Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver

Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition John C. Kotz, Paul M. Treichel, Gabriela C. Weaver

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• Screen 1.5: Mixturesand Pure Substances

• Screen 1.12: ChemicalChanges

• Screen 2.6: Electrons

• Screen 2.8: Protons

• Screen 2.10: TheNucleus of the Atom

• Screen 2.16: ThePeriodic Table

• Screen 3.13: Alkanes

• Screen 3.19: HydratedCompounds

• Screen 4.3: The Law ofConservation of Mass

• Screen 4.5: WeightRelations in ChemicalReactions

• Screen 4.8: LimitingReactants

• Screen 1.10: Density

• Screen 1.15: Temperature

• Screen 1.16: The Metric System

• Screen 1.17: Using NumericalInformation

• Screen 2.11: Summary of AtomicComposition

• Screen 2.14: The Mole

• Screen 2.15: Moles and Molar Mass ofthe Elements

• Screen 3.5: Ions

• Screen 3.6: Polyatomic Ions

• Screen 3.10: Naming Ionic Compounds

• Screen 3.12: Binary Compounds of theNonmetals

• Screen 3.14: Compounds, Molecules,and the Mole

• Screen 3.15: Using Molar Mass

• Screen 3.16: Percent Composition

• Screen 3.17: Determining EmpiricalFormulas

• Screen 3.18: Determining MolecularFormulas

• Screen 3.19: Hydrated Compounds

• Screen 4.4: Balancing ChemicalEquations

• Screen 4.6: Calculations inStoichiometry

• Screen 4.9: Percent Yield

• 2.8: Mass Spectrometer

• 2.10: Some of the 113 Known Elements

• 3.1: Reaction of the ElementsAluminum and Bromine

• 3.4: Ways of Depicting the Methane(CH4) Molecule

• Screen 1.6: Separation ofMixtures

• Screen 1.7: Elements andAtoms

• Screen 1.13: Chemical Change

on the Molecular Scale

• Screen 3.8: Ionic Compounds

• Screen 3.13: Alkanes

• Screen 3.14: Compounds,Molecules, and the Mole

• Screen 4.5 Weight Relations inChemical Reactions

• Screen 4.7: ReactionsControlled by the Supply ofOne Reactant

• Screen 4.8: Limiting Reactants

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Media Integration Guide

• Screen 5.14: RecognizingOxidation–ReductionReactions

• Screen 5.16: PreparingSolutions of KnownConcentrations

• Screen 5.18:

Stoichiometry ofReactions in Solution

• Screen 6.3: Forms ofEnergy

• Screen 6.7: HeatCapacity of PureSubstances

• Screen 6.10: CalculatingHeat Transfer

• Screen 6.15: Hess’s Law

• Screen 6.17: Favored Systems

Product-• Screen 7.5: Planck’sEquation

• Screen 7.6: Atomic LineSpectrum

• Screen 7.13: Shapes ofAtomic Orbitals

• Screen 5.4: Solubility of IonicCompounds

• Screen 5.7: Net Ionic Equations

• Screen 5.11: Gas Forming Reactions

• Screen 5.13: Oxidation Numbers

• Screen 5.15: Solution Concentrations

• Screen 5.16: Preparing Solutions ofKnown Concentrations

• Screen 5.17: The pH Scale

• Screen 5.19: Titration

• Screen 6.5: Energy Units

• Screen 6.10: Calculating Heat Transfer

• Screen 6.13: Enthalpy Changes forChemical Reactions

• Screen 6.14: Measuring Heats ofReactions

• Screen 6.16: Standard Enthalpy ofFormation

• Screen 7.3: Electromagnetic Radiation

• Screen 7.6: Atomic Line Spectrum

• Screen 7.8: Wave Properties of theElectron

• Screen 7.12: Quantum Numbers andOrbitals

• 6.3: Energy and its Conversion

• 6.8: Exothermic and EndothermicProcesses

• 6.17: Constant Volume Calorimeter

• 6.18: Energy Level Diagrams

• 7.1: Electromagnetic Radiation

• 7.3: The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• 7.8: The Line Emission Spectrum ofHydrogen

• 7.10: H Atom in the Bohr Model

• Screen 5.11: Gas Forming Reactions

• Screen 6.4: Directionality of Heat Transfer

• Screen 6.7: Heat Capacity of PureSubstances

• Screen 6.10: Calculating Heat Transfer

• Screen 6.11: The First Law ofThermodynamics

• Screen 6.14: Measuring Heats ofReactions

• Screen 6.15: Hess’s Law

• Screen 7.4: Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Screen 7.5: Planck’s Equation

• Screen 7.6: Atomic Line Spectrum

• Screen 7.9: Heisenberg’s UncertaintyPrinciple

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• Screen 9.8: DrawingLewis Structures

• Screen 9.14:

Determining MolecularShape

• Screen 10.8: MolecularFluxionality

• Screen 10.9: MolecularOrbital Theory

• Screen 10.11:

Homonuclear DiatomicMolecules

• Screen 8.7: Atomic ElectronConfigurations

• Screen 8.8: Electron Configuration inIons

• Screen 9.7: Lewis Electron Dot Structures

• Screen 9.8: Drawing Lewis Structures

• Screen 9.9: Resonance Structures

• Screen 9.10: Exceptions to the Octet Rule

• Screen 9.13: Ideal Electron RepulsionShapes

• Screen 9.14: Determining MolecularShape

• Screen 10.5: Sigma Bonding

• Screen 10.6: Determining Hybrid Orbitals

• Screen 10.7: Multiple Bonding

• 10.13: Rotation Around Bonds

• 10.22: Molecular Orbital Energy LevelDiagram

• Screen 8.3: Spinning Electrons andMagnetism

• Screen 8.6: Effective Nuclear Charge, Z*

• Screen 8.7: Atomic ElectronConfigurations

• Screen 8.8: Electron Configuration in Ions

• Screen 8.9: Atomic Properties andPeriodic Trends

• Screen 8.10: Atomic Sizes

• Screen 8.11: Ionization Energy

• Screen 8.12: Electron Affinity

• Screen 8.14: Ion Size

• Screen 8.15: Chemical Reactions andPeriodic Properties

• Screen 9.2: Valence Electrons

• Screen 9.4: Lattice Energy

• Screen 9.5: Chemical Reactions andPeriodic Properties

• Screen 9.6: Chemical Bond Formation—Covalent Bonding

• Screen 9.13: Ideal Electron RepulsionShapes

• Screen 9.16: Formal Charge

• Screen 9.17: Bond Polarity andElectronegativity

• Screen 9.18: Molecular Polarity

• Screen 9.19: Bond Properties

• Screen 9.20: Bond Energy and 䉭Hrxn

• Screen 10.3: Valence Bond Theory

• Screen 10.4: Hybrid Orbitals

• Screen 10.10: Molecular OrbitalConfigurations

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• Screen 12.5: Gas Density

• Screen 12.12: Application ofthe Kinetic-MolecularTheory: Diffusion

• Screen 13.5: IntermolecularForces (3)

• Screen 13.17: Phase Changes

• Screen 14.2: Solubility

• Screen 14.5: FactorsAffecting Solubility (1)—

Henry’s Law and Gas Pressure

• Screens 14.7, 14.8:

Colligative Properties

• Screen: 15.4 ConcentrationDependence

• Screen: 15.5 Determination

of the Rate Equation (1)

• Screen 15.12: ReactionMechanisms

• Screen 15.13: ReactionMechanisms and RateEquations

• Screen 15.14: Catalysis andReaction Rate

• Screen 11.4: Hydrocarbons and AdditionReactions

• Screen 11.6: Functional Groups

• Screen 12.6: Using Gas Laws:

Determining Molar Mass

• Screen 12.7: Gas Laws and ChemicalReactions: Stoichiometry

• Screen 12.8: Gas Mixtures and PartialPressures

• Screen 13.5: Intermolecular Forces (3)

• Screen 13.9: Properties of Liquids

• Screens 14.5, 14.6: Factors AffectingSolubility

• Screens 14.7, 14.8, 14.9: ColligativeProperties

• Screen 15.4: Concentration Dependence

• Screen 15.5: Determination of the RateEquation (1)

• Screen 15.6: Concentration–TimeRelationships

• Screen 15.7: Determination of RateEquation (2)

• 13.39: Phase Diagram for Water

• 14.6: Solubility of Nonpolar Iodine inPolar Water and Nonpolar CarbonTetrachloride

• 14.9: Dissolving an Ionic Solid in Water

• 15.2: A Plot of Reactant ConcentrationVersus Time for the Decomposition of

• Screen 11.6: Functional Groups

• Screens 11.9, 11.10: Synthetic OrganicPolymers

• Screen 12.3: Gas Laws

• Screen 12.4: The Ideal Gas Law

• Screen 12.5: Gas Density

• Screen 12.9: The Kinetic-MolecularTheory of Gases: Gases on the MolecularScale

• Screen 12.10: Gas Laws and Molecular Theory

Kinetic-• Screen 12.11: Distribution of MolecularSpeeds: Maxwell-Boltzmann Curves

• Screen 12.12: Application of the Molecular Theory: Diffusion

Kinetic-• Screen 13.2: Phases of Matter

• Screens 13.3, 13.4, 13.5: IntermolecularForces

• Screen 13.6: Hydrogen Bonding

• Screen 13.7: The Weird Properties ofWater

• Screens 13.8, 13.9, 13.10, 13.11: Properties

of Liquids

• Screens 13.12, 13.13, 13.14, 13.15: SolidStructures

• Screens 13.17: Phase Changes

• Screen 14.3: The Solution Process:Intermolecular Forces

• Screen 14.4: Energetics of SolutionFormation—Dissolving IonicCompounds

• Screen 14.9: Colligative Properties

• Screen 15.2: Rates of Chemical Reactions

• Screens 15.3, 15.4, 15.10: Control ofReaction Rates

• Screen 15.4: Concentration Dependence

• Screen 15.5: Determination of the RateEquation (1)

• Screens 15.9, 15.10: Microscopic View ofReactions

• Screen 15.14: Catalysis and Reaction Rate

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• Screen 16.6: Writing Equilibrium Expressions

• Screen 16.8: Determining an Equilibrium Constant

• Screen 16.9: Systems at Equilibrium

• Screen 16.10: Estimating EquilibriumConcentrations

• Screens 16.12, 16.13: Disturbing a ChemicalEquilibrium

• Screen 17.2: BrØnsted Acids and Bases

• Screen 17.5: Strong Acids and Bases

• Screen 17.8: Determining Kaand KbValues

• Screen 17.9: Estimating the pH of Weak AcidSolutions

• Screen 17.11: Estimating the pH Following anAcid-Base Reaction

• Screen 17.13: Lewis Acids and Bases

• Screen 17.15: Neutral Lewis Acids

• Screen 18.3: Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.4: pH of Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.5: Preparing Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.6: Adding Reagents to a Buffer Solution

• Screen 18.7: Titration Curves

• Screen 18.12: Solubility Product Constant

• Screen 18.13: Determining Ksp, Experimentally

• Screen 18.14: Estimating Salt Solubility: Using Ksp

• Screen 18.15: Common Ion Effect

• Screen 18.16: Solubility and pH

• Screen 18.17: Can a Precipitation Reaction Occur?

