Bfii vilt nfly se t^p trung phfin tfch vai trd eiia nhfin to tdn giflo trong ljch sii nfldc M;^, trong chitih afleh dli ngo^i ciia My cung nhfl nhiing tfie dpng eua nhfin tl" nfiy doi vd
Trang 1NHAN TO TON GIAO TRGNG LICH sur NITDTC M Y VA TRONG QUAN H | MY - Vl|T NAM NHONG N A M 2003-2006
TRXN THJ VINH"
DANG DINH Qui"
Trong cfle nhfln t l chfnh trj, ehfnh
afich vfi ban sfic vfin hda My, tdn
giflo Ifl nhfin t l d^c bi^t quan trpng Tdn
giflo Ifl chii d l xuyen suot trong Ijch sii
nUde My Trong ehfnh afich doi ngo^ eua
My, tdn giflo cd anh hfldng ldn d i n tu duy
cua ngfldi Mjf v l t h l gidi ben ngofli vfl
phfldng efich mfi ngfldi My phan flng vdi eae
SI? ki^n diln ra doi vdi p h i n edn I ^ ciia t h l
gidi Tren thi?c te, tdn gifio thi?e si? efi anh
hfldng tdi qufi trinh ho^eh dinh vfl triln
khai chfnh sflch doi ngo^ ciia MjF Bfii vilt
nfly se t^p trung phfin tfch vai trd eiia nhfin
to tdn giflo trong ljch sii nfldc M;^, trong
chitih afleh dli ngo^i ciia My cung nhfl
nhiing tfie dpng eua nhfin tl" nfiy doi vdi
quan h§ My - Vi^t Nam giai do^n
2003-2006, khi Mjf dfla Vi^t nam vfio danh afich
"Cfic nfldc ein quan tflm d$c b i | t v l tdn
giflo" (Country of Particular Concern on
Rehgious Freedom- CPC) vfl qufi trinh Vi$t
Nam dfl'u tranh d l budc My dfla Vi§t Nam
ra khdi danh aflch nfly
1 Ton giflo t r o n g Heh sit nxidc My vfi
chinh sflch doi ngo^i c u a My
1.1 Tdn gido • mdt chu di xuyen sudt trong lfch sd nudc My
Ljeh sii hinh thflnh nfldc My cho thiy, nhflng ngfldi djnh cfl d i u tiln trfin d i t My lfi nhflng tfn d l b) xua duli, bi k i t fin, phai vflpt biln din vflng d i t mdi d l mifu sinh vfi tim kilm tfl do d l theo duli dfle tin ciia minh Nflm 1613, nhiZng ngfldi chfiu Au
d i u tiln d$t chfln Ifin nflde My Ifi ngfldi Tfiy Ban Nha, dfldi si? chi huy ciia Juan Ponce
de Leon, hp da tim dfldng d i n ban dao r$ng ldn mfi ngfly nay Ifi Florida Tfim nfim sau, cfic mi?c sfl Cd Ddc giflo La Mfi da din dfly
d l truyin gifio cho cfle t h l dfin da do, vfl tfl nflm 1564 ngfldi Tfiy Ban Nha da thfinh 14P St Augustine, m | t trong s l nhQng thj
t r l n c l xfla d Bfle My, n i m d Ddng Bfle Florida TrUdc khi t h l ky XVT k i t thfle, efic nhfi truyin giflo t h u ^ ddng thfinh Francis dfi tdi khu vi?c mfi ngfiy nay Ifl bang New Mexico
Vflo t h l ki XVII, ddng ngfldi tfl Anh quic tim dfldng giai thoflt khdi sfl ngflpc dai tdn gifio dfl ding thdi d$t n i n mdng cho sfl ra ddi vfi thinh vfldng ciia nfldc My Mpt trong
"PGS.TS Khoa Ljch sfl, Trfldng D^i hpc Sfl pb^m Hfi Ndi
Trang 2ao nhflng hp qua ciia cupe cai cflch tdn giflo
d Anh dfldi thdi Vua James I (1603 - 1625)
lfi vipe cac tin do Thanh gifio h\ dfin fip dfl
man, khid'n cho ngfldi Anh rdi bd qud
hUdng di cfl sang Bfic My vdi hy vpng dflpc
tl? do v l tfl tfldng d l thi?e h i | n dflc tin eiia
minh ngfiy mdt ddng Tfnh din nfim 1752,
ehfnh quyln Anh da thfinh l^p d Bfie My
13 thupc dia vdi dfin s l 1,3 t r i | u ngfldi
Ngay tfl thdi ky thudc dia (1600-1776),
ljch avt nfldc My dflpe dfinh dfl'u bing si? da
d^ng v l tdn giflo do nhflng ngfldi My ban
dja, nhflng nd I | chfiu Phi vfl nhflng ngfldi
di cfl din tfl chau Au Ho dfl thi?c hi^n
nhflng l l nghi tdn giflo ridng ciia minh
dfldi nhilu hinh thfle khfle nhau Vdi
khoang 550 cpng dong vfi ngdn ngfl khfle
nhau t ^ nflde My vflo t h l ky XVII, n i n
vfln hda ciia ngfldi My ban dia da dflpc ghi
nhfln bdi tinh da d^ng nd'i b$t trong thdi
ky 14P quoc (1)
Sang t h l ki XVIII, ba nfim aau khi vilt
Tuydn ngdn Dpc Ifip My (1776), Thomas
Jefferson da soan thao Dao luflt Virginia ve
tfl do tin ngfldng (The Vurginia Act For
Establishing Religious Freedom) vfio nfim
1779 Dfiy Ifl bd lufit d i u tien nhflm bao vp
tl? do tdn giao tai My, dflpc ban hflnh nfim
1786, trong dd khiing djnh quyln ti? do tdn
giflo vfl tl? do tranh lufin d l bao vd quan
dilm tdn giao ciia ngfldi My Tdn giflo vfi
quyen tfl do tdn giflo lfi mpt quyln ed ban
da dflpc ghi nhfin trong Dilu b l sung siia
dli thfl n h i t cua Hiin phflp My vfi dfl fin
afiu trong lieh stt vfl ban sfic dfin tdc My
Vflo cudi t h l ky XVIII, tfnh da d ^ g tdu
giao d My da rfi't noi b^t, vfi dfly lfi mdt d&c
tinh khdng the phu nh^n trong bfle tranh
xa h$i ngay tfl buoi binh minh cua nflde
My Trong the gidi tdn gifio da d^ng vfi
