Psychology applied to modern life adjustment in the 21st century, 11e chapter 12

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued • Key aspects of sexual identity – Sexual identity – refers to “the complex personal qualities, self-perceptions, attitudes, values and preferences t

Development and Expression

of Human Sexuality

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

• Key aspects of sexual identity

– Sexual identity – refers to “the complex personal qualities,

self-perceptions, attitudes, values and preferences that guide one’s sexual behavior”

Key aspects of sexual identity, continued

• Sexual identity includes four key features

1. Sexual orientation

– Heterosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members

of the other gender”

– Homosexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members

of same gender”

– Bisexuals “seek emotional-sexual relationships with members of

both genders”

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Key aspects of sexual identity, continued

Sexual identity’s four key features, continued

2. Body image

3. Sexual values and ethics

4. Erotic preferences

• Physiological influences

– Hormones and sexual differentiation

• During pregnancy, levels of androgens (the male hormone,

testosterone) cause differentiation of the genitals in the fetus

– High levels result in male genitals, and low levels result in female genitals

• At puberty, hormones (estrogens in females, androgens in males)

trigger maturation of sexual traits and organs

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Physiological influences, continued

– Hormones and sexual behavior

• Hormone levels affect sex drive in many animals

• In humans, for both men and women, androgens affect sexual

motivation

• Higher levels of testosterone in women are also linked with higher rates of sexual activity

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Psychosocial influences, continued

Psychosocial influences, continued

– Schools

• 90% of schools offer some form of sex education

• Most offer “abstinence only” education, which does not seem to deter teens from having sex

• In contrast, comprehensive programs are associated with increased use of contraception, reduced pregnancies, and reduced high-risk behaviors

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Psychosocial influences, continued

– Religion

• Religious teachings can dictate what is seen as sexually “natural”

• Data from three national surveys show the main message teens get

is “Don’t have sex until marriage”

• Data also show that “virginity pledges” are largely ineffective

Psychosocial influences, continued

– The media

• TV, films, books, magazines, and the Internet are all media sources that contain a large volume of sexual material – some extremely explicit

• Among 10- to 17-yr-olds, 25% were subjected to unwanted pornography

• However, some sources do provide valuable information on sexual topics Thus, it is crucial to be highly selective in what one views

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

• Gender differences in sexual socialization

– Five key differences

1. Men have more interest in sex

2. The connection between sex and intimacy is more important for women

3. Aggression is more often linked to sexuality for men

Gender differences in sexual socialization, continued

– Five key differences, continued

4. Women’s sexuality is more easily shaped by culture and situational

factors

5. Men more often take the lead, while women act as “gate keepers”

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Gender differences, continued

• Socialization may affect these differences by

– Encouraging males to experiment sexually, to initiate sex, and to enjoy sex without emotional connection

– Teaching girls to view sex in the context of a loving relationship

– Emphasizing negative associations girls have with sex: pain; guilt and shame; fear of pregnancy

Figure 12.4 Heterosexuality and homosexuality as endpoints on a continuum Kinsey and other sex researchers view heterosexuality and homosexuality as ends of a continuum

rather than as all-or-none distinctions Kinsey created this seven-point scale (from 0 to 6) for describing sexual orientation

Sexual orientation, continued

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Sexual orientation, continued

• Origins, continued

– There is also no evidence that sexual orientation is affected by the

orientation of a child’s parents

– Many gay men and women trace homosexual leanings to early childhood

– Thus, many theorists propose that sexual orientation is more likely

caused by biological factors.

Sexual orientation, continued

• Origins, continued

– One prominent biological explanation attributes homosexuality to prenatal exposure to sex hormones that alter the organization of the fetal brain

– Genetic factors are also potential contributors and are supported, in part,

by twin studies (see Figure 12.5)

– However, the fact is, it is still largely unknown which factors

determine sexual orientation.

