlook, stand firm on his own legs

and assert his rightful citizenship of the universe Philosophy makes him

free in his attitudes

Sivananda’s philosophy of life is a good example According to him,

philosophy is not merely a logical study of the conclusions of science or

a synthesis of the different sciences As a follower of the philosopher

Sankara, Sivananda builds his philosophy on a life of experience first

and reason afterwards His method is a very peaceful and harmonizing

one; his philosophy is universal in its scope Therefore, his philosophy

contains friendliness and joy Whether philosophy is achieved

consciously by understanding, by faith, habit, or tradition, it is the

method of right living and of directing the life towards a higher state of

existence His philosophy is the principle of rational guidance in

everyone’s life, so it is valuable The most unique feature in his teaching,

which he always made good examples through his daily life, is that no

part of experience of life is neglected A philosophy which overlooks

some aspects of life is partial and incomplete and therefore not worthy of

being regarded as a science of life

In trying to shape mankind’s ideas, both philosophy and literature

have moral influence on human behavior Ethics, a core branch of

philosophy, is concerned with questions of human conducts and

evaluations of conducts with a view to the attainment of a good life One

of the reasons why great works of literature are considered great is their

moral values For instance, Tutuola’s The Palm-Wine Drunkard and

Achebe’s Things Fall Apart have a high degree of moral interest in that

they tell the readers a great deal about the identity and dignity of African

culture

Besides, both philosophy and literature enlarge readers’ experience

by making readers conscious of a variety of ways of looking at life They

are also concerned with human life Philosophy helps to broaden

mankind’s experience and assists in equipping humanity with an

understanding of the meaning of life Indeed, philosophy is not about

some abstract things but about daily activities and problems that

confront mankind Correspondingly, the writers create or recreate

human life by exploring all aspects of the society and showing interest in

human relationships and quality of human life

Teoxon (1990) worked on the hypothesis that philosophy and

literature are dynamically connected to each other This is supported in

the statement of Rand (1975) who believes that every novelist is a

philosopher because he cannot present a picture of human existence

without a philosophical framework This means that in any novel, there

always exists at least a philosophy of life although the writers are aware

of it or not, and they hold it consciously or unconsciously Therefore, the

philosophical dimensions of the novel or the philosophy of life of the

writer can be gleaned from its themes (Teoxon, 1990)

Significant Works of African Writers

This part concentrated on introducing significant novels of Achebe,

Armah and Dangarembga

Achebe determines clearly that writing for the African is a serious

duty which is not only cultural but also political, philosophical and

religious: “I believe it’s impossible to write anything in Africa without

some kind of commitment, some kind of message, some kind of protest The whole pattern of life demands that you should protest, that you should put in a word for your history, your traditions, your religions, and so on” (Achebe, Commitment and African Writers, 1970, p.18).This

mission led Achebe to develop a comprehensive theory on modern

African writing, which is expressed in articles like The Black Writer’s

Burden, The English Language and the African Writer, The Role of the Writer in a New Nation, The Novelist as a Teacher, The African Writer and the Biafran Cause, etc These articles are very significant and

suggest the causes in the African novel- restoring the true image of

Africa and helping African people rediscover a cultural heritage lost

under the dramatic impact of colonization They also suggest the critical

approaches to modern African novels

According to Madubuike (1974), in general, Achebe’s theories

reveal three related areas of concern, which originate from the colonial

experience: the interpretation of the African past; the problem of

interpreting this past in a foreign language; and the responsibilities and

obligations of the writers to his own people Thus, a serious study of

Achebe’s works will reveal a conscientious combination of these

concerns and their harmonious integration into his works (Madubuike,

Achebe’s Ideas on Literature, 1974, p.62)