phong phu ciia nfldc My thdi ky l^p quoc,
T h l ki XIX, trfldc nguy cd n$i ehiln Ting thing James Buchanan, Ting thong thfl 15 eiia nfldc My trong nhflng nfim 1857
- 1861, da bilu th; sfl lo n g p d^c bidt cua minh v l kha nfing cupe n§i ehiln cd t h l Iflm giam sut vai trd eua nflde My dli vdi eac quyln ti? do edng dfln vfl tdn gifio trdn tofin
t h l gidi Nhflng nflm sau Ndi ciiiln, Ulysaea Simpson Grant, Ting thong thfl 18 cua nfldc My trong nhflng nftm 1869-1877, trflde nhidm vi? khd khfin trong cdng eupc tfii thilt dfi't nfldc aau tham hpa ehiln tranh, da d l cao ti? do tdn gifio, bdn eanh vfl'n d l an ninh tfii san, nhfl mpt nhu eiu thilt ylu d l dam bao "dilu tdt dpp nhfi't cho
da so cdng chung"
Trong the ki XX vfl nhflng nflm diu t h l
ky XXI, ngfldi dan My tiep tue eoi trpng quyln ti? do tdn gifio nhfl quyln tfl do phflt triln kinh t l Td'ng thong thfl 43 eua nflde
My trong nhflng nfim 2001-2009, George
W Bush, da nhfic nhd ngfldi My quan tam den nguon goc aau xa ciia quyln ti? do nfiy trong xa hdi My vfi cho rflng, chinh cfle b$c tiln bdi cua nfldc My trong qufl trinh I4p quoc da nhfin t h i y t i m quan trpng ciia ti?
do tdn gifio dra vdi v i ^ xay di?ng mpt Udn minh on djnh vfi ben vflng Si? quan tflm ddi vdi cfle gia trj tdn giflo da giflp cho George W Bush gianh dflpe si? ung hp eiia mpt bp phfin khdng nhd dan chflng My Theo thong ke, cd tdi 56% nhflng ngfldi
"din nhfl thd ciu nguypn hflng tuIn" da bo philu cho Bush trong eudc blu cfl Tong thing nfim 2000 vfi ty Ip nfly tflng Ien 63% trong cu|e b l u eii nfim 2004 (2) Ngfiy nay, cung nhfl trong lich aii trfldc dfly, da so ngfldi My d l eao cae tfn ngfldng vfi nghi Ii tdn giao ed ban - mdt n i t d$e thfl trong ddi aong ngfldi dfln Thfing 6-2008, Diln dfin Pew ve Tdn giao vfl Ddi song epng
Trang 3cude dilu tra trdn quy md ldn, khao sflt
trdn 35.000 ngUdi, theo dd 92% ngfldi My
cho r i n g hp tin vfio Chua; 76% cho bilt hp
ciu nguydn ft nhfi't mli tuIn m | t lin,
nhilu ngfldi trong s l hp ciu nguy|n hfing
ngfly Cfie kit quA dd cflng phfl hpp vdi cfle
eudc dilu tra da cdng b l trflde dfly, theo dd
cfl 10 ngfldi thl c6 trln 7 ngfldi tuyfin b i t d n
giflo ed y nghta "quan trpng" ho|c "hit aflc
quan trpng" trong cudc sing ciia hp Nilm
tin eho r i n g tfn ngfldng ban thfin nd cd gifi
tr} to ldn da c6 tfl Iflu trong ljeh at! nflde
My Td'ng thing George Waahington da
tflng tuyen btf trong diln vfln k i t thuc
nhidm ky ciia dng vflo nflm 1796 rflng,
ngfldi dfln trong mdt chfnh t h l cdng hda cd
t h l se khdng ti? Ifim chu dflpc dfl't nfldc vfl
cfi diy dii quyln ti? do eua hp n l u hp khdng
cd dfle h p i h Waahington eho rfing, "dfle
hanh dd dfla trdn tdn giflo vfl d^o ly" (3)
1.2 Tdn gido trong chinh adch ddt
ngoai ciia My
Vdi quan diem eho rfing tfl do tdn giflo
lfi try cpt trong hd thing hiin phflp cua
nfldc My, tdn gifio cd anh hfldng Idn d i n tfl
duy cua ngfldi My vdi t h l gidi bin ngofii
Trln thUc t l , ngUdi My tin r&ng nfldc My
dflpe Chua Ii?a chpn trong afl m^nh ehing
lai mpi t h l Ii?e dfln fip t i n giflo vfi ti? do
trfin tofin t h l gidi, r i n g nfldc My c6 sfl
mdnh cai t^o t h l gidi Nilm tin nfiy dflpc
xfiy dflng vfl cung c l trong autft chilu dfli
Ijch sii hinh thfinh vfi phflt triln ciia nfldc
My (4) P h i n ldn cfic hpc gia, chfnh trj gia
My d i u cho rfing, vi$c pho biln dfin ehii vfi
tl? do t i n gifio trdn t h l gidi lfi m | t trong
nhflng bi§n phflp d l cung ctf an ninh eho
nfldc My (5) Ngfiy nay, n l u d i n B | Ngo^i
giao My d thii dd Wasahington D.C, ngUdi
ta t h i y ngay b i n trdn eing chfnh vfio B |
Ngoai giao lfi m | t bfle tranh t h l hi$n rd
dilu nfly Bfle tranh noi tilng vd t r l n
tfldng ciia Kindred MeLeary, hpa si hfing
d i u nflde My, ndi v l cfic quyln ti? do tdn gifio, tl? do ngdn lu|tn, ti? do hdi hpp vfl tfl
do bfio chf Bfle tranh dflpc hofin thfinh nfim 1942, m | t trong nhiing thdi dilm
nhilu thflch thfle nhfl't trong I)ch evt nfldc
My, khi Chiln tranh t h i g i d i thfl hai dang din r i t g i n nfldc My Dilu dd cho t h i y
m | t thi?c t l Ifi, trong quan dilm cua ngUdi
My, ngay ck d nhflng thdi dilm d i t nflde bf
thfieh thfle vfl de dpa, thl mdt trong nhflng trpng tfim chfnh sflch dtfi ngoai cua nflde
My v&n Ifi bao v$ vfi thuc dfly cfic quyln ti?