• Screen 18.19: Complex Ion Formation andSolubility

• Screen 19.5: Calculating 䉭S for a Chemical

Reaction

• Screen 19.6: The Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Screen 19.7: Gibbs Free Energy

• Screen 19.8: Free Energy and Temperature

• Screen 19.9: Thermodynamics and the EquilibriumConstant

Chapter

• 16.3: The Reaction of H2and I2ReachesEquilibrium

• 16.9: ChangingConcentrations

• 17.2: pH and pOH

• 18.2: Buffer Solutions

• 18.5: The Change in pHDuring the Titration of aWeak Acid with a StrongBase

• 19.12: Spontaneity 䉭Gº

with Temperature

• 19.13: Free EnergyChanges as a ReactionApproaches Equilibrium

• Screen 16.2: The Principle of Microscopic Reversibility

• Screen 16.3: Equilibrium State

• Screen 16.4: Equilibrium Constant

• Screen 16.5: The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant

• Screen 16.6: Writing Equilibrium Expressions

• Screen 16.9: Systems at Equilibrium

• Screens 16.11, 16.13, 16.14: Disturbing a ChemicalEquilibrium

• Screen 17.3: The Acid–Base Properties of Water

• Screen 17.6: Weak Acids and Bases

• Screen 17.7: Acid–Base Reactions

• Screen 17.12: Acid–Base Properties of Salts

• Screen 17.14: Cationic Lewis Acids

• Screen 17.16: Molecular Interpretation of Acid–BaseBehavior

• Screen 18.3: Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.4: pH of Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.5: Preparing Buffer Solutions

• Screen 18.7: Titration Curves

• Screen 18.8: Titration of a Weak Polyprotic Acid

• Screen 18.9: Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid

• Screen 18.10: Acid-Base Indicators

• Screen 18.11: Precipitation Reactions

• Screen 18.12: Solubility Product Constant

• Screen 18.16: Solubility and pH

• Screen 18.17: Can a Precipitation Reaction Occur?

• Screen 18.18: Simultaneous Equilibria

• Screen 18.20: Using Solubility

• Screen 19.2: Reaction Spontaneity

• Screen 19.3: Directionality of Reactions

• Screen 19.4: Entropy: Matter Dispersal and Disorder

• Screen 19.6: The Second Law of Thermodynamics

• Screen 19.8: Free Energy and Temperature

• Screen 19.9: Thermodynamics and the EquilibriumConstant

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• Screen 21.6: Silicon-OxygenCompounds: Formulas andStructures

• Screen 21.8: SulfurAllotropes

• Screen 21.9: Structures ofSulfur Compounds

• Screen 22.2: Formulas andOxidation Numbers inTransition Metal Complexes

• Screen 22.5: Geometry ofCoordination Compounds

• Screen 22.6: GeometricIsomerism in CoordinationCompounds

• Screen 23.5: Kinetics ofNuclear Decay

• Screen 20.6: Standard Potentials

• Screen 20.8: Cells at NonstandardConditions

• Screen 20.12: Coulometry: CountingElectrons

• Screen 21.2: Formation of IonicCompounds by Main Group Elements

• Screen 23.2: Radioactive Decay

• Screen 23.3: Balancing Nuclear ReactionEquations

• Screen 23.4: Stability of Atomic Nuclei

• Screen 23.5: Kinetics of Nuclear Decay

Chapter

• 20.13: A Voltaic Cell Using Zn0Zn2+(aq,1.0 M) and H20H+(aq, 1.0 M) Half-Cells

• 21.15: Industrial Production ofAluminum

• 21.22: Compounds and OxidationNumbers for Nitrogen

• 21.32: A Membrane Cell for theProduction of NaOH and Cl2Gas from aSaturated, Aqueous Solution of NaCl(Brine)

• Screen 20.6: Standard Potentials

• Screen 20.11: Electrolysis: ChemicalChange from Electrical Energy

• Screen 21.7: Electronic Structure inTransition Metal Complexes

• Screen 21.8: Spectroscopy of TransitionMetal Complexes

• Screen 22.3: Periodic Trends forTransition Elements

• Screen 23.4: Stability of Atomic Nuclei

• Screen 23.6: Nuclear Fission

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& CHEMICAL REACTIVITY

S I X T H E D I T I O N

John C Kotz

SUNY Distinguished Teaching Professor

State University of New York

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Library of Congress Control Number:2004109955

Student Edition: ISBN 0-534-99766-X

Volume 1: ISBN 0-495-01013-8

Volume 2: ISBN 0-495-01014-6

Two-volume set: ISBN 0-534-40800-1

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About the Cover

What lies beneath the Earth’s surface? The mantle of the Earthconsists largely of silicon-oxygen based minerals But about 2900 kmbelow the surface the solid silicate rock of the mantle gives way tothe liquid iron alloy core of the planet To explore the nature of therocks at the core-mantle boundary, scientists in Japan examinedmagnesium silicate (MgSiO3) at a high pressure (125 gigapascals)and high temperature (2500 K) The cover image is what they saw.The solid consists of SiO6octahedra (blue) and magnesium ions(Mg2+; yellow spheres) Each SiO6octahedron shares the four Oatoms in opposite edges with two neighboring octahedra, thus form-ing a chain of octahedra These chains are interlinked by sharing the

O atoms at the “top” and “bottom” of SiO6octahedra in neighboringchains The magnesium ions lie between the layers of interlinkedSiO6chains For more information see M Murakami, K Hirose,

K Kawamura, N Sata, and Y Ohishi, Science, Volume 304, page 855,

May 7, 2004

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The Basic Tools of Chemistry

1 Matter and Measurement 10

2 Atoms and Elements 58

3 Molecules, Ions, and Their Compounds 96

4 Chemical Equations and Stoichiometry 140

5 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 174

6 Principles of Reactivity: Energy and Chemical

10 Bonding and Molecular Structure: Orbital Hybridization

and Molecular Orbitals 436

11 Carbon: More than Just Another Element 474

INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry 530

Part 3

States of Matter

12 Gases and Their Properties 546

13 Intermolecular Forces, Liquids, and Solids 588

INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of Modern Materials 642

14 Solutions and Their Behavior 656

Part 4

The Control of Chemical Reactions

15 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Kinetics 698

16 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical Equilibria 756

17 Principles of Reactivity: Chemistry of Acids

and Bases 796

18 Principles of Reactivity: Other Aspects of Aqueous Equilibria 848

19 Principles of Reactivity: Entropy and Free Energy 902

20 Principles of Reactivity: Electron Transfer Reactions 942 INTERCHAPTER: The Chemistry of the Environment 998

Part 5 The Chemistry of the Elements

21 The Chemistry of the Main Group Elements 1012

22 The Chemistry of the Transition Elements 1068

23 Nuclear Chemistry 1108

Appendices

A Using Logarithms and the Quadratic Equation A-2

B Some Important Physical Concepts A-7

C Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors A-10

D Physical Constants A-14

E Naming Organic Compounds A-16

F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Afﬁnities

of the Elements A-19

G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-20

H Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25 °C A-21

I Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25 °C A-23

J Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 °C A-24

K Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution A-26

L Selected Thermodynamic Values A-27

M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution

at 25 °C A-33

N Answers to Exercises A-36

O Answers to Selected Study Questions A-56

P Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions A-107

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This text is available in these student versions:

• Complete text ISBN 0-534-99766-X • Volume 1 (Chapters 1–12) ISBN 0-495-01013-8

• Volume 2 (Chapters 12–23) ISBN 0-495-01014-6 • Two-volume set ISBN 0-534-40800-1

Charles D Winters Charles D Winters

1.8 Mathematics of Chemistry 35 Exponential or Scientiﬁc Notation 35 Signiﬁcant Figures 38

Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis 41 Graphing 43

Problem Solving and Chemical Arithmetic 44

Chapter Goals Revisited 46 Key Equations 47

Study Questions 48

Stardust 58 2.1 Protons, Electrons, and Neutrons: Development of Atomic Structure 60

Electricity 60Radioactivity 60Cathode-Ray Tubes and the Characterization

of Electrons 61 Protons 64Neutrons 64

Historical Perspectives: Uncovering Atomic Structure 65

The Nucleus of the Atom 65

2.2 Atomic Number and Atomic Mass 67

Atomic Number 67Relative Atomic Mass and the Atomic Mass Unit 67Mass Number 67

2.3 Isotopes 69

Isotope Abundance 69Determining Atomic Mass and Isotope Abundance 70

A Closer Look: Atomic Mass and the Mass Defect 71

2.4 Atomic Weight 72 2.5 Atoms and the Mole 73

Historical Perspectives: Amedeo Avogadro and His Number 74

Molar Mass 74

Preface xxiii

A Preface to Students 2

Part 1

The Basic Tools of Chemistry

How Hot Is It? 10

1.1 Classifying Matter 12

States of Matter and Kinetic-Molecular Theory 13

Matter at the Macroscopic and Particulate Levels 14

Pure Substances 14

Mixtures: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous 15

1.2 Elements and Atoms 17

1.3 Compounds and Molecules 18

1.4 Physical Properties 20

Density 20

Temperature Dependence of Physical Properties 22

Extensive and Intensive Properties 23

1.5 Physical and Chemical Changes 23

A Closer Look: Standard Deviation 33

Contents

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2.6 The Periodic Table 77

Features of the Periodic Table 77

Developing the Periodic Table 80

Historical Perspectives: Periodic Table 81

2.7 An Overview of the Elements, Their Chemistry, and the

Periodic Table 82

Group 1A, Alkali Metals: Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr 82

Group 2A, Alkaline Earth Metals: Be, Mg, Ca,

Sr, Ba, Ra 82

Group 3A: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl 82

Group 4A: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb 83

Group 5A: N, P, As, Sb, Bi 85

Group 6A: O, S, Se, Te, Po 85

Group 7A, Halogens: F, Cl, Br, I, At 86

Group 8A, Noble Gases: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn 86

The Transition Elements 87

2.8 Essential Elements 88

Chapter Goals Revisited 89

Key Equations 89

DNA: The Most Important Molecule 96

3.1 Molecules, Compounds, and Formulas 98

Names of Ionic Compounds 111

Properties of Ionic Compounds 111

3.4 Molecular Compounds: Formulas, Names, and Properties 114

3.5 Formulas, Compounds, and the Mole 116 3.6 Describing Compound Formulas 119

Percent Composition 119Empirical and Molecular Formulas from PercentComposition 121