Figure 12.5 Genetics and sexual orientation A concordance rate indicates the percentage of twin pairs or other pairs of relatives that exhibit the same characteristic If relatives who

share more genetic relatedness show higher concordance rates than relatives who share less genetic overlap, this evidence suggests a genetic predisposition to the characteristic Recent studies of both gay men and lesbian women have found higher concordance rates among identical twins than fraternal twins, who, in turn, exhibit more concordance than

adoptive siblings These findings are consistent with the hypothesis that genetic factors influence sexual orientation If only genetic factors were responsible for sexual orientation, the

identical twin concordance rates would push 100%; because they are much lower, environmental factors must also play a role (Data from Bailey & Pillard, 1991; Bailey et al., 1993)

Sexual orientation, continued

• Attitudes toward homosexuality

– Although much of the public is opposed to legalizing gay marriage, most are more accepting of other aspects of homosexuality (see Figure 12.6)

– However, some people do display homophobia, or “the intense fear and

intolerance of homosexuals”

Figure 12.6 Attitudes toward homosexuals Americans’ attitudes toward gays are highly variable, depending on the specific issue Women generally have more accepting attitudes

than men.

Sexual orientation, continued

– This type of sexual prejudice is associated with

• Being older

• Being male

• Lower education level

• Living in the South or Midwest, and in rural areas

• Having conservative religious and political beliefs

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Sexual orientation, continued

• Disclosing one’s sexual orientation

– Sexual identify development involves acknowledging, recognizing, and labeling one’s sexual orientation

– One must also conceptualize it in positive terms

– Recent generations are becoming aware of and are disclosing gay, lesbian, and bisexual identities earlier in life

Sexual orientation, continued

• In deciding to disclose, one must weigh the psychological benefits

– Falling victim to hate crimes

– Losing custody of children

Becoming a Sexual Person, continued

Sexual orientation, continued

• Motives for engaging in sex

1. Pursuing one’s own sexual pleasure

2. Feeling good about oneself

3. Pleasuring one’s partner

4. Promoting intimacy in the relationship

5. Expressing love for one’s partner

Interaction in Sexual Relationships, continued

• “Avoidance” motives: some have sex to avoid other problems, such as

1. Avoiding relationship conflict

2. Avoiding hurting a partner’s feelings

3. Preventing a partner’s anger

4. Preventing a partner from losing interest

• Communicating about sex

– Although it is important, people are often reluctant to talk about sex because

1. They are afraid of appearing ignorant

2. They are concerned about their partner’s response

3. They have conflicting attitudes about sex

4. They had early, negative, sexual experiences

Sexual Expression, continued

• People experience sexual pleasure in many ways

• Erogenous zones are “areas of the body that are sexually sensitive or responsive”.

• Even the mind can be an erogenous zone, as evidenced by the power of sexual

fantasies.

– Fantasizing about having sex with another partner is the most common

fantasy, but there are myriad other

Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued

• Sex outside of a committed relationship

– Hooking up – involves “two strangers or briefly acquainted people having a

single sexual encounter”

• The majority of college students have experienced this at least once

• Men are more comfortable with it than women, however (see Figure 12.13)

– Friends-with-benefits refers to friends who have sex, but are not romantically

involved

From Lambert, T A., Kahn, A S., Apple, K.J (2003) Pluralistic ignorance and hooking up The Journal of Sex Research, 40(2) 129-133 (Table 2 on p 132)

Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued

• Sex in committed relationships

– Sex between dating partners

• For men, sexual satisfaction is correlated with relationship stability

• For women, however, relationship satisfaction is a better predictor of

relationship stability

Sex in committed relationships, continued

Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued

Sex in committed relationships, continued

– Sex in homosexual relationships

• There are three patterns of sexual frequency:

1. There is a general decline in the frequency of sexual behavior over time

2. Early in the relationship, gay males engage in sex more frequently than do other couples

3. Lesbian couples have sex less often than other couples

• Infidelity in committed relationships

– In married couples, infidelity is termed “adultery” or “extramarital sex”, whereas

in unmarried, committed couples, it is referred to as “extradyadic sex”

– Most people view extramarital sex as wrong

– However, sometimes couples have consensual extramarital sex, as with “open marriages”, in which couples exchange partners or have sex with a third party

Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued

Infidelity, continued

– Prevalence

• Recent surveys suggest that approximately 25% of married men and about 10% of married women have had an extramarital affair

• One-third of cohabitating men and women have had extradyadic sex.