do cd ban, b i t d i u b i n g quyln tfl do tdn giflo
L}eh sii nflde My cho thfify, b$ thing chfnh tri My ludn cho phip vfl t^o dilu kidn cho cfle nhdm lpi fch tdn gifio ho^t d|ng Bflng cfic cflch khfle nhau, nhfi't Ifi thdng qua la philu cua cfle tfn do, cae nhdm lpi fch tdn giflo tflc dpng vflo chfnh quyln, vflo
Qudc hdi di phfit t r i l n dflc tin vfl md r | n g
anh hfldng tdn gifio ciia minh Tdn giflo trfin thi?c t l ludn ludn bj chfnh trj hda vfl dflpe sii dyng nhfl mdt cdng cy trong ca
n i n ehfnh trj ndi b | cung nhfl trong chfnh sfieh ddi ngogi eua My Cd t h l thiy, ngay tfl thdi ky t h u | c dja cho d i n nay, tdn giflo dflpe afl dyng nhfl m^t cdng cu d l t | p hpp li?c lupng phyc vy cho cfic myc tidu dli n | i vfl dli ngo^i D$c dilm nfiy xuyin suit trong Ijch svl nude My Thdng qua tdn giflo, ngfldi My dflpc giflo dye vfl tuyln truyin v l afl mdnh md ra m^t thdi d ^ mdi khdng phai chi cho nfldc My mfi cdn lfi m | t
n i n dfin ehii trdn tofln c i u vfi m^t " t h l gidi tl? do" Trong tU duy ngudi My, trong " t h l gidi ty do" dd, tfl do tdn gifio Ifl mdt p h i n khdng t h l thilu vfl ddng vai tro quan trpng hfing d i u
Nfim 1998, Ting t h i n g My da ky ban
Trang 4(International Rehgious Freedom Act - HR
2431) Dao lu^t nfiy khing djnh flu tiln
quan trpng trong chfnh afich dli ngogi eiia
My vfl quy djnh efie bi^n phflp mdi d l thfle
diy vfl bao vd quyln ti? do tdn gifio Dgo
luflt eung cho phip thflnh l^p Vfin phdng
Tl? do Tdn giao Qudc t l vfi vj trf Dgi sfl Iflu
dpng phy trflch Quyln ty do tdn giflo qudc
t l tgi Bp Ngogi giao My, c6 nhi|m vy phtfi
hpp cflng nhau d l theo ddi tinh trgng tdn
giao tren tofln t h l gidi, ding thdi xfiy dyng
cfle chfnh sach vfi ehfldng trinh thuc diy
quyln ty do tdn giflo Myc tidu dd dflpe thye
hidn thdng qua sy phdi hpp vdi cfic dgi sfl
qufln My d efie nflde trdn t h l gidi, cfic quan
ehfle nfldc ngofli, cfle td chflc ton giflo vfl
nhfin quyln
Mpt bidn phflp quan trpng mfl Bp ngogi
giao My tiln hfinh hfing nfim lfi Bflo d o
thfldng nien ve quyln ti? do tdn giflo qu6c te
do qudc hdi uy quyln thi?c hi$n Bflo efio
nfly tdm Iflpc thyc trgng quyln ti? do tdn
giao d 197 qudc gia txdn t h l gidi hfing nflm
vfl dflpc cdi^ bo bfing tieng dja phfldng tren
nhieu trang web eiia cfle dgi sfl qufln My d
nflde ngofli Vdi cac nfldc mfl My cho Ifl cfi vi
phgm nghiem trpng quyln ty do tdn giflo
theo tidu ehl ciia My, Bd Ngogi giao My sd
dfla vfio danh sach CPC Trong dilu 405,
khoan A ciia Dgo lu^t Ty do Tdn giao Qudc
t l quy djnh, Tong thong My c6 quyln thyc
hidn cae bidn phflp tfl t h i p din cao ddi vdi
cac nfldc ed trong danh sfieh CPC:
1 Ydu ciu giai thfch (vdi chfnh quyln
My),
2 Yeu e i u giai thich cdng khai trdn
cfie phfldng ti^n thdng tin dgi ehung,
3 Phan ddi b ^ g kenh ngogi giao,
4 Len an tgi cac diln dfln quoc t l ,
5 Hofin hoflc huy bd giao Iflu vfin hda
7 Tfl chdi tilp cac dofln thfim lfim vide, thflm chfnh thfle, thflm cfl'p eao ciia Chfnh phli,
8 Hoan ho$e huy bo eflc dofin thfim lfim vide, thflm chinh thfle, thfim cfi'p cao ciia Chinh phu,
9 Cfit giam ho$c ehlm dflt h i trp phflt triln,
10 NgiKng cfle hogt ddng bao hilm diu
tu cua EXIM Bank, OPIC, TDA
11 Thu hdi, hgn c h i hofic ngflng cfle vi|n trp an ninh quic phdng,
12 Bd philu chtfng tgi cfic to chflc tfli chinh qudc tl,
13 Ap dyng cfl'm vfin dtfi vdi mdt phin hay tdng the doi vdi mpt stf mfit hfing,
14 Cfl'm cfle t l ehfle tfii chinh My cho vay tren mflc 10 tri^u USD,
15 Cfl'm Chfnh phii My ed hpp dong mua hfing hay djeh vu (6)
Nhflng npi dung cua Dgo lu^t Ty do Tdn giao ed hai diem dang Iflu y Mdt Ifi, trong dgo luflt nfiy khdng cd hinh thfle tri^u bdi dgi di^n ngogi giao trong phfin tham quyln ciia Tong thtfng My nhflng Igi quy djnh vipe iiy ban Tfl do Tdn giflo qudc t l