A Closer Look: Mass Spectrometry, Molar Mass, and Isotopes 127

3.7 Hydrated Compounds 128 Chapter Goals Revisited 130 Key Equations 131

Black Smokers and the Origin of Life 140 4.1 Chemical Equations 142

Historical Perspectives: Antoine Laurent Lavoisier (1743–1794) 143

4.2 Balancing Chemical Equations 145 4.3 Mass Relationships in Chemical Reactions:

Stoichiometry 148 4.4 Reactions in Which One Reactant Is Present

in Limited Supply 152

A Stoichiometry Calculation with a Limiting Reactant 153

4.5 Percent Yield 157 4.6 Chemical Equations and Chemical Analysis 158

Quantitative Analysis of a Mixture 158Determining the Formula of a Compound

Ions in Aqueous Solution: Electrolytes 176Types of Electrolytes 177

Solubility of Ionic Compounds in Water 179

5.2 Precipitation Reactions 181

Net Ionic Equations 183

5.3 Acids and Bases 185

Acids 185

Chemical Perspectives: Sulfuric Acid 187

A Closer Look: The H + Ion in Water 188

page 82

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Temperature and Heat 237Systems and Surroundings 238Directionality of Heat Transfer: Thermal Equilibrium 238

A Closer Look: Why Doesn’t the Heat in a Room Cause Your Cup of Coffee to Boil? 239

Energy Units 240

Chemical Perspectives: Food and Calories 241

6.2 Speciﬁc Heat Capacity and Heat Transfer 241

A Closer Look: Sign Conventions 243

Quantitative Aspects of Heat Transfer 244

6.3 Energy and Changes of State 246 6.4 The First Law of Thermodynamics 250

Historical Perspectives: Work, Heat, Cannons, Soup, and Beer 251

A Closer Look: P-V Work 252

Enthalpy 253State Functions 254

6.5 Enthalpy Changes for Chemical Reactions 254 6.6 Calorimetry 257

Constant Pressure Calorimetry: Measuring ΔH 257Constant Volume Calorimetry: Measuring ΔE 259

6.7 Hess’s Law 261

Energy Level Diagrams 262

6.8 Standard Enthalpies of Formation 265

Enthalpy Change for a Reaction 267

A Closer Look: Hess’s Law and Equation 6.6 268

6.9 Product- or Reactant-Favored Reactions and Thermochemistry 269

Fossil Fuels 284

Coal 285Natural Gas 286Petroleum 286Other Fossil Fuel Sources 287

Energy in the Future: Choices and Alternatives 288

Fuel Cells 288

A Hydrogen Economy 289Biosources of Energy 291Solar Energy 292

Bases 188

Oxides of Nonmetals and Metals 189

Chemical Perspectives: Limelight and Metal Oxides 190

5.4 Reactions of Acids and Bases 191

5.5 Gas-Forming Reactions 194

5.6 Classifying Reactions in Aqueous Solution 195

A Summary of Common Reaction Types

A Closer Look: Are Oxidation Numbers “Real”? 201

Recognizing Oxidation–Reduction Reactions 202

5.8 Measuring Concentrations of Compounds

in Solution 205

Solution Concentration: Molarity 205

Preparing Solutions of Known Concentration 209

5.9 pH, a Concentration Scale for Acids and Bases 212

5.10 Stoichiometry of Reactions in Aqueous Solution 214

General Solution Stoichiometry 214

Titration: A Method of Chemical Analysis 216

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What Does the Future Hold for Energy? 292

The Visible Spectrum of Light 299

7.2 Planck, Einstein, Energy, and Photons 300

Planck’s Equation 300

Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect 302

Energy and Chemistry: Using Planck’s Equation 304

Chemical Perspectives: UV Radiation, Skin Damage,

and Sunscreens 305

7.3 Atomic Line Spectra and Niels Bohr 305

Atomic Line Spectra 305

The Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 307

The Bohr Theory and the Spectra

of Excited Atoms 309

A Closer Look: Experimental Evidence for Bohr’s Theory 313

7.4 The Wave Properties of the Electron 313

7.5 Quantum Mechanical View of the Atom 314

Historical Perspectives: 20th-Century Giants

of Science 315

The Uncertainty Principle 315

Schrödinger’s Model of the Hydrogen Atom and Wave

Functions 316

Quantum Numbers 316

Useful Information from Quantum Numbers 318

7.6 The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals 320

s Orbitals 320

p Orbitals 321

d Orbitals 323

f Orbitals 323

7.7 Atomic Orbitals and Chemistry 323

A Closer Look: Paramagnetism and Ferromagnetism 336 Chemical Perspectives: Quantized Spins and MRI 337

8.2 The Pauli Exclusion Principle 338 8.3 Atomic Subshell Energies and Electron Assignments 339

Order of Subshell Energies and Assignments 339Effective Nuclear Charge, Z* 341

8.4 Atomic Electron Conﬁgurations 343

Electron Conﬁgurations of the Main GroupElements 343

Electron Conﬁgurations of the Transition Elements 349

8.5 Electron Conﬁgurations of Ions 351 8.6 Atomic Properties and Periodic Trends 353

Atomic Size 353Ionization Energy 357Electron Afﬁnity 359Ion Sizes 361

8.7 Periodic Trends and Chemical Properties 363 Chapter Goals Revisited 365

Molecules in Space 372 9.1 Valence Electrons 374

Lewis Symbols for Atoms 375

9.2 Chemical Bond Formation 376 9.3 Bonding in Ionic Compounds 377

Ion Attraction and Lattice Energy 378Why Don’t Compounds Such as NaCl2andNaNe Exist? 381

9.4 Covalent Bonding and Lewis Structures 382

Lewis Electron Dot Structures 382The Octet Rule 383

Predicting Lewis Structures 386

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10.2 Valence Bond Theory 439

Orbital Overlap Model of Bonding 439Hybridization of Atomic Orbitals 441Multiple Bonds 450

Cis-Trans Isomerism: A Consequence of

Bonding 454Benzene: A Special Case of Bonding 455

10.3 Molecular Orbital Theory 457

Principles of Molecular Orbital Theory 457Bond Order 459

Molecular Orbitals of Li2and Be2 460

Molecular Orbitals from Atomic p Orbitals 461Electron Conﬁgurations for Homonuclear Molecules forBoron Through Fluorine 462

A Closer Look: Molecular Orbitals for Compounds Formed from p-Block Elements 464

Electron Conﬁgurations for Heteronuclear DiatomicMolecules 465

Resonance and MO Theory 465

A Colorful Beginning 474 11.1 Why Carbon? 476

Structural Diversity 476Isomers 477

A Closer Look: Writing Formulas and Drawing Structures 478

A Closer Look: Optical Isomers and Chirality 480

Stability of Carbon Compounds 480

11.2 Hydrocarbons 481

Alkanes 481

A Closer Look: Flexible Molecules 487

Alkenes and Alkynes 487Aromatic Compounds 492

A Closer Look: Petroleum Chemistry 495

9.6 Exceptions to the Octet Rule 392

Compounds in Which an Atom Has Fewer Than Eight

Central Atoms with Single-Bond Pairs

and Lone Pairs 399

Central Atoms with More Than Four Valence Electron

Pairs 401

Multiple Bonds and Molecular Geometry 403

9.8 Charge Distribution in Covalent Bonds

and Molecules 405

Formal Charges on Atoms 405

A Closer Look: Formal Charge and Oxidation

Number 407

Bond Polarity and Electronegativity 408

A Closer Look: Electronegativity 410

Combining Formal Charge and Bond Polarity 411

9.9 Molecular Polarity 413

Historical Perspectives: Developing Concepts of Bonding

and Structure 415

Chemical Perspectives: Cooking with Microwaves 416

9.10 Bond Properties: Order, Length, and Energy 419

page 339

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11.3 Alcohols, Ethers, and Amines 496

Alcohols and Ethers 497

Properties of Alcohols and Ethers 499

Amines 500

11.4 Compounds with a Carbonyl Group 502

Aldehydes and Ketones 503

Carboxylic Acids 504

A Closer Look: Glucose and Sugars 506

Chemical Perspectives: Aspirin Is More Than

Chemical Perspectives: Super Diapers 520

INTERCHAPTER

Proteins 531

Amino Acids Are the Building Blocks of Proteins 531

Protein Structure and Hemoglobin 533

Sickle Cell Anemia 533

Enzymes, Active Sites, and Lysozyme 535

Energy and ATP 541

Chemical Perspectives: AIDS and Reverse Transcriptase 542

Oxidation–Reduction and NADH 543

Respiration and Photosynthesis 543

Up, Up, and Away! 546

12.1 The Properties of Gases 548

Gas Pressure 548

A Closer Look: Measuring Gas Pressure 550

12.2 Gas Laws: The Experimental Basis 550

The Compressibility of Gases: Boyle’s Law 550The Effect of Temperature on Gas Volume:

Charles’s Law 552Combining Boyle’s and Charles’s Laws:

The General Gas Law 554Avogadro’s Hypothesis 556

12.3 The Ideal Gas Law 557

The Density of Gases 559

Calculating the Molar Mass of a Gas from P, V, and T

Data 560

12.4 Gas Laws and Chemical Reactions 561 12.5 Gas Mixtures and Partial Pressures 564

Historical Perspectives: Studies on Gases 567

12.6 The Kinetic-Molecular Theory of Gases 567

Molecular Speed and Kinetic Energy 567Kinetic-Molecular Theory and the Gas Laws 570

12.7 Diffusion and Effusion 571 12.8 Some Applications of the Gas Laws and Kinetic-Molecular Theory 573

Separating Isotopes 573Deep Sea Diving 574

12.9 Nonideal Behavior: Real Gases 575

Chemical Perspectives: The Earth’s Atmosphere 577

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Fired Ceramics for Special Purposes: Cements, Clays,and Refractories 651

Modern Ceramics with Exceptional Properties 652

Biomaterials: Learning from Nature 653 The Future of Materials 654

Suggested Readings 655 Study Questions 655

The Killer Lakes of Cameroon 656 14.1 Units of Concentration 659 14.2 The Solution Process 662