Achebe’s five novels can be studied as the sequential record of the

struggles of Igbo society against colonial domination These novels may

be classified into two groups The early two novels – Things Fall

Apartand Arrow of God– are detailed portrayal of the Igbo tribal history

in the past and their culture during the times of their contact with the

Europeans as colonialists The latter group of novels, including No

Longer at Ease, Anthills of the Savannah and A Man of the People,

reveals their post-colonial experience

His first three novels deal with the impact of Western civilization on

the traditional culture of Africa, seen in the life of two traditional

characters, Okonkwo in Things Fall Apart and Ezeulu in Arrow of God

and the disintegration of African tradition and culture, seen in the life of

Obi in No Longer at Ease, a Western-educated Nigerian Achebe’s

works reveals the problems and issues contemporary Africans face

Achebe presents an inside look at intricate African life with its own

dignity and flaws

Achebe’s first novel, Things Fall Apart, provided tremendous insight

for non- African and African readers into traditional African culture and

people Over five million copies of the book have been sold, and it has

been translated into thirty languages Innes (1990) considers Achebe as

“father of the African novel in English” The protagonist, Okonkwo,

represents for the rigidity of African tradition that is unable to adapt to

new values and culture

If his first novel, Things Fall Apart, is a tragedy about the downfall

of a traditional hero, Okonkwo, Achebe’s second novel, No Longer at

Ease, is about the downfall of Okonkwo’s grandson, Obi Okonkwo As

an educated Nigerian, Obi Okonkwo is captured between western

values and traditional African values Through this novel, Achebe

criticizes not only the whites and their colonial rule over Africa for

bringing chaos of values but he also criticizes the new generation of

Africans, like Obi Okonkwo, who sacrifies their traditional values for

superficial material gains

Achebe’s third novel, Arrow of God (1964), is set in Umuaro just

after the death of Okonkwo of Umuofia in Things Fall Apart The novel

gives clearer inside pictures about what happens after the intrusion of

the whites and Christianity The protagonist of the story is Ezeulu as the

Chief Priest of Ulu and gods of the six villages of Umuaro He has to

cope with both his tribal conflicts and the British colonialists Finally, he

suffers a loss of his son, power and mentality because of his ambition

for power

Achebe’s fourth novel, A Man of the People, published in early

1966 Achebe focused on contemporary politics in this novel He uses

the novel to give the readers an insight into the nature of politics in an

African state that has just acquired independence In Anthills of the

Savannah (1978), the last novel, Achebe changed the topic to the

military in government This novel is about military government in a

contemporary African nation Besides, the civil war was another theme

of many of his writings during 1970s, among of which his book of poetry,

Beware Soul Brother won the Commonwealth Poetry Prize in 1971 and his short-story collection, Girls at War, was published in 1972

Achebe received the Man Booker International Prize for lifetime

achievement in 2007 His last works is There Was a Country: A

Personal History of Biafra (2012)

A close analysis of Ayi Kwei Armah's novels - The Beautyful Ones

Are Not Yet Born (1968), Fragments (1969), Why Are We So Blest? (1972), Two Thousand Seasons (1973) and The Healers (1978) -

reveals that the five works are preoccupied with the African leadership's

betrayal of the African Continent While his first three novels, The

Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born, Fragments and Why Are We So Blest? tend to present a pessimistic vision of modern Africa, his historical naratives, Two Thousand Seasons, The Healers, show the

possibility of African rebirth This rebirth is perceived through a retrieval

of the past and the promotion of African values such as wholenes,

beauty and creative life-giving principles

His first novel The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born was

published in 1968 It is considered a Modern African classic and has

established him as a major African writer along with Chinua Achebe,

Wole Soyinka and Ngugi Wa Thing’o This novel depicts Ghanaian

society in the post-independent period The work was motivated by the

author’s disappointment with the sudden collapse of the socialist

democratic ideal, although the problem was not peculiar to Ghana

In his second novel Fragments, Armah gives readers a more

painful depiction of the situation by going deeper into corruption and its

effects on individuals Fragments confirmed Ayi Kwei Armah’s reputation

as a major African writer

In Two Thousand Seasons and The Healers, Armah's fourth and

fifth novels, the author initiates a radical change in the direction of his

writing career Armah focuses on the past in these two novels in order to

offer solutions to the problems of the present For instance, in Two

Thousand Seasons, he describes how Africa's problems with the "white destroyers" and the "Arab predators" during the era of the slave trade