My (mpt t l chflc tfl v i n cho qudc hdi dflpc thfinh Ifip theo Dgo Iu$t Tfl do Tdn giflo Qutfc te) c6 quyln Iden nghj vipe tri^u hoi dgi didn ngogi giao Thfl hai, lufit nfiy eho phdp td'ng thtfng My dupe hoan tfl 90 din
180 ngfiy de tham khao vdi ehinh phii eae nflde bj xd'p vflo danh aflch CPC, cac to chflc nhfln quyln phi chfnh phii vfl eae ben lidn quan My trflde khi quylt djnh lya chpn vi§e fip dyng hinh phgt nflo trong 15 mflc ndu tren
Luflt Tfl do Tdn giflo Quoc t l eung quy djnh, vi$e xip efie nfldc vflo danh aaeh CPC
se ty dpng het hidu lyc sau hai nflm, trfl
Trang 5khi Chfnh quyln My tilp tye dfla nfldc dd
vfio danh sfieh CPC; ding thdi My ed t h l
dfla nfldc dd ra khdi danh afich CPC nlu
nude dd dfi ehfi'm dflt ho$e dfi tiln hflnh
nhflng bi|n phfip cd t h l kilm chflng dflpc
trong vide ehfi'm dflt nhflng vi phgm v l ti?
do tdn giflo theo quan ni^m eiia My Thyc
t l cho thfl'y, ehfnh quyln My fip dyng l u | t
nfiy vdi nhflng Hnh hogt nhfi't djnh Hai
nfim aau khi lufit nfiy cd h i | u lyc, thflng
9-2000, Iln d i u tiln Bd Ngogi giao My cdng
btf danh afleh CPC gim nfim nflde:
Myanmar, Trung Qutfc, Iran, Iraq vfi
Sudan Hai nfldc khfic lfi Serbia vfi
Afghaniatan cung bj xem lfi vi phgm d{Le
bipt nghidm trpng v l ty do t i n giflo,
nhflng do My khdng cdng nh^n Chfnh phii
Serbia vfi Afghanistan ndn khdng xip hai
nfldc nfiy vflo danh aflch CPC (7) Chfnh
quyln My cung khdng ap dyng cfle b i | n
phflp trflng phgt n$ng hdn nhflng gl da fip
dung vdi Myanmar, do nfldc nfly dfl bj hgn
e h l xufi't k h i u vfl trung chuyin cfie t h i l t
bi hflng hda qufin si? tfl trflde dd (8) Dtfi
vdi Trung Qu6c, My cung khdng fip dyng
bi$n phap trflng phat nfio n$ng hdn vide
hgn e h l xufl't k h i u cfie thilt bj phdng
chtfng tpi phgm dfl ap dyng tfl d i u nhflng
nflm 90 t h l ky XX theo Lu^t c h u i n ehi
Ngfin sfieh dtfi ngogi (9) Cung nhfl v|y,
khi Cpng hda Dfin ehu Nhfin dfin Trilu
Tidn bj dUa vfio danh sflch CPC nflm 2001,
Chfnh phu My cung khdng flp dyng t h i m
bidn phflp nflo vi nfldc nfiy dang bj My efi'm
vfln
Khi Ting thtfng Buah vfio Nhfl TrIng, ty
do tdn giao dflpc eoi trpng hdn cfle chfnh
quyln trfldc d6, dong thdi nhflng mH quan
tam ciia Chfnh phii v l ty do tdn gifio d
nhi^m ky thfl hai (2004 - 2008) cao hdn
nhfln ly giai thi?e trgng nfly Mdt Id, ban
thfln Ting thing Bush Ifl ngfldi theo dgo Tin Lfinh, ddng Methodish Mdt stf nhfi nghiSn cflu cho r i n g , Bush thfle sy tin Chua vfi lfi mdt con chidn r i t ngoan dgo M$c dfl ed mdt thyc ttf lfi, trong hflnh vi cua cfic chfnh trj gia, khd c6 t h l phfin bidt dflpe gifla dfle tin eiia hp vdi d|ng cd ehfnh trj, tuy nhiln, khfle vdi eflc Tong thtfng khfle, trong efic phfit bilu edng khai ciia Bush, tdn giflo vfl ty do tdn gifio thfldng xuyen
dflpe d l C4P din (10) Hai Id, v l tfl tfldng
Ting thtfng Bush chju anh hfldng ldn tfl trfldng phai Bao thii mdi Ding thdi, nhflng phy tfl thfln cfln cua Ting thtfng Bush cung theo trfldng phfii nfiy, diln hinh lfi Phd Tong thtfng Dick Cheney NhOng ngfldi bao thii mdi coi nfldc My Ifl sidu dflng, cfle gifi trj My bao gdm ca quan diem v l tfl do tdn gifio mang gia trj p h i qufit vfi ngfldi My cd sfl m^nh bao v$ vfi pho biln cfic gifi trj nfiy
t r l n binh di^n tofln ciu (11) Ba Id, trong
chiln Iflpc ciia chfnh quyln Bush, ben cgnh cupe chiln chtfng khiing btf, v i ^ pho biln dfin chii vfl ty do tdn giflo tren t h l gidi Ifl mdt try c|t quan trpng (12)