Liquids Dissolving in Liquids 662

A Closer Look: Supersaturated Solutions 663

Solids Dissolving in Water 664Heat of Solution 666

14.3 Factors Affecting Solubility: Pressure and Temperature 669

Dissolving Gases in Liquids: Henry’s Law 669

Colligative Properties of Solutions Containing Ions 679

Osmosis 681

A Closer Look: Reverse Osmosis in Tampa Bay 685

14.5 Colloids 686

Types of Colloids 687Surfactants 688

A Closer Look: Hydrated Salts 595

Interactions Involving Nonpolar Molecules 596

Critical Temperature and Pressure 613

Surface Tension, Capillary Action, and Viscosity 614

13.6 The Solid State: Metals 616

Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 617

A Closer Look: Packing Oranges 621

13.7 The Solid State: Structures and Formulas

13.9 The Physical Properties of Solids 627

Melting: Conversion of Solid to Liquid 627

Sublimation: Conversion of Solid to Vapor 628

Bonding in Semiconductors: The Band Gap 646

Applications of Semiconductors: Diodes, LEDs,

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Faster and Faster 698

15.1 Rates of Chemical Reactions 700

15.2 Reaction Conditions and Rate 704

15.3 Effect of Concentration on Reaction Rate 706

Rate Equations 707

The Order of a Reaction 707

The Rate Constant, k 709

Determining a Rate Equation 709

15.4 Concentration—Time Relationships: Integrated

Rate Laws 712

First-Order Reactions 713

Second-Order Reactions 715

Zero-Order Reactions 716

Graphical Methods for Determining Reaction Order

and the Rate Constant 716

Half-Life and First-Order Reactions 719

15.5 A Microscopic View of Reaction Rates 722

Concentration, Reaction Rate, and Collision

Theory 722

Temperature, Reaction Rate, and Activation

Energy 723

A Closer Look: Reaction Coordinate Diagrams 726

Effect of Molecular Orientation on Reaction Rate 726

The Arrhenius Equation 727

Effect of Catalysts on Reaction Rate 729

A Closer Look: Enzymes: Nature’s Catalysts 732

15.6 Reaction Mechanisms 732

Molecularity of Elementary Steps 733

Rate Equations for Elementary Steps 734

Molecularity and Reaction Order 734

Reaction Mechanisms and Rate Equations 736

Key Equations 743

16 Principles of Reactivity: Chemical

Fertilizer and Poison Gas 756

16.1 The Nature of the Equilibrium State 758

16.2 The Equilibrium Constant and Reaction Quotient 760

Writing Equilibrium Constant Expressions 763

A Closer Look: Equilibrium Constant Expressions for Gases–K c

and K p 764

The Meaning of the Equilibrium Constant, K 765

The Reaction Quotient, Q 767

16.3 Determining an Equilibrium Constant 770 16.4 Using Equilibrium Constants in Calculations 772

Calculations Where the Solution Involves a QuadraticExpression 774

16.5 More About Balanced Equations and Equilibrium Constants 777

16.6 Disturbing a Chemical Equilibrium 781

Effect of Temperature Changes on EquilibriumComposition 781

Effect of the Addition or Removal of a Reactant

or Product 783Effect of Volume Changes on Gas-Phase Equilibria 785

16.7 Applying the Principles of Chemical Equilibrium 787

The Haber-Bosch Process 787

17 Principles of Reactivity: The Chemistry

Nature’s Acids 796 17.1 Acids, Bases, and the Equilibrium Concept 798 17.2 The Brønsted-Lowry Concept of Acids and Bases 799

Conjugate Acid–Base Pairs 802

17.3 Water and the pH Scale 802

Water Autoionization and the Water Ionization

Constant, Kw 803The pH Scale 805Determining and Calculating pH 806

17.4 Equilibrium Constants for Acids and Bases 806

Aqueous Solutions of Salts 810

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18 Principles of Reactivity: Other Aspects

Current Perspectives: Buffers in Biochemistry 862

Titration of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 862Titration of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 864Titration of Weak Polyprotic Acids 867

Titration of a Weak Base with a Strong Acid 868

pH Indicators 870

18.4 Solubility of Salts 873

The Solubility Product Constant, Ksp 873

Relating Solubility and Ksp 875

A Closer Look: Solubility Calculations 877

Solubility and the Common Ion Effect 879The Effect of Basic Anions on Salt Solubility 882

18.5 Precipitation Reactions 884

Kspand the Reaction Quotient, Q 884

Ksp, the Reaction Quotient, and Precipitation Reactions 885

18.6 Solubility and Complex Ions 887 18.7 Solubility, Ion Separations, and Qualitative Analysis 890

19 Principles of Reactivity: Entropy

Perpetual Motion Machines 902 19.1 Spontaneous Change and Equilibrium 904 19.2 Heat and Spontaneity 904

19.3 Dispersal of Energy and Matter 906

Dispersal of Energy 906Dispersal of Matter 907Applications of the Dispersal of Matter 909The Boltzmann Equation for Entropy 911

A Summary: Matter and Energy Dispersal 911

19.4 Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics 912

A Closer Look: Reversible and Irreversible Processes 914

Entropy Changes in Physical and Chemical Processes 915

A Logarithmic Scale of Relative Acid Strength, pKa 812

Relating the Ionization Constants for an Acid and Its

Conjugate Base 813

17.5 Equilibrium Constants and Acid–Base Reactions 814

Predicting the Direction of Acid–Base Reactions 814

17.6 Types of Acid–Base Reactions 816

The Reaction of a Strong Acid with a Strong Base 816

The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Strong Base 817

The Reaction of Strong Acid with a Weak Base 817

The Reaction of a Weak Acid with a Weak Base 818

17.7 Calculations with Equilibrium Constants 818

Determining K from Initial Concentrations and

17.8 Polyprotic Acids and Bases 826

17.9 The Lewis Concept of Acids and Bases 828

Cationic Lewis Acids 829

Molecular Lewis Acids 830

17.10 Molecular Structure, Bonding, and Acid–Base

Why Are Carboxylic Acids Brønsted Acids? 835

Why Are Hydrated Metal Cations Brønsted Acids? 836

Why Are Anions Brønsted Bases? 836

Why Are Organic Amines Brønsted

and Lewis Bases? 836

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19.5 Entropy Changes and Spontaneity 917

Calculating ¢S°sys, the Entropy Change

for the System 918

Calculating ¢S°surr, the Entropy Change for the

Surroundings 918

Calculating ¢S°univ, the Total Entropy Change for the

System and Surroundings 918

In Summary: Spontaneous or Not? 919

19.6 Gibbs Free Energy 921

ΔG° and Spontaneity 922

What Is “Free” Energy? 922

CalculatingΔG°rxn, the Free Energy Change

for a Reaction 923

Standard Free Energy of Formation 924

Free Energy and Temperature 925

19.7 ΔG°, K, and Product Favorablility 928

Free Energy, the Reaction Quotient, and the

Equilibrium Constant 929

Using the Relationship Between ΔG°rxnand K 930

19.8 Thermodynamics, Time, and Life 931

Chemical Perspectives: Thermodynamics and Speculation on

the Origin of Life 932

Balancing Oxidation–Reduction Equations 946

20.2 Simple Voltaic Cells 952

Voltaic Cells with Inert Electrodes 955

Electrochemical Cell Conventions 956

Chemical Perspectives: Frogs and Voltaic Piles 957

20.3 Commercial Voltaic Cells 957

Primary Batteries: Dry Cells and Alkaline

Batteries 958

Secondary or Rechargeable Batteries 959

Fuel Cells 960

Chemical Perspectives: Your Next Car? 962

20.4 Standard Electrochemical Potentials 962

Electromotive Force 963

Measuring Standard Potentials 963

A Closer Look: EMF, Cell Potential, and Voltage 965

Standard Reduction Potentials 965

Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials 967

Using Tables of Standard Reduction Potentials 969

Chemical Perspectives: An Electrochemical

Toothache! 973

20.5 Electrochemical Cells Under Nonstandard Conditions 974

The Nernst Equation 975

20.6 Electrochemistry and Thermodynamics 978

Work and Free Energy 978

E° and the Equilibrium Constant 979

Historical Perspectives: Electrochemistry and Michael Faraday 981

20.7 Electrolysis: Chemical Change Using Electrical Energy 981

Electrolysis of Molten Salts 982Electrolysis of Aqueous Solutions 983

20.8 Counting Electrons 986 Chapter Goals Revisited 989 Key Equations 990

INTERCHAPTER

The Chemistry of the Environment 998

Water, Water, Everywhere 999

Removing Suspended Particles from Water 1000Hard Water 1001

Filtration 1003Disinfection of Water 1003

Air: Now You See It, Now You Don’t 1004

Composition of the Atmosphere 1004Particulates 1004

The PM Index 1005Particulates and Visibility 1005Particulate Air Pollution 1006

Green Chemistry 1007

DDT: Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane 1007CFCs: Chloroﬂuorocarbons 1008

Regulating Pollutants 1010Reducing Pollutants through Green Chemistry 1010

For More Information 1011 Study Questions 1011

Part 5 The Chemistry of the Elements

Sulfur Chemistry and Life on the Edge 1012 21.1 Element Abundances 1014

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Silicates with Sheet Structures and Aluminosilicates 1041Silicone Polymers 1042

Chemical Perspectives: Lead Pollution, Old and New 1043

21.8 Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and the Group 5A Elements 1043

Properties of Nitrogen and Phosphorus 1044

A Closer Look: Making Phosphorus 1045

Nitrogen Compounds 1045Hydrogen Compounds of Phosphorus and Other Group5A Elements 1048

Phosphorus Oxides and Sulﬁdes 1048Phosphorus Oxoacids and Their Salts 1050

21.9 Oxygen, Sulfur, and the Group 6A Elements 1052

Preparation and Properties of the Elements 1052Sulfur Compounds 1054

21.10 The Halogens, Group 7A 1055

Preparation of the Elements 1055Fluorine Compounds 1058Chlorine Compounds 1059

Chapter Goals Revisited 1061 Study Questions 1061

22 The Chemistry of the Transition

Memory Metal 1068 22.1 Properties of the Transition Elements 1070

Electron Conﬁgurations 1072Oxidation and Reduction 1072

Chemical Perspectives: Corrosion of Iron 1074

Periodic Trends in the d-Block: Size, Density, Melting

A Closer Look: Hemoglobin 1084

Naming Coordination Compounds 1086

22.4 Structures of Coordination Compounds 1087

Common Coordination Geometries 1087Isomerism 1088

22.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 1092

The d Orbitals: Ligand Field Theory 1092Electron Conﬁgurations and Magnetic Properties 1094

21.2 The Periodic Table: A Guide to the Elements 1015

Valence Electrons 1015

Ionic Compounds of Main Group Elements 1015

Molecular Compounds of Main Group Elements 1017

21.3 Hydrogen 1019

Chemical and Physical Properties of Hydrogen 1019

A Closer Look: Hydrogen, Helium, and Balloons 1020

Preparation of Hydrogen 1021

21.4 The Alkali Metals, Group 1A 1022

Preparation of Sodium and Potassium 1023

Properties of Sodium and Potassium 1024

A Closer Look: The Reducing Ability

of the Alkali Metals 1025

Important Lithium, Sodium, and Potassium

Compounds 1025

21.5 The Alkaline Earth Elements, Group 2A 1027

Properties of Calcium and Magnesium 1028

Metallurgy of Magnesium 1028

Calcium Minerals and Their Applications 1029

Chemical Perspectives: Alkaline Earth Metals

and Biology 1030

Chemical Perspectives: Of Romans, Limestone, and

Champagne 1031

21.6 Boron, Aluminum, and the Group 3A Elements 1032

The General Chemistry of the Group 3A

Elements 1032

Boron Minerals and Production of the Element 1032

Metallic Aluminum and Its Production 1033

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22.6 Colors of Coordination Compounds 1097