derailed the people from their chosen path Armah reasons that the

people must return to that path and also unite to fight the white

imperialists Specifically, in The Healers, Armah proposes a healing

process as the panacea to the African problems of disunity, tribal

rivalries, and internecine wars, which weakens the unity of the African

people From being a pessimist, Armah in these novels tends to become

an optimist who now looks forwards to the attainment of an African unity

in spite of the influence of Europeans This change from the alienated

intellectual to the collective black consciousness is accompanied by a

change from the individual to the communal and from the present to the

past

Osiris Rising, Armah's sixth novel, connects the two thematic

issues detailed above While it sufficiently contains the social criticism of

Armah's early novels, it also returns to the African past by using the

Isis-Osiris myth of the Egyptians to portray creatively the lack of visionary

leadership in present-day Africa This development implies the

impossibility of Africans successfully radiating the essence of the healing

process in The Healers, since social vices such as greed, the corruption

of African political leaders, and the craving for materialism by the people

still predominate in the African society

Dangarembga’s most prominent publication to date is her famed

and award-winning novel, Nervous Conditions The novel penetrates the

very foundation of the Shona patriarchal society Nervous Conditions

examines how women’s lives are mapped, interrogated and reinvented

Tsitsi Dangarembga adds to the recent African feminist literature with a

novel which clearly depict the African women’s place and role during

colonialism The women’s nervous conditions result from colonial as well

as from patriarchal oppression For the women it was not only a battle

between colonizers and colonized but also a fight against the

representation of male domination in their own society Dangarembga

sharply depicts the tension within the African family in a way that makes

readers understand the complexities of the colonial struggles

To recapitulate, Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga are the most

important literary figures in modern African literature Their novels are

the most well-known, most widely read, and most translated They

represent African experiences in colonial times, and they thoroughly

reveal historical, sociological and philosophical perspectives of African

life

Literary Techniques

Literary devices are defined as specific aspects of literature which

we can recognize, identify, interpret, or analyze (Braiman, 2007) They

may be understood as either literary elements or literary techniques

Literary elements exist inherently in a piece of literature that writers use

extensively to develop the plot, setting, characters, theme, or narrative

structure They provide a conceptual framework for comparing individual

literary works to others On the other hand, literary techniques relate to

structures, often words or phrases in literary texts that writers use to

allow readers to understand and appreciate the texts They include

writers’ choice of words to convey meaning of the text Unlike literary

elements, literary techniques represent deliberate choices by each

author The present study would investigate the literary techniques that

highlight the African way of life through analyzing the three novels of

Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga: No Longer at Ease, Fragments and

Nervous Conditions Like many other post-colonial writers, these writers

help their people rediscover a cultural heritage lost under the impact of

colonization in the way that they still retain the national traditions of their

society while gaining international recognition Therefore, an exploration

into their use of symbolism, flashback, foreshadowing, and figures of

speech provides readers with an overall picture of the African life

Symbolism is the use of symbols (concrete objects) to represent

abstract ideas and emotions In writing, symbolism is the use of a word,

a phrase, or a description, which represents a deeper meaning than the

words themselves This kind of extension of meaning can transform the

written word into a very powerful instrument For example, a transition

from day to night, or spring to winter, could symbolize a move from

goodness to evil, or hope to despair; a river in a scene could represent

the flow of life, from birth to death; flowers can symbolize youth or

beauty In the African literature, symbolism is the main feature as Dzobo

said," Symbols are sources of insights into African orientations to life."

(Dzobo, African Symbols and Proverbs as Sources of Knowledge, p.85)