Trong nhidm ky d i u , Tong thtfng Bush tuydn btf "ty do, dfin ehu vfl ty do kinh doanh" Ifl "md hinh b i n vflng duy n h i t eho thfinh cdng ciia quSc gia" vfi gfln thfldng mgi, vidn trp My vdi cfle dilu ki^n v l dfln chii, nhfin quyln vfl ty do tdn giflo (13) Trong diln vfin nh$m chflc nhi^m ky thfl hai vfio thfing 1-2005, Ting thtfng Buah dS nhilu Iln nhfic tdi thu^t ngfl "ty do khoi sy
ap d$t" hay "ty do hfinh dpng" vfl khing djnh, nfldc My sd hS trp cho nhflng ngfldi chiln dfl'u cho "ty do" trdn tofln t h l gidi Td'ng thtfng Bush dong thdi cung nhfiii mgnh ring, lpi fch atfng cdn ciia nfldc My
hpp nhfi't vdi dflc tin sflu sflc cua ngudi My
Trang 6Trong qua trinh triln khai ehfnh sfieh
dtfi ngogi, eflc cd quan cua chfnh quyln
Bush the hidn ro tfl tfldng vfi sy coi trpng
v&n d l ty do tdn giflo trong chfnh sfieh dfii
ngogi So vdi chfnh quyln Chnton, ehfnh
quyln Bush rflo riit hdn trong vide thyc
hidn Lu4t v l Ty do Tdn gifio Qudc t l 1998,
t$p trung nhieu hdn vfio tinh hinh ti? do
tdn giao tren t h l gidi vfl coi ty do tdn giflo
nhfl mdt edng cy ciia ehfnh sfleh dli ngogi
Trong each nhin ciia chfnh gidi My v l ty do
tdn gifio, t h l gidi dflpc chia thfinh ba nhdm
qudc gia: (i) cfle qudc gia c6 ty do tdn giflo,
(ii) eflc quic gia khilm khuylt v l ty do tdn
gifio, vfl (iii) cfle quic gia khdng ed ty do tdn
gifio ein d$c bidt quan tfim Quan nidm nfiy
ciia chfnh quyln Bush dfl biln mdt vfl'n d l
tdn giao t h u i n tuy thfinh vin d l quan hd
qudc tl, gfiy bfi't Ipi cho khdng ft qudc gia
trdn thd' gidi, mfi Vidt Nam lfi mpt trong stf
dd
2 Nhan to t o n gifio t r o n g q u a n h$
My - Vi^t N a m glal d o g n 2003-2006
2.1 Qud trinh My dua Viet Nam vdo
danh sach "Cdc nUdc cdn quan tam
die biit vi tdn giao" (2003-2004)
Theo Luflt Ty do Tdn giflo Qudc t l My
1998, Bp Ngogi giao My chju trach nhi^m
chinh trong vi^c theo doi tinh hinh ty tdn
giao tofin ciu, ra bflo eflo hfing nfim vfl
quylt djnh danh sfleh CPC Dtfi vdi Vidt
Nam, tfl sau sfl ki^n xay ra d Tfiy Nguydn
nim 2001, cac bao cao hfing nfim ciia Bp
Ngogi giao My v l tinh hinh ty do tdn giflo d
Vi$t Nam dflpc nhin nh^in theo cac tidu chf
ciia My vfl t h l hidn tfnh tidu eye ngfiy efing
tfing Cfie bao cao tfl nflm 2002 den 2004
t^p trung vfio nhflng khfa egnh mfi My eho
lfi tinh hinh ty do tdn giao d Vidt Nam "xiu
di" ao vdi trflde, trong d6 t^p trung vao ba
chii de vl: vfin de Tin Lfinh d Tfiy Nguyen
Thtfng nhfi't" (UBCV) vfi vy Linh mue Nguyin Vfin Ly
Trong nin chfnh trj n$i b | My, truyin bfl ty do tdn giflo cung nhfl dfln chu, nhan quyln theo kilu My lfi quan dilm thtfng nhfi't gifla eflc dang phfii Tuy nhidn, tren thye t l , ludn t i n tai sy khfle bi$t v l phfldng cfich thyc hi|n gifla cfie dang vfi cfie chfnh trj gia (16) Tgi Quoc hpi My, v l cd ban, hai dang Dfin ehii vfl Cdng hda thtfng nhfi't v l
dfldng Itfi dtfi vdi Vidt Nam trong cae vfiii di
dfln chii, nhan quyln vfl ty do tdn giao nhflng trdn thfle tl, ludn ton tgi hai trfldng phfli vl phfldng cflch giai quylt trong linh vye nfiy Mdt phai chu trfldng duy trt vfi thiic diy hpp tflc vdi Vidt Nam de d i n din giai quylt vfl'n de ty do tdn giflo theo hfldng
My mong mutfn, dflng d i u Ifl hai Thfldng nghj si John McCain vfi John Kerry eflng hai Hg nghj si, Dong ehu tjch Nhdm nghj ai
vi quan hd My - Vi^t Ifl Lane Evan vfi Robert Simmon Phai thfl hai ehu trfldng dflng eflc bipn phap cflng rfin, trflng phgt
de Ip Vi^t Nam thay dd'i, dflng diu Ifl Thupng nghj si Brown Back vfi cac Ha nghj
sT Loretta Sanchez, Chris Smith, Tom David Cac nghj s^ My bfiy td quan diem vfi gfly sflc Ip vdi ehfnh phii trong eac vfin
di dli ngoai b ^ g cfle hinh thfle nhfl: ra
tuydn btf ridng, vilt thfl eho Ngogi trfldng, yeu eiu dilu trln, dfla dy thao nghj quyet,