Color 1097

The Spectrochemical Series 1098

A Closer Look: A Spectrophotometer 1100

Nuclear Medicine 1108

23.1 Natural Radioactivity 1110

23.2 Nuclear Reactions and Radioactive Decay 1111

Equations for Nuclear Reactions 1111

Radioactive Decay Series 1113

Other Types of Radioactive Decay 1115

23.3 Stability of Atomic Nuclei 1116

The Band of Stability and Radioactive Decay 1117

Nuclear Binding Energy 1119

23.4 Rates of Nuclear Decay 1122

Half-Life 1122

Kinetics of Nuclear Decay 1123

Radiocarbon Dating 1125

23.5 Artiﬁcial Nuclear Reactions 1127

A Closer Look: The Search for New Elements 1129

23.6 Nuclear Fission 1130

23.7 Nuclear Fusion 1132

23.8 Radiation Health and Safety 1132

Units for Measuring Radiation 1132

Radiation: Doses and Effects 1133

A Closer Look: What Is a Safe Exposure? 1134

23.9 Applications of Nuclear Chemistry 1135

Nuclear Medicine: Medical Imaging 1135

Nuclear Medicine: Radiation Therapy 1136

Analytical Methods: The Use of Radioactive Isotopes

as Tracers 1136

A Closer Look: Technetium-99m 1137

Analytical Methods: Isotope Dilution 1137Space Science: Neutron Activation Analysis and theMoon Rocks 1138

Food Science: Food Irradiation 1138

A Using Logarithms and the Quadratic Equation A-2

B Some Important Physical Concepts A-7

C Abbreviations and Useful Conversion Factors A-10

D Physical Constants A-14

E Naming Organic Compounds A-16

F Values for the Ionization Energies and Electron Afﬁnities of the Elements A-19

G Vapor Pressure of Water at Various Temperatures A-20

H Ionization Constants for Weak Acids at 25 °C A-21

I Ionization Constants for Weak Bases at 25 °C A-23

J Solubility Product Constants for Some Inorganic Compounds at 25 °C A-24

K Formation Constants for Some Complex Ions in Aqueous Solution A-26

L Selected Thermodynamic Values A-27

M Standard Reduction Potentials in Aqueous Solution

at 25 °C A-33

N Answers to Exercises A-36

O Answers to Selected Study Questions A-56

P Answers to Selected Interchapter Study Questions A-107

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W e are gratiﬁed that Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity has been used by more than

a million students in its ﬁrst ﬁve editions Because this is one indication our

book has been successful in helping students learn chemistry, we believe the goals

we set out in the ﬁrst edition are still appropriate Our principal goals have always

been to provide a broad overview of the principles of chemistry, the reactivity of the

chemical elements and their compounds, and the applications of chemistry We

have organized this approach around the close relation between the observations

chemists make of chemical and physical changes in the laboratory and in nature

and the way these changes are viewed at the atomic and molecular levels.

Another of our goals has been to convey a sense of chemistry not only as a

ﬁeld that has a lively history but also as one that is highly dynamic, with important

new developments occurring every year Furthermore, we want to provide some

in-sight into the chemical aspects of the world around us Indeed, a major objective

of this book is to provide the tools needed for you to function as a chemically

lit-erate citizen Learning something of the chemical world is just as important as

un-derstanding some basic mathematics and biology, and as important as having an

appreciation for history, music, and literature For example, you should know

which materials are important to our economy, what some of the reactions in

plants and animals and in our environment are, and what role chemists play in

protecting the environment.

Among the most exciting and satisfying aspects of our careers as chemists has

been our ability to discover new compounds and to ﬁnd new ways to apply chemical

principles and explain what we observe We hope we have conveyed that sense of

en-joyment in this book as well as our awe at what is known about chemistry—and, just

as important, what is not known!

Emerging Developments

in Content Usage and Delivery

The use of media, presentation tools, and homework management tools has

ex-panded signiﬁcantly in the last three years About ten years ago we incorporated

electronic media into this text with the ﬁrst edition of our interactive CD-ROM It

has been used by thousands of students worldwide and has been the most successful

attempt to date to encourage students to interact with chemistry.

Multimedia technology has evolved over the past ten years, and so have our

students Students are not only focused on conceptual understanding, but are also

keenly aware of the necessity of preparing for examinations Our challenge as

au-thors and educators is to use students’ focus on assessment as a way to help them

reach a higher level of conceptual understanding In light of this goal, we have

made major changes in our integrated media program We have found that few

students explore multimedia for its own sake Therefore, we have redesigned the

media so that students now have the opportunity to interact with media based on

Preface

page 36

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xxiv Preface

clearly stated chapter goals that are correlated to end-of-chapter questions By ing new diagnostic tools, students will be directed to speciﬁc resources based on

us-their levels of understanding This new program, called General ChemistryNow, is

de-scribed in detail later The closely related OWL homework management system has also been used by tens of thousands of students, and we are pleased to announce that selected end-of-chapter questions are now available for use within the OWL system.

Audience for the Textbook, the General ChemistryNow CD-ROM and Website, and OWL

The textbook, CD-ROM and website, and OWL are designed to serve introductory courses in chemistry for students interested in further study in science, whether that science is biology, chemistry, engineering, geology, physics, or related subjects Our assumption is that students beginning this course have had some preparation in algebra and in general science Although undeniably helpful, a previous exposure to chemistry is neither assumed nor required.

Philosophy and Approach of the Program

We have had three major, albeit not independent, goals since the ﬁrst edition of the book The ﬁrst goal was to write a book that students would enjoy reading and that would offer, at a reasonable level of rigor, chemistry and chemical principles in a format and organization typical of college and university courses today Second, we wanted to convey the utility and importance of chemistry by introducing the properties of the elements, their compounds, and their reactions as early as possible and

by focusing the discussion as much as possible on these subjects Finally, with the new, integrated media program, we hope to bring students to a higher level of conceptual understanding.

The American Chemical Society has been urging educators to put “chemistry” back into introductory chemistry courses We agree with this position wholeheart- edly Therefore, we have tried to describe the elements, their compounds, and their reactions as early and as often as possible in several ways First, numerous color photographs depict reactions occurring, the elements and common compounds, and common laboratory operations and industrial processes Second, we have tried to bring material on the properties of elements and compounds as early as possible into the Exercises and Study Questions and to introduce new principles using real- istic chemical situations Finally, relevant highlights are given in Chapters 21 and 22

as a capstone to the principles described earlier.

Organization of the Book

Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity has two overarching themes: chemical reactivity and bonding and molecular structure The chapters on principles of reactivity introduce the

factors that lead chemical reactions to be successful in converting reactants to ucts Under this topic you will study common types of reactions, the energy involved in reactions, and the factors that affect the speed of a reaction One reason for the enormous advances in chemistry and molecular biology in the last several decades has been an understanding of molecular structure Sections of the book

prod-on principles of bprod-onding and molecular structure lay the groundwork for understanding

these developments Particular attention is paid to an understanding of the tural aspects of such biologically important molecules as DNA.

page 52

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Preface xxv

A glance at the introductory chemistry texts currently available shows there is a

generally common order of topics used by educators With a few minor variations,

we have followed that order as well That is not to say that the chapters in our book

cannot be used in some other order We have written it to be as ﬂexible as possible.

For example, the chapter on the behavior of gases (Chapter 12) is placed with

chap-ters on liquids, solids, and solutions (Chapchap-ters 13 and 14) because it logically ﬁts

with these topics It can easily be read and understood, however, after covering only

the ﬁrst four or ﬁve chapters of the book Similarly, chapters on atomic and

molec-ular structure (Chapters 7–10) could be used before the chapters on stoichiometry

and common reactions (Chapters 4 and 5) Also, the chapters on chemical

equilib-ria (Chapters 16–18) can be covered before those on solutions and kinetics

(Chap-ters 14 and 15).

Organic chemistry (Chapter 11) is often left to one of the ﬁnal chapters in

chemistry textbooks We believe that the importance of organic compounds in

bio-chemistry and in consumer products means we should present that material earlier

in the sequence of chapters This coverage follows the chapters on structure and

bonding, because organic chemistry nicely illustrates the application of models of

chemical bonding and molecular structure However, one can use the remainder of

the book without including this chapter.

The order of topics in the text was also devised to introduce as early as possible

the background required for the laboratory experiments usually done in General

Chemistry courses For this reason, chapters on chemical and physical properties,

common reaction types, and stoichiometry begin the book In addition, because an

understanding of energy is so important in the study of chemistry, thermochemistry

is introduced in Chapter 6.

In addition to the regular chapters, uses and applications of chemistry are

de-scribed in more detail in interchapters on The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy Sources,

The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry, The Chemistry of Modern Materials, and The Chemistry

of the Environment These chapters, new to this edition, are described in more detail

later in this Preface.

Additionally, Chemical Perspectives attempt to bring relevance and perspective to

a study of chemistry These features delve into such topics as nanotechnology, using

isotopes, what it means to be in the “limelight,” the importance of sulfuric acid in

the world economy, sunscreens, and the newly recognized importance of the NO

molecule Historical Perspectives describe the historical development of chemical

prin-ciples and the people who made the advances in our understanding of chemistry.

A Closer Look boxes describe ideas that form the background to material under

discussion or provide another dimension of the subject For example, in Chapter

11 on organic chemistry, the “A Closer Look” boxes are devoted to a discussion of

structural aspects of important molecules, to petroleum, and to fats and oils In

other chapters we delve into molecular modeling, magnetic resonance, and mass

spectrometry.

Finally, Problem-Solving Tips provide students with important insights into

prob-lem solving They also identify where, from our experience, students often make

mistakes and suggest alternative ways to solve problems.

The chapters of Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity are organized into ﬁve sections,

each grouping with a common theme.

Part 1: The Basic Tools of Chemistry

There are fundamental ideas and methods that are the basis of all of chemistry,

and these are introduced in Part 1 Chapter 1 deﬁnes important terms and reviews

units and mathematical methods Chapters 2 and 3 introduce basic ideas of atoms,

page 368

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molecules, and ions, and Chapter 2 describes the most important organizational device in chemistry, the periodic table In Chapters 4 and 5, we begin to discuss the principles of chemical reactivity and to introduce the numerical methods used by chemists to extract quantitative information from chemical reactions Chapter 6 in-

troduces the energy involved in chemical processes The interchapter The Chemistry

of Fuels and Energy Sources follows Chapter 6 and uses many of the concepts

devel-oped in the preceding chapters.

Part 2: The Structure of Atoms and Molecules

The goal of this section is to outline the current theories of the arrangement of trons in atoms and some of the historical developments that led to these ideas (Chapters 7 and 8) This discussion is tied closely to the arrangement of elements in the periodic table, so that these properties can be recalled and predictions made In Chapter 9, we discuss for the ﬁrst time how the electrons of atoms in a molecule par- ticipate in chemical bonding and lead to the properties of these bonds In addition,

elec-we show how to derive the three-dimensional structure of simple molecules ter 10 considers the major theories of chemical bonding in more detail.