Both flashback and foreshadowing are narrative techniques that

present story events out of temporal order Flashback describes some

past events related to the present; foreshadowing gives allusion

(possibly implicit) to some future events Flashback and foreshadowing

can be important tools for the author to communicate with the readers

for a dramatic effect They arouse emotions such as suspense, curiosity,

and surprise in narrative generation, contributing to the readers’ sense

of satisfaction

In literature, figures of speech occupy a very important place They

are techniques which consist of the use of words and phrases in the way

that they make the meaning more pointed and clearer and make the

language more vivid The most important figures of speech are simile,

metaphor, personification, metonymy, irony, etc In this study, the

researcher would focus on the use of irony reflected in the three novels

because irony highlights the theme of these novels as well as reveals

the authors’ attitude towards the society Irony is a figure of speech in

which words are used in such a way that their intended meaning is

different from the autual meaning of the words

To conclude, the use of symbolism, flashback, foreshadowing, and

figure of speech in Achebe, Armah and Dangarembga’s fictions would

be examined in order to highlight the beauty of the African way of life

Critical Approaches for Novel Analysis

Literary approaches include reading, interpretation and comments

of a specific form of literature Despite the fact that approaches can be

used separately, many critics combine approaches in analyzing literary

texts to suit their needs and purposes

In this study, three approaches in literary criticism are utilized to

guide the development of the research questions, the collection and

analysis of the data: Historical, Sociological, and Philosophical

Approaches

Historical Approach Historical approach is one of the most basic

approaches in analyzing literature According to historical approach,

literature is not only the product of authorial intention but also a product

of its historical, social and cultural circumstances Thus, the best

approach is to place literature in its historic context and examine what

contemporary issues the work of literature reflects Every historical

eventcan help readers understand a literary text For example, historical

critics might interpret Hamlet’s behavior by examining the Elizabethan

era’s realities about religion, power and the politics of the day Other

works may not be understood when readers lack historical background

A good example is the dramatic irony in Oedipus Rex can only be

realized when one knows the background of Oedipus in its ancient

historic contextbecause the author assumes that his readers would

have that historical background before reading Oedipus Rex

Webb (2001) expresses another benefit to historical criticism:”A

new historicist approach creates the possibility of making the study of traditional literature more contentious, controversial, and considerably more interesting” Webb insists on the value of engaging students in

thinking about classic authors in their historical context and putting

authors’ works in relation with contemporary culture and issues In other

words, one of the great values of examining the historic dimensions of

literature is the way it can ultimately lead the readers back to their own

time For example, as students engage in a political debate of the past,

they will sharpen their skill in engaging with political issues of today

Historical approach offers lots of good issues for readers such as:

necessity of using historical research to understand the works fully;

historical knowledge from analyzing different aspects of literary works

such as the history of its author’s time, the history about the time in

which the work is set; and the history of different eras

In summary, the historical approach marks the interest in the

influence of historical events of a period on writers and their works,

offering readers and students many possibilities for inquiries into

literature, history, and their intricate correlation Therefore, this study

aimed to show that there is a link between No Longer at Ease,

Fragments and Nervous Conditions and the actual historical

experiences of Africa For this, the researcher, firstly, attempted to study

the actual African society in the reality and in the novels to see how the

works of these authors are a representation of the historical reality of

traditional culture; and secondly, showed the specific historical events

embedded in the three novels

Sociological approach Sociological approach investigates the

relationships between the artist and society It explores the social

context of literary works in terms of culture, economy or politics For

example, a sociological view of Shakespeare might take economic

position of Elizabethan playwrights and actors into consideration, or it

might also look for the political ideas expressed in the plays

Sociological critics concentrates on the values of a society and how

those values are reflected in literary works in terms of economic,

political, and cultural issues as those issues are reflected in the societies

in which the works were produced Even though literary works do not

deal with social issues, they may have social issues as subthemes A

literary piece is not simply the work of an author, but it must be the work

of an author in certain time, space and environment Hence, literary

works are considered as social documents illustrating different

sociological conditions of a given period

An influential type of sociological approach is Marxist criticism,

which investigates the ideological content of literature Marxist criticism

evaluates literary works better than others on an ideological basis There

is always a danger in sociological criticism-Marxist or otherwise-of

imposing the critic’s personal politics on the work and then evaluating it

based on his own ideology However, as an analytical tool, Marxist

criticism and sociological methods can highlight political and economic

dimensions of literature that other approaches overlook

Based on the sociological approach, this study attempted to study

the elements of the African society including social, religious,

educational and political practices by referring to the actual situation of

the African and to the novels to see how the works of Achebe, Armah

and Dangarembga is a representation of the social reality of traditional

Africa

Philosophical approach Philosophical criticism can be defined as

a philosophical framework or an approach of constructing interpretation

by applying philosophical schools of thought (e.g., existentialism,

creationism), theories of a historic philosopher (e.g., Hume,

Kierkegaard), or even a specific theology (e.g., Buddhism, Christianity)

as prior knowledge for interpreting the text (Eckert, 2006)

Philosophical approach has many different ways to understand a

text Sometimes critics simply employ philosophical contexts to

understand a piece of literature For example, readers can understand

Voltaire’s Candide if they know something about Hindu and Buddhist

philosophies, and Albert Camus’ The Stranger if they know something

about existentialist philosophy

Another philosophical approach to literature is to use different

philosophical framework to help interpret a work The researcher might