dy thao lufit Cac hinh thfle tfic dpng nfiy diu cd anh hfldng tdi qufl trinh hogeh djnh ehfnh each dfii ngogi Tuy nhidn, chi khi nflo cfic dy thao lu^t dflpe qudc hdi thdng qua vfi ting thtfng ky thfinh l u | t thi mdi cd gifl trj rfing bupc
Tfl d i u nfim 2000, d§e bi^t lfi sau ay ki^n xay ra d Tay Nguyen nfim 2001, moi nfim cd hfing trflm bfii phat bilu, thdng eao bao chf, thfl ciia ea nhfin vfl eiia nhdm eflc
Trang 7My bfiy td thfii d | v l tinh hinh ty do tdn
gifio d Vidt Nam, d | c bidt Ifl trfldng hpp
Linh mye Nguyin Vfin Ly vfi cfle v i n d l
lidn quan din Tin Lfinh d Tfly Nguyin
Hinh thfle td thfii dd mgnh hdn lfi ra nghj
quylt vfi gidi thi|u dy l u | t ra Quic h | i
Tfnh rilng trong hai nfim 2003 - 2004, theo
thtfng kd ehfla diy du, ed 45 dy lu^t, dy
thao nghj quylt chtfng Vi|t Nam, trong dd
vfin ban c6 tfic ddng ldn n h i t din ehfnh
quyln My lfi Dy lu^t nhfin quyln Vidt Nam
2004, dflpe Hg vi^n My thdng qua ngfly
14-7-2004 vdi 325 philu thu^n, 45 philu
chtfng vfl 65 ngfldi khdng bd phitfu (16) C6
t h l thfi'y, nhflng nh^n djnh vl tinh hinh ty
do tdn giflo d Vidt Nam vfi cfle bidn phflp
trflng phgt neu ra trong dy lu|it nfiy m | t
m$t lfi sy cy t h l hda L u | t ty do tdn gifio
qudc ttf My 1998, m$t khfic t h l hi§n ay fip
d$t dtfi vdi Chfnh phii My Sau dd, cac tfic
gia eiia dy lufit nfiy tim mpi cfich di dy lu^t
dupc thdng qua d Tbflpng vi^n nhflng
khdng thflnh edng
Bdn egnh dd, hogt dpng ciia cfle t l chflc
nhfln quyln nhfl An xfi Qudc t l (Amneaty
International - AI)i Theo doi Nhfin quyln
(Human Right Watch - HRW), Ngdi nhfi Ty
do (Freedom House - HS), Oy ban Ty do
Tdn giflo Qudc ttf My (United Statea
Commission on International Religious
Freedom USCIRF) cung c6 tfic d^ng
n h i t djnh d i n q u i trtnh hogch djnh vfi
triln khai chfnh sfieh ciia chfnh quyln My,
trong d6 USCIRF cd anh hfldng ldn nhfi't
To chflc nfiy dflpe thflnh I | p theo Lu$t Ty
do Tdn giao Quic t l 1998, c6 chflc nfing
theo ddi tinh hlnh ty do tdn giflo tren t h l
gidi, bflo cflo vfi ddc l$p dfla ra cfic khuyin
nghj chfnh sflch cho Tong thtfng, Ngogi
trfldng vfi Quic h | i My Lfi t l chflc do quic
h$i I$.p ra, hogt d^ng biing ngfln sflch nhfi
nfldc vdi 9 iiy vifin hpi ding do Nhfi TrIng
USCIRF cd anh hfldng ldn tdi chfnh sflch tdn gifio cua ehfnh quyln My Trln thi?c ttf, USCIRF dfi cd cfic bfio cflo dflnh gifi tidu eye tinh hinh tAn giflo d V i| t Nam trong cfic nfim 2001-2002 vfi khuyin nghj Chfnh phii
My dfla Vidt Nam vflo danh afich CPC tfl nfim 2003
Trong btfi canh dd, tfl cutfi nflm 2003, Chfnh phu Vi|t Nam dfi n l lyc dtfu tranh chtfng vi|c My dfla V i | t Nam vfio danh sflch CPC Cflng vdi nhflng dli mdi trong chinh sfleh ttfn gifio k l tfl d i u th$p niln 1990, Nghj quylt TW 7 (Nghj quylt 25) nflm
2003 v l Tdn giflo da tgo ra nhiJng thay dli quan trpng v l nh^n thfle vfl quy djnh dtfi vdi tdn giflo Thflng 6-2004, Oy ban Thfldng vy Qutfc bdi da thdng qua Phfip
l | n h Tfn ngfldng Tdn gifio vdi nhflng dilm mdi trong cfic quy djnh v l quan ly Nhfi nflde dtfi vdi linh vyc ttfn gifio Trong Phfip Idnh cd ba dilm mfi phfa My quan tflm: (i) quy djnh rd quy trinh dflng ky cfle t l chflc tdn giflo; (li) quy djnh rd hdn v l vi|c phong ehfle, phong p h i m , bo nhi$m, b l u cti, suy cii trong cfic t l chflc tdn giflo; (iii) quy djnh
v l hogt d | n g xa hpi, tfl thidn nhan dgo cua cfle chflc sfle, nhfl tu hflnh vfl to ehfle tdn gifio Dong thdi, Vidt Nam cung tflng efldng cfic bi$n phflp t r l n cfle kenh ngogi giao cung nhfl cfle hogt ddng xa hpi khfie
nhfl tflng efldng stf lfl<?ng vfl hogt d|ng cua