Chap-This part of the book ﬁnishes with a discussion of organic chemistry ter 11), primarily from a structural point of view Organic chemistry is such an enormous area of chemistry that we cannot hope to cover it in detail in this book Therefore, we have focused on compounds of particular importance, including synthetic polymers and the structures of these materials.

(Chap-In this section of the book you will ﬁnd the molecular modeling software on the General ChemistryNow CD-ROM and website to be especially useful.

To cap this section, the interchapter The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry provides

an overview of some of the most important aspects of biochemistry.

Part 3: States of Matter

The behavior of the three states of matter—gas, liquid, and solid—is described in that order in Chapters 12 and 13 The discussion of liquids and solids is tied to gases through the description of intermolecular forces, with particular attention given to liquid and solid water In Chapter 14, we describe the properties of solutions, inti- mate mixtures of gases, liquids, and solids.

The interchapter The Chemistry of Modern Materials is placed after Chapter 13,

following coverage of the solid state Designing and making new materials with ful properties is one of the most exciting areas of modern chemistry.

use-Part 4: The Control of Chemical Reactions

Part 4 is wholly concerned with the principles of reactivity Chapter 15 examines the important question of the rates of chemical processes and the factors controlling these rates With this material on chemical kinetics in mind, we move to Chapters 16–18, which describe chemical reactions at equilibrium After an introduction to equilibrium in Chapter 16, we highlight reactions involving acids and bases in water (Chapters 17 and 18) and reactions leading to insoluble salts (Chapter 18) To tie together the discussion of chemical equilibria, we again explore thermodynamics in Chapter 19 As a ﬁnal topic in Part 4, we describe in Chapter 20 a major class of chemical reactions, those involving the transfer of electrons, and the use of these reactions in electrochemical cells.

The Chemistry of the Environment interchapter appears at the end of Part 4 This

chapter uses ideas from kinetics and chemical equilibria in particular, as well as principles described in earlier chapters in the book.

page 235

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Part 5: The Chemistry of the Elements and Their Compounds

Although the chemistry of the various elements has been described throughout the

book to this point, Part 5 considers this topic in a more systematic way Chapter 21,

which has been expanded for this edition, is devoted to the chemistry of the

repre-sentative elements, whereas Chapter 22 discusses the transition elements and their

compounds Finally, Chapter 23 offers a brief discussion of nuclear chemistry.

Changes for the Sixth Edition

Colleagues and students often ask why yet another edition of the book has been

prepared We all understand, however, that even the most successful books can be

improved In addition, our experience in the classroom suggests that student

inter-ests change and that there are ever more effective ways to help our students learn

chemistry For these reasons, we made a number of changes in this book from the

ﬁfth edition For this new, sixth edition, the material and our approach have been

reﬁned further to take students to a higher level of conceptual understanding, and

several important ideas have been added.

In summary, while this sixth edition retains the overall structure and goals of the previous

ﬁve editions, we have done much more than change a few words and illustrations Signiﬁcant

changes have been made that we believe will aid our students in learning and understanding

the important principles of chemistry and in discovering that it is an exciting and dynamic ﬁeld.

Book Revisions

Readability and Clarity A hallmark of the ﬁrst ﬁve editions of Chemistry &

Chem-ical Reactivity has been the book’s readability Nonetheless, each sentence and

para-graph in the book has been examined with an eye toward improving clarity and

shortening the material without reducing content coverage or readability Many of

the illustrations have been revised and new ones added.

Expanded Coverage We have worked to raise the level of the text by introducing

new material on, among other things, molecular orbital theory and the solid state

and on biochemistry and environmental chemistry The Clausius-Clapeyron

equa-tion has been given greater prominence, and “cumulative” and more challenging

Study Questions have been added.

Accuracy Although previous editions of the book have always been relatively free

of errors, even greater effort has been made in this edition, and seven accuracy

re-viewers—four for the text and three for the supplemental chapters—have been

brought into our team.

Supplemental Material on Mathematics

A knowledge of basic mathematics is required to be successful in general chemistry.

For students unsure of their abilities, a special section (Section 1.8) has been added

that reviews exponential notation, signiﬁcant ﬁgures, dimensional analysis, plotting

graphs, and reading graphical information.

Supplemental Interchapters

Applications of chemical principles are pervasive in our lives Although the sixth

edition describes many applications as chemical principles are developed, a number

of important and interesting areas are left untouched Therefore, four areas of

chemistry are covered in interchapters in a magazine style.

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• The Chemistry of Fuels and Energy Sources (page 282) This material explores

the energy situation confronting our planet and examines such subjects as ternative energy sources, hybrid cars, fuel cells, and “the hydrogen economy.”

al-• The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry (page 530) Perhaps more chemists work

in biochemistry than in any other area This chapter delves into amino acids and proteins, nucleic acids, and metabolism.

• The Chemistry of Modern Materials (page 642) The past few decades have

seen the development of new electronic devices (such LEDs in car and trafﬁc lights), nanostructures, superconductors, and new adhesives This supplemental chapter touches on some of these areas as well as others In addition, there

is a discussion of the molecular orbital approach to bonding in metals and conductors, material that was in Chapter 10 in the previous edition.

semi-• The Chemistry of the Environment (page 998) Environmental issues such as

smog, the hole in the earth’s ozone layer, global warming, and water quality are regularly encountered in the news This chapter describes how our water is treated, discusses the effect of particulate pollutants in our atmosphere, and explores the new efforts chemists are making worldwide to produce the products

we all rely on in an environmentally safe manner.

Introducing General ChemistryNow Linked to Chapter Goals

Students have always been concerned about “what’s on the exam.” Although this is certainly a legitimate concern, our challenge as educators has been to help students come to a conceptual understanding and not have them simply learn patterns of thought and memorize equations To that end, each chapter in the textbook is introduced by 4–6 Chapter Goals that have a conceptual underpinning and are covered in the chapter These goals are revisited at the end of the chapter, where each goal is divided into several subtopics with which the student should be familiar Study Questions relevant to the goals are noted in the Chapter Goals Revisited section and are marked with the ■ icon in the Study Questions.

General ChemistryNow athttp://now.brookscole.com/kotz6eis a web-based program, which we also offer on a CD-ROM for students who have difﬁculty accessing the World Wide Web The program, which is available with each new copy of the book, incorporates material from our original General Chemistry Interactive CD-ROM

and includes more than 400 new step-by-step tutorial modules keyed to end-of-chapter Study

Questions The system is completely ﬂexible, so students have access to the material

through a variety of methods.

• A Chapter Outline screen for each chapter matches the text organization.

• A Homework and Goals screen is keyed to the Chapter Goals Revisited section

in each chapter Each goal is linked to Simulations, Exercises, and Tutorials and

to selected end-of-chapter Study Questions taken from the book (These tions are marked in the book with ■ ) Students can attempt to answer each of the selected Study Questions any number of times, view feedback on the solution, and submit answers online to the instructor for grading

• A Diagnostic Exam-Prep Quiz (“What Do I Know”) provides diagnostic

ques-tions that have been carefully crafted to assess student understanding of the Chapter Goals Upon completing a quiz, students receive feedback and a personalized Learning Plan, and, if applicable, will be directed to the relevant Chapter Goals and accompanying resources.

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Study Questions

Several important changes have been made in the end-of-chapter questions:

• As noted earlier, approximately 20 Study Questions in each chapter have been

selected as illustrative of the chapter goals, and these questions are available in

interactive form in General ChemistryNow These questions are marked in the

book with the ■ icon.

• As in previous editions, a number of Study Questions are provided that refer to

a particular section of the book These questions are paired; that is, there are

two similar questions with one question (indicated with a blue number) having

an answer in Appendix O and a solution in the Student Solutions Manual The

idea is that you can learn how to solve the question without an answer in the

ap-pendix by ﬁrst doing the question for which an answer is provided

Further-more, for questions on a given section or subsection of the chapter, we note

which Example questions or Exercises are relevant Also, we refer to a

particu-lar screen or screens of General ChemistryNow that may be helpful.

• After the sections containing paired questions on speciﬁc topics, General

Ques-tions integrate concepts from several parts of the chapter.

• Challenging questions are marked with the ▲ icon The number of these

chal-lenging questions has been increased in this sixth edition.

• Some questions rely more heavily than usual on material in preceding chapters or

are more conceptual These questions, sometimes called “cumulative questions,”

are set out in a separate section called Summary and Conceptual Questions.

• Some questions have been added that call upon students to understand the

chemistry at the molecular level.

Homework Management Options

Thousands of students around the country are successfully using the OWL program

(Online Web-based Learning) developed at the University of Massachusetts–

Amherst (OWL is described in detail later.) We have heard from many chemistry

instructors that they would like to be able to assign speciﬁc, parameterized

(algo-rithmic) questions from the end-of-chapter problem set, so we are pleased to

an-nounce that approximately 20 questions per chapter are available to assign in this new OWL

format These are the same 20 or so questions marked in the Study Questions

sec-tion as relevant to the Chapter Goals In addisec-tion, all of the end-of-chapter

prob-lems are available in Web CT and Blackboard formats.

Book Design

A major effort was made with the ﬁfth edition to design a book that would aid

stu-dents by clearly delineating the functions of the various parts of the book

(Al-though seemingly simple, one of many innovations was to use different typographic

fonts for text and chemical equations so that these are clearly separated Another

was to label chemicals or parts of an apparatus in photos so that the reader does not

have to move continually between caption and photo to understand the photo’s

message.) For this new edition, we have continued to put a great deal of thought

into book design for functional clarity.

page 235

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xxx Preface

Supporting Materials for the Student

Visit http://chemistry.brookscole.com to see samples of selected student ments or to purchase them online from Brooks/Cole To locate products at your local retailer, provide them with the ISBN.

supple-NEW! General ChemistryNow CD-ROM and Website by William Vining, University

of Massachusetts–Amherst, and John Kotz, State University of New York–Oneonta General ChemistryNow at http://now.brookscole.com/kotz6eis a powerful, assessment- based online learning companion designed to help students master chapter goals

by directing them to interactive resources based on their level of conceptual

understanding Incorporating material from the best-selling General Chemistry

Interactive CD-ROM, this new media resource includes more than 400 new

step-by-step tutorial modules keyed to end-of-chapter Study Questions The system is completely ﬂexible so students have access to the material through a variety of methods:

• A Chapter Outline screen matches the text organization.

• A Homework and Goals screen is keyed to the Chapter Goals Revisited feature

from the sixth edition and provides selected end-of-chapter Study Questions The goals are linked to simulations, exercises, and tutorials Students can attempt each question a number of times, and view feedback on the solution These questions are indicated with the ■ icon.

• An Exam-Prep Quiz (“What Do I Know?”) provides diagnostic questions that

have been carefully crafted to assess students’ understanding of the chapter goals Upon completing a quiz, students will receive feedback and a personalized Learning Plan, and, if applicable, will be directed to the relevant chapter goals screens and accompanying interactive resources

To accommodate a variety of access methods, the CD-ROM and website duplicate much of the core content Access to this program is included with the purchase of a new text.