• Extradyadic sex is most common of all among committed gay male relationships, however

Infidelity, continued

– Motivations: Why are people unfaithful?

– Dissatisfaction with a relationship or anger toward a partner

– Boredom

– Need to confirm that one is still desirable

– Strong attraction to another person

– Men are usually motivated by sexual variety, while women seek an emotional connection

Patterns of Sexual Behavior, continued

Infidelity, continued

– Impact

• Approximately 20% of divorces are caused by infidelity

• In addition, people who engage in extramarital sex may experience

– Loss of self-respect

– Guilt

– Stress

– Complications from STDs

much higher than the ideal failure rate for all methods, because couples do not use contraceptive techniques consistently and correctly (Based on Carroll, 2007; Crooks & Baur, 2008; Hatcher et al., 2004)

Figure 12.17 Overview of common sexually transmitted disease (STDs) This chart summarizes the symptoms and modes of

transmission of nine STDs Note that intercourse is not required to transmit all STDs—many STDs can be contracted through oral- genital contact or other forms of physical intimacy (Adapted from Carroll, 2007; Crooks & Baur, 2008; Hatcher et al., 2004)

Sexually transmitted diseases, continued

• Prevalence and transmission

– Most infections occur in people under age 25 (25% of people contract an STD

Practical Issues, continued

STDs, continued

– Prevention points to remember

1. If not in a sexually exclusive relationship, always use latex condoms with spermicide

2. People can be carriers of STDs without knowing it and may not have any symptoms

3. The more sexual partners you have, the higher your risk of contracting an STD

Practical Issues, continued

STDs, continued

Prevention points, continued

4. Avoid sex with individuals who have had many previous partners

5. Don’t assume that labels people attach to themselves (e.g., heterosexual) accurately describe all of their sexual experiences

6. Any activity that exposes you to blood or bodily fluids is risky

STDs, continued

Prevention points, continued

7. Oral-genital sex may also transmit HIV

8. Wash your genitals before and after sexual contact

9. Urinate shortly after intercourse

10.Watch for sores, rashes, or discharge If you have cold sores, avoid

kissing and oral sex

Application: Enhancing Sexual Relationships, continued

• General suggestions

1. Pursue adequate sex education

2. Review your sexual values system

3. Communicate about sex

4. Avoid goal setting

5. Enjoy your sexual fantasies

6. Be selective about sex

• Understanding sexual dysfunction

– Sexual dysfunctions are “impairments in sexual functioning that cause

subjective distress” (see Figure 12.18)

– Common culprits can include

• Physical factors (illness, medication, alcohol and drugs)

• Psychological factors (excessive guilt or anxiety)

• Interpersonal factors (unresolved relationship issues)

Figure 12.18 Sexual dysfunction in normal couples This graph shows the prevalence of various sexual dysfunctions during a year in a probability sample of American men and

women The most common problems among men are premature ejaculation and anxiety about performance; in women, they are lack of interest in sex and orgasmic difficulties.

From Laumann, E O., Gagnon, J H., Michael, R T., & Michaels, S (1994) The social organization of sexuality: Sexual practices in the United States Chicago: University of

Chicago Press Copyright © 1994 by University of Chicago Press Reprinted by permission.

• Coping with specific problems

– Sex therapy – “involves the professional treatment of sexual dysfunctions”.

– Therapies may include medication or counseling on specific techniques from a qualified sex therapist