cfle dofin sang My, vdi thdng di^p lfim rd chfnh sflch eua Dang, Nhfi nfldc ta v l tdn giflo, v | n ddng Qudc hpi, chfnh quyln vfi cfic t l ehfle tdn giflo My h i i u diing v l tInh Mnh ty do tdn giflo d Vi^t Nam Dong thdi, efic bidn phfip v§n dpng n^i b | My thdng qua chfnh i^fldi My do Dgi sfl qufin Vi§t Nam tgi My titfn hfinh dflpc diy mgnh, trong d6 phai k l d i n vi§c thfinh I|.p Nhim nghj SI vi Quan h§ My- Vi^t tgi Hg vi§n My ngfly 2-4-2004 vfl cfle hogt ddng cua nhdm nfiy tgi Hg vi§n My
Trang 8Bfi't chip nhflng etf ging tfl phfa Vi^t
Nam, tfl eutfi nflm 2003 den khi vy bgo logn
xay ra d Tay Nguydn trong djp ll Phye ainh
thfing 4-2004, Chfnh phu My tilp tye bfiy
to quan dilm ngfly cfing mgnh hdn trong
vfiii d l ty do tdn giflo vdi Vi§t Nam, ding
thdi tuyen btf hiiy bd efie cudc d^ thogi v l
nhfin quyln vdi Vidt Nam trong nfim 2003
vfi 2004 vdi ly do khdng ed "tiln triln diy
dli" trong nhflng "vfiii d l chii chtft v l nhfin
quyln" (17) Sy khfle bidt trong efie quan
dilm v l nhfin quyln, v l ty do tdn giflo da
khiln cho hai bdn khdng tim dflpc tilng ndi
chung Ngfiy 15-9-2004, Bd ngogi giao My
cdng btf Bflo cflo Ty do Tdn giflo Qudc t l
nfim 2004, dfla Vi$t Nam vflo danh sach
CPC cflng vdi mdt stf nfldc tren t h l gidi
trong dd ed Trung Qudc vfl Myanmar
2.2 Qud trinh gidi quyit vd'n di CPC
trong quan he My Viet Nam (2004
-2006)
Ngay aau khi My dfla Vipt Nam vfio
danh sflch CPC, Vipt Nam da no lyc dfi'u
tranh de dgt dflpc thda thufin v l vipe giai
quyet vfi'n de CPC trong quan hd vdi My
Bp Ngogi giao, Uy ban Trung fldng Mfit
trfin T l quoc Vipt Nam, Ban Tdn giflo
Chfnh phii, dai bieu cac ehfle sfic tdn giao
vfi cac to chflc hen quan da Ien tieng phan
dtfi quylt djnh eua My (18) Ngfiy
16-9-2004, Ngydi phat ngdn Bp Ngogi giao Vipt
Nam ra tuyen btf phan dli Bflo cflo v l Ty do
Tdn giao ciia Bd Ngogi giao My vfi khfing
dinh chfnh aflch n h i t quan ciia Nhfi nflde
Viet Nam lfi tdn trpng vfi bao vp quyln ty
do tfn ngydi^, tdn giao vfl ty do khdng tfn
ngfldng, tdn giao ciia moi cdng dfin Dong
thdi, cae hogt' dpng tuyen truyin v l tinh
hinh tdn giao trong nfldc cung nhfl cdng tfle
v ^ ddng eflc nhdm xa h^i d My dflpc tfing
Vi$c thyc thi Phflp l^nh Tfn ngfldng Tdn giflo dflpc diy manh k l tfl khi Phap l^nh cd hidu lyc thang 11-2004 Thang 3-2005, Nghj djnh hfldng d&n thi hflnh Phflp l§nh Tfn ngfldng Tdn gifio dflpe ban hfinh, trong
dd kh^ng djnh, "nghidm cfl'm vi^c dp bude edng dan theo dgo, bd dgo ho$c Ipi dyng quyln tfl do tfn ngfldng, tdn giao dl pha hogi hda binh, dpc l^p, thtfng n h i t dfi't nflde" (19) Nghj djnh eung hfldng din cy
t h l quy trtnh dflng ky eflc t l ehfle tdn giao, thii tyc xay dflng vfi cai tao ed sd thd ty cung nhfl cfle npi dung lidn quan trye tilp din nhflng vfiii de phia My quan tfim Sau nhilu vdng lfim vigc vdi n5 Ifle vfi sfl kidn tri cua Vipt Nam, ngfly 5-5-2005, hai bdn ehinh thfle dat dflpc thda thufin vl vide
se khdng cd triftig phat kinh t l dtfi vdi Vi^t Nam va tiln hfinh eac bflde tilp theo de dfla Vi^t Nam ra khdi danh sach CPC Tuy nhidn, ehinh quyln My vin tilp tue chiu sfle Ip tfl mpt atf nhom nghi si vfi cac td ehfle nhan quyen, tdn giao cd chu trfldng trflng phgt Vipt Nam Tgi Thflpng vipn, cfle Thflpng nghi ai ehii trfldng trflng phgt Vipt Nam dflng d i u Ifi Thflpng nghi si Brown Back khdng tfl bd y dinh dfla Dfl lu^t Nhfin Quyln Vi^t Nam Ien Thflpng vidn vfi thfldng xuyen viet thfl cho Tong thtfng vfi Ngoai trfldng, nhfi't Ifi trong nhflng djp Bp Ngogi giao My ra bfio eao thfldng nien v l nhan quyen vfi tfl do tdn giao qutfc te' 6 Ha vi^n, nhdm Ha Nghj si dflng d i u Ifl Hg nghj si Christopher Smith cung phdi hpp hfinh dpng vdi nhom Thflpng nghj si trong vi$c gay sfle dp vdi Qutfe hpi vfi ehinh quyln gifl Vipt Nam trong danh sflch CPC Ding thdi, cac t l chflc nhan quyln, tdn giflo nhfl HRW, FH vfi d^e bi$t USCIRF eung gia tfing cfle