Enhanced! OWL (Online Web-based Learning system) , University of Massachusetts–Amherst

Learning chemistry takes practice, and that usually means completing homework assignments With a new, easier-to-use interface, the class-tested, Web-based OWL system at http://owl.thomsonlearning.com presents students with a series of questions—many from the text itself for this new edition—and students respond with numerical answers or with a selection from a menu of choices Questions are gen- erated from a database of numerical and chemical information, so each student in

a course receives a different variant of the question each time he or she accesses

an instructional unit Each question has extensive, question-specific feedback keyed to a student’s answer Instructors can customize the unit by determining when questions are available, how many attempts students may make, and how many questions students must answer successfully before they are considered to have mastered the topic Gradable reports on each attempt at the unit are provided to the instructor, who has access to course management tools such as a grade- book and report-generating functions Students find OWL an excellent exam review and studies at the University of Massachusetts–Amherst show a positive cor-

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relation between use of the OWL system and course performance The

end-of-chapter questions in the text that are correlated to the Chapter Goals are now fully

assignable within the OWL program.

Student Solutions Manual by Alton Banks, North Carolina State University

This ancillary contains detailed solutions to selected end-of-chapter Study

Ques-tions found in the text SoluQues-tions match the problem-solving strategies used in the

text Sample chapters are available for review at the book’s website ISBN

0-534-99852-6

NEW! Study Guide by John R Townsend, West Chester University of Pennsylvania

This completely new study guide contains learning tools explicitly linked to the

goals introduced in each chapter It includes chapter overviews, key terms and

def-initions, and sample tests Emphasis is placed on the chapter goals presented in this

text by means of further commentary and study tips, worked-out examples, and

di-rect references back to the text Sample chapters are available for review at the

book’s website ISBN 0-534-99851-8

vMentor included with General ChemistryNow

vMentor is an online live tutoring service from Brooks/Cole in partnership with

Elluminate vMentor is included in General ChemistryNow Whether it’s one-to-one

tutoring help with daily homework or exam review tutorials, vMentor lets students

interact with experienced tutors right from their own computers at school or at

home All tutors have not only specialized degrees in the particular subject area

(bi-ology, chemistry, mathematics, physics, or statistics), but also extensive teaching

experience Each tutor also has a copy of the textbook the student is using in class.

Students can ask as many questions as they want when they access vMentor—and

they don’t need to set up appointments in advance! Access is provided with vClass,

an Internet-based virtual classroom featuring two-way voice, a shared whiteboard,

chat, and more For proprietary, college, and university adopters only For

addi-tional information, consult your local Thomson representative

NEW! Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, Sixth Edition in Two Hardbound

Volumes (Volume 1: Chapters 1–12 and Volume 2: Chapters 12–23)

We recognize that students are concerned about price and portability of their

text-books, and that some students take only one semester of general chemistry

There-fore, we are pleased to announce that the sixth edition is available in two volumes.

Volume 1 covers Chapters 1–12 and Volume 2 covers Chapters 12–23 Note that

both volumes contain Chapter 12 so as to serve differing curricula Both volumes

will include full access to all the media resources Consult your Thomson

repre-sentative for special pricing options Volume 1 ISBN 0-495-01013-8; Volume 2 ISBN

0-495-01014-6; Two-volume set ISBN 0-534-40800-1.

Essential Algebra for Chemistry Students, Second Edition by David W Ball,

Cleveland State University

This supplement focuses on the skills needed to survive in General Chemistry, with

worked examples showing how these skills translate into successful chemical

prob-lem solving This text is an ideal tool for students lacking in conﬁdence or

compe-tency in the essential math skills required for general chemistry Consult your

Thomson representative for special bundling pricing ISBN 0-495-01327-7.

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Survival Guide for General Chemistry with Math Review by Charles H Atwood, University of Georgia

Designed to help students gain a better understanding of the basic problem-solving skills and concepts of General Chemistry, this guide assists students who lack conﬁ- dence and/or competency in the essential skills necessary to survive general chemistry The text can be fully customized so that you can incorporate, if you so wish, your old exams Consult your Brooks/Cole representative for special bundling pricing ISBN 0-534-99370-2

Supporting Materials for the Instructor

Supporting instructor materials are available to qualiﬁed adopters Please sult your local Thomson Brooks/Cole representative for details Visit http:// chemistry.brookscole.comto:

con-• See samples of materials

• Locate your local representative

• Download electronic ﬁles of books, PowerPoint slides, and text art

• Request a desk copy

• Purchase a book online

Instructor’s Resource Manual by Susan Young, Hartwick College

Contains worked-out solutions to all end-of-chapter Study Questions and features

ideas for instructors on how to fully utilize resources and technology in their

courses The Manual provides questions for electronic response systems, suggests

classroom demonstrations, and emphasizes good and innovative teaching practices.

Electronic ﬁles of the Instructor’s Resource Manual are available for download on the

instructor’s website ISBN 0-534-99856-9

General ChemistryNow Website and CD-ROM

A powerful, personalized learning companion that offers your students a variety of tools with which to learn the material, test their knowledge, and identify which tools will best meet their needs General ChemistryNow is included with every new copy of the book (Please see the description in the “For the Student” list of ancillary materials.)

Multimedia Manager Instructor CD-ROM

The Multimedia Manager is a dual-platform digital library and presentation tool that provides art, photos, and tables from the main text in a variety of electronic formats that can be used to make transparencies and are easily exported into other software packages This enhanced CD-ROM also contains simulations, molecular models, and QuickTime movies to supplement lectures as well as electronic ﬁles of various print supplements In addition, instructors can customize presentations by importing personal lecture slides or other selected materials ISBN 0-534-99855-0

OW L (Online Web-based Learning System)

An online homework, quizzing, and testing tool with course management capability (Please see the description in the “For the Student” list of ancillary materials.)

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PowerPoint Lecture Slides by John Kotz, State University of New York–Oneonta

These class-tested, fully customizable, lecture slides have been used by author John

Kotz for many years and are available for instructor download at the text’s website at

http://chemistry.brookscole.com Hundreds of slides cover the entire year of general

chemistry Slides use the full power of Microsoft PowerPoint and incorporate

videos, animations, and other assets from General ChemistryNow Instructors can

customize their lecture presentations by adding their own slides or by deleting or

changing existing slides.

Test Bank by David Treichel, Nebraska Wesleyan University

This printed test bank contains more than 1250 questions, over 90% of which are

re-vised or newly written for this edition Questions range in difﬁculty and variety and

correlate directly to the chapter sections found in the main text Numerical,

open-ended, or conceptual problems are written in multiple choice, ﬁll-in-the-blank, or

short-answer formats Both single- and multiple-step problems are presented for

each chapter Electronic ﬁles of the Test Bank are available for instructor download

at the text’s website at http://chemistry.brookscole.com ISBN 0-53-499850-X

Transparencies

A collection of 150 full-color transparencies of key images selected by the authors

from the text Instructors have access on the Multimedia Manager CD-ROM to all

text art and many photos to aid in preparing transparencies for material not

pres-ent in this set ISBN 0-534-99854-2

iLrn Testing

With a balance of efﬁciency and high performance, simplicity and versatility, iLrn

Testing lets instructors test the way they teach, giving them the power to transform

the learning and teaching experience iLrn Testing is a revolutionary,

Internet-ready, cross-platform text-speciﬁc testing suite that allows instructors to customize

exams and track student progress in an accessible, browser-based format delivered

via the Web at www.iLrn.com Results ﬂow automatically to instructors’ gradebooks so

that they are better able to assess students’ understanding of the material prior to

class or an actual test iLrn offers full algorithmic generation of problems as well as

free-response problems using intuitive mathematical notation Populated with the

questions from the printed Test Bank. ISBN 0-534-99857-7

JoinIn on TurningPoint for Response Systems

Thomson Brooks/Cole is now pleased to offer book-speciﬁc JoinIn content for

Re-sponse Systems tailored to Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, allowing you to transform

your classroom and assess your students’ progress with instant in-class quizzes and

polls Our exclusive agreement to offer TurningPoint software lets you pose

book-speciﬁc questions and display students’ answers seamlessly within the Microsoft

PowerPoint slides of your own lecture, in conjunction with the “clicker” hardware of

your choice Enhance how your students interact with you, your lecture, and each

other Contact your local Thomson representative to learn more.

WebTutor ToolBox for WebCT and WebTutor ToolBox for Blackboard

Preloaded with content and available via a free access code when packaged with this

text, WebTutor ToolBox pairs the content of this text’s rich Book Companion

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website with sophisticated course management functionality The end-of-chapter

Study Questions in the text are available in WebCT and Blackboard formats structors can assign materials (including online quizzes) and have the results ﬂow automatically to their gradebooks ToolBox is ready to use upon logging on—or instructors can customize its preloaded content by uploading images and other resources, adding weblinks, or creating their own practice materials Students have access only to student resources on the website Instructors can enter an access code

In-to utilize password-protected InstrucIn-tor Resources Contact your Thomson sentative for information on packaging WebTutor ToolBox with this text.

repre-For the Laboratory

Chemical Education Resources (CER) at http://www.CERLabs.com

Allows instructors to customize laboratory manuals for their courses from a wide range of more than 300 experiments refereed by the CER board.

Brooks/Cole Laboratory Series for General Chemistry

Brooks/Cole offers a variety of printed manuals to meet all General Chemistry oratory needs Instructors can visit the chemistry website at http://chemistry brookscole.com for a full listing and description of these laboratory manuals and laboratory notebooks All Brooks/Cole lab manuals can be customized for your spe- ciﬁc needs.

lab-Acknowledgments

Because signiﬁcant changes have been made, preparing this new edition of

Chem-istry & Chemical Reactivity took almost three years of continuous effort However, as

in our work on the ﬁrst ﬁve editions, we have enjoyed the support and ment of our families and of some wonderful friends, colleagues, and students.

encourage-Brooks/Cole Publishing

The ﬁrst four editions of this book were published by Saunders College Publishing,

a part of Harcourt College Publishing About a year before the ﬁfth edition was lished, however, the company came under new ownership, the Brooks/Cole group

pub-of Thomson Higher Education Throughout the period during which the first five editions were developed, we had the guidance of John Vondeling as our Editor- Publisher and friend John was responsible for much of the success the book enjoyed, but he passed away in January 2001 Angus McDonald guided us through the final stages of the publication of the fifth edition We owe Angus a great debt of grat- itude for taking over under difficult circumstances and for bringing the project to a successful conclusion.

Following the ﬁnal acquisition of Harcourt by Thomson Higher Education, we were introduced to our new Editor in Chief, Michelle Julet, and our new Publisher, David Harris Both have been invaluable in guiding this new edition, and both have become good friends We look forward to doing future editions with them—and to more sailing with David.

Peter McGahey was the Developmental Editor for the ﬁfth edition and again for this sixth edition He is blessed with energy, creativity, enthusiasm, intelligence, and good humor Peter is a trusted friend and conﬁdant And he cheerfully answered our many questions during almost-daily phone calls.

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No book can be successful without proper marketing Julie Conover is a whiz at

marketing and a delight to work with She is knowledgeable about the market and

has worked tirelessly to bring the book to everyone’s attention.

Our team at Brooks/Cole is completed with Lisa Weber, Production Manager,

and Rob Hugel, Creative Director Schedules are very demanding in textbook

pub-lishing, and Lisa has helped to keep us on schedule We certainly appreciate her

or-ganizational skills Rob has been involved in product and advertising design for many

years, and he has brought his design skills to bear in making this a very attractive book.

People outside of publishing often do not realize the number of people

in-volved in producing a textbook Karla Maki and Nicole Barone of Thompson Steele,

the production company, guided the book through the almost year-long production

process Jane Sanders Miller was the photo researcher for the book and was

suc-cessful in ﬁlling our sometimes off-beat requests for a particular photo Finally, Jill

Hobbs did a very thorough job copyediting the manuscript, and Jay Freedman once

again did a masterful job on the index.

Photography, Art, and Design

Most of the color photographs for this edition were again beautifully done by

Charles D Winters He produced several dozen new images for this book, often

un-der deadline pressure and always with a creative eye Charlie’s work gets better and

better with each edition We have worked with Charlie for almost 20 years and have

become close friends We listen to his jokes, both new and old—and always forget

them When we ﬁnish the book, we look forward to a kayaking trip.

When the ﬁfth edition was being planned, we brought in Patrick Harman as a

member of the team Pat designed the ﬁrst edition of the General ChemistryNow

CD-ROM, and we believe its success is in no small way connected to his design skill.

For the ﬁfth edition of the book Pat went over almost every ﬁgure, and almost every

word, to bring a fresh perspective to ways to communicate chemistry Pat also

worked on designing and producing new illustrations for the sixth edition, and his

creativity is obvious in their clarity and beauty As we have worked together so closely

for so many years, Pat has become a good friend as well, and we share interests not

only in beautiful books but also in interesting music.

Other Collaborators

We have been fortunate to have a number of other colleagues who have played

valu-able roles in this project

• Bill Vining (University of Massachusetts–Amherst), the lead author of the

Gen-eral ChemistryNow CD-ROM and website, has been a colleague and friend for

many years Not only has he applied his considerable energy and creativity to

preparing a thorough revision of the CD-ROM, but he was also a valuable

advi-sor on the book.

• Susan Young (Hartwick College) has been a good friend and collaborator

through four editions and has again prepared the Instructor’s Resource Manual.

She has always been helpful in proofreading, in answering questions on

con-tent, and in giving us good advice.

• Alton Banks (North Carolina State University) has also been involved for

sev-eral editions preparing the Student Solutions Manual Both Susan and Alton have

been very helpful in ensuring the accuracy of the Study Questions answers in

the book as well as in their respective manuals.

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• John Townsend (West Chester University) prepared the Study Guide for this

edi-tion This book has had a history of excellent study guides, and John’s manual follows that tradition As described later, John also contributed the supplemental chapter on biochemistry.

• Beatrice Botch (University of Massachusetts–Amherst) gave advice on parts of the text and supplied the information for Figure 13.13.

A major task is proofreading the book once it has been set in type The book is read in its entirety by the authors and accuracy reviewers After making corrections, the book is read a second time Any errors remaining at this point are certainly the responsibility of the authors, and students and instructors should contact the authors by email to offer their suggestions If this is done in a timely manner, corrections can be made when the book is reprinted

We want to thank the following accuracy reviewers for their invaluable tance The book is immeasurably improved by their work.

assis-Rodney Boyer, Ph.D., Hope College Larry Fishel, Ph.D.

Michael Grady, Ph.D., College of the Redwoods Frances Houle, Ph.D., IBM Almaden Research Center Wayne E Jones, Jr., Ph.D., Binghamton University Kathy Mitchell, St Petersburg College

Barbara Mowery, York College of Pennsylvania David Shinn, Ph.D.

Reviewers for the Sixth Edition

Patricia Amateis, Virginia Tech Todd L Austell, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill Joseph Bularzik, Purdue University, Calumet

Stephen Carlson, Lansing Community College Robert L Carter, University of Massachusetts, Boston Paul Charlesworth, Michigan Technological University Paul Gilletti, Mesa Community College

Stan Genda, University of Nevada, Las Vegas

C Alton Hassell, Baylor University Margaret Kerr, Worcester State University Jeffrey A Mack, California State University, Sacramento Elizabeth M Martin, College of Charleston

Shelley D Minteer, Saint Louis University Jason R Telford, University of Iowa Wayne Tikkanen, California State University, Los Angeles Mark A Whitener, Montclair State University

Marcy Whitney, University of Alabama

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Preface xxxvii

Reviewers for the Fifth Edition

David W Ball, Cleveland State University

Roger Barth, West Chester University

John G Berberian, Saint Joseph’s University

Don A Berkowitz, University of Maryland

Simon Bott, University of Houston

Wendy Clevenger Cory, University of Tennessee, Chattanooga

Richard Cornelius, Lebanon Valley College

James S Falcone, West Chester University

Martin Fossett, Tabor Academy

Michelle Fossum, Laney College

Sandro Gambarotta, University of Ottawa

Robert Garber, California State University, Long Beach

Michael D Hampton, University of Central Florida

Paul Hunter, Michigan State University

Michael E Lipschutz, Purdue University

Shelley D Minteer, Saint Louis University

Jessica N Orvis, Georgia Southern University

David Spurgeon, University of Arizona

Stephen P Tanner, University of West Florida

John Townsend, West Chester University

John A Weyh, Western Washington University

Marcy Whitney, University of Alabama

Sheila Woodgate, University of Auckland

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xxxviii Preface

Contributors

When we designed this edition, we decided to seek chemists outside of our team

to author the supplemental interchapters John Townsend prepared the chapter

on The Chemistry of Life: Biochemistry, and Meredith Newman authored the chapter on The Chemistry of the Environment We thank them for their very valuable contributions.

John R Townsend, Associate Professor of Chemistry at West Chester University of Pennsylvania, completed his B.A in Chemistry as well as the Approved Program for Teacher Certiﬁcation in Chemistry at the University of Delaware After a career teaching high school science and mathematics, he earned his M.S and Ph.D in bio- physical chemistry at Cornell University At Cornell he also performed experiments

in the origins of life ﬁeld and received the DuPont Teaching Award After teaching

at Bloomsburg University, Dr Townsend joined the faculty at West Chester sity, where he coordinates the chemistry education program for prospective high school teachers and the general chemistry program for science majors He is also the co-leader of his university’s local team of the Collaborative for Excellence in Teacher Preparation in Pennsylvania His research interests lie in the ﬁelds of chemical education and biochemistry.

Univer-Meredith E Newman is an associate professor of chemistry and geology at Hartwick College in Oneonta, New York She received her B.S in biology and her M.S and Ph.D in environmental engineering After a postdoctoral appointment in the De- partment of Analytical Chemistry at the University of Geneva, Switzerland, and work

at the Idaho National Environmental and Engineering Laboratory, she joined the faculty at Hartwick College She has been a visiting scientist in the Environmental Engineering Department at Clemson University and the Institute for Alpine and Arctic Research at the University of Colorado in Boulder Having previously been an affiliate faculty member at the University of Idaho in Idaho Falls, she is currently an affiliate faculty member at Clemson University Her research on groundwater con- taminant transport, subsurface colloid transport, and environmental education has been published in a variety of scientific journals and texts.

Advisory Board

Many decisions on topic placement, level of text, illustrations, and so on must be made when a textbook is being developed We have beneﬁted from the help of some wonderful colleagues who met with us on several occasions and who carried

on email conversations in between We certainly acknowledge their signiﬁcant tributions.

con-Kevin Chambliss, Baylor University Michael Hampton, University of Central Florida Andy Jorgensen, University of Toledo

Laura Kibler-Herzog, Georgia State University Cathy Middlecamp, University of Wisconsin, Madison Norbert Pienta, University of Iowa

John Townsend, West Chester University

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About the Authors

JOHN C KOTZ , a State University of New York Distinguished Teaching Professor at the College at Oneonta, was educated at Washington and Lee University and Cor- nell University He held National Institutes of Health postdoctoral appointments at the University of Manchester Institute for Science and Technology in England and

at Indiana University

He has coauthored three textbooks in several editions (Inorganic Chemistry,

Chemistry & Chemical Reactivity, and The Chemical World) and the General

Chem-istryNow CD-ROM He has also published on his research in inorganic chemistry and electrochemistry.

Dr Kotz was a Fulbright Lecturer and Research Scholar in Portugal in 1979 and

a Visiting Professor there in 1992 He was also a Visiting Professor at the Institute for Chemical Education (University of Wisconsin, 1991–1992) and at Auckland Uni- versity in New Zealand (1999) He has been an invited speaker at a meeting of the South African Chemical Society and at the biennial conference for secondary school chemistry teachers in Christchurch, New Zealand He was recently named a mentor of the U.S Chemistry Olympiad Team.

Dr Kotz has received several awards, among them a State University of New York Chancellor’s Award (1979), a National Catalyst Award for Excellence in Teach- ing (1992), the Estee Lecturership in Chemical Education at the University of South Dakota (1998), the Visiting Scientist Award from the Western Connecticut Section

of the American Chemical Society (1999), and the ﬁrst annual Distinguished cation Award from the Binghamton (New York) Section of the American Chemical Society (2001) He may be contacted by email at kotzjc@oneonta.edu.

Edu-PAUL M TREICHEL received his B.S degree at the University of Wisconsin in 1958 and a Ph.D from Harvard University in 1962 After a year of postdoctoral study in London, he assumed a faculty position at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he is currently Helfaer Professor of Chemistry He served as department chair from 1986 through 1995 He has held visiting faculty positions in South Africa (1975) and in Japan (1995) Currently, he teaches courses in general chemistry, inorganic chemistry, and scientiﬁc ethics Dr Treichel’s research in organometallic and metal cluster chemistry and in mass spectrometry, aided by 75 graduate and un- dergraduate students, has led to publication of more than 170 papers in scientiﬁc journals He may be contacted by email at treichel@chem.wisc.edu.

GABRIELA C WEAVER received her B.S in 1989 from the California Institute of Technology and her Ph.D in 1994 from the University of Colorado at Boulder She served as Assistant Professor at the University of Colorado at Denver from 1994 to

2001 and as Associate Professor at Purdue University since 2001 She has been an vited speaker at more than 35 national and international meetings, including the

in-2001 Gordon Conference on Chemical Education Research and the DVD Summit

in Dublin, Ireland She is currently Director of the Center for Authentic Science Practice in Education at Purdue University Her work in instructional technology development and on active learning has led to numerous publications in addition

to her publications on surface physical chemistry She may be contacted by email at gweaver@purdue.edu.

xxxix

Left to right: Paul Treichel, Gabriela Weaver,

and John Kotz

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