Trang 9Thfing 6-2005, Chinh phu My ddn Thii
tfldng Phan Vfin Khai trong ehuyin thflm
efi'p cao d i u tidn 30 nflm aau chiln tranh
Kit thfle chuyin thfim, Tuyln btf chung xfie
djnh khudn k h i mdi cua quan h§ gifla hai
nfldc lfi "quan h | dtfi tfic xfly dyng, hflu
nghj, hpp tflc nhilu m^t" vfi nguydn tfie giai
quylt cfic vfi'n d l cdn cd ay khfic bidt Ifi "dtfi
thogi thing thfln vfi cdi md v l nhflng vfi'n
d l ein quan tflm, k l ea vi|e thyc hi^n
quyln con ngfldi, dilu kidn cho efie tin d l
vfi dfin tde (t ngfldi"
Thfing 11-2005, trong Bao eflo vl Ty do
Tdn giao cua B^ Ngogi giao My 2005, Vi|t
Nam vSn nfim trong danh sfieh CPC Tuy
nhidn, khfie vdi bao cflo nfim trflde, bao eflo
vl Vi|t Nam nfim 2005 cd mflu afing hdn,
vdi nhin nhfln khfich quan hdn v l nhflng
chuyin biln eua tinh hinh ty do tdn giflo d
Vidt Nam Cung trong thdi gian nfly, Vidt
Nam chii ddng diy mgnh cac giai phflp d l
giai quylt vfi'n d l CPC, trong dfi tfip trung
giai quyet mpt ao vfl'n d l phfa My d l nghj
nhfl: xem xdt d^c xa, cung efi'p thdng tin
cua mpt so trUdng hpp cfl nhfin mfi ngfldi
My quan tfim, diy nhanh vide xem xdt thu
tyc dflng ky hogt dpng eho cfle hd phfli Tin
Lfinh Cdng tfle thdng tin tuydn truyin v l
tinh hinh ty do tdn giflo d Vi|t Nam dflpe
tflng efldng d trong vfi ngofii nfldc Dong
thdi, Vi^t Nam tilp tyc tranh thii efie li?e
Iflpng trong n i n ehfnh trj n^i bp My ldn
tilng doi ehfnh quyln dfla Vi^t Nam ra
khdi danh sfleh CPC
Thfing 2-2006, trp ly Ngogi trfldng My v l
dan chii, nhfin quyln vfi lao d|ng - Dgi sfl
Hanford - da bfit d i u noi Igi cfle cupe dtfi
thogi v l nhfln quyln gifla My vfl Vi$t Nam
sau hai nflm gian dogn Cfle eude tilp xfle,
trao doi thdng tin gifla hai bdn gia tfing
cflng vdi vide Vi^t Nam tiln hflnh fln xa cho
Nam mfl phia My quan tfim trong cac djp
T i t Nguydn dfln 2006, djp ky nidm ngfly Giai phdng miln Nam 30-4 vfi Quic khflnh 2-9 Vi|e thi hfinh efic vfln ban phap lu^t mdi dflpe d i y mgnh, theo dd, p h i n ldn efie
cd sd tdn giflo d Tfly Nguydn dfl hogt d|ng trd lgi, nhilu cd sd dflpc ttfn tgo, vi^c dflng
ky efie chi hdi Tin Lflnh dflpc cai thi$n, Dgi hdi H|i thfinh Tin Lfinh Vi$t Nam (d miln Bfic) vfi Ting Liin hdi Tin Lfinh Vi^t Nam (d miln Nam) dflpc t l chflc vdi sy hidn di§n eua cfle dgi didn Dgi sfl qufln vfl Tong lanh
ey qufln, trong dd cd Ting Lfinh sy qufin
My tgi Thfinh phtf H i Chf Minh
Trong nfim 2006, Chfnh phu My da nhin nh^n kha quan hdn v l quan hd song phfldng My - Vidt Thfing 6-2006, Bd Ngogi giao My cdng khai quang cflo "Nflm 2006 Ifl
nflm dM<}c mfla cua quan hd My - Wi^V (20)
Dfly 16 mdt vide rfl't ft khi Bd ngogi giao My lfim ddi vdi mpt nfldc vfla vfl nhd Tai mpt atf diln dfln, quan chflc Bp Ngogi giao My, d§c bidt Ifi Dgi sfl Hanford da coi \^dt Nam Ifi md hlnh thfinh cdng cua Bp Ngogi giao
My trong vi|c giai quylt vfin d l CPC (21) Ngfiy 13-11-2006 trude khi Tong thtfng Bush de'n Hfl Ndi dy Hdi nghj Cip cao Diln dfln Hpp tfic Kinh ttf chau A - Thai Binh Dfldng (APEC) vfi thfim ehfnh thfle Vi^t Nam, Bd Ngogi giao My edng btf dfla Vi^t Nam ra khdi danh sflch CPC
3 N h $ n xdt Tdn gifio Ifl mdt ehii d l xuyen sutft trong Ijch sii nfldc My k l tfl khi l|ip qu6c eho d i n ngfiy nay Trong tfl duy ciia ngfldi My, ti?
do tdn giflo Ifl mdt n$i hfim quan trpng ciia
ty do, ndi cflch khfle, mpt p h i n khdng t h l thilu ciia ti? do Ifi ty do tdn giflo Chfnh vi v4y, dli vdi ngfldi My, tdn giao vfl thuc diy
ty do tdn giao theo k i l u My Ifi m$t htfp
p h i n quan trpng trong chfnh sach d£a
Trang 10ludn bj ehfnh trj hoa vfi dflpc sfl dyng nhfl
mpt cdng cy trong chfnh afleh doi ngogi My
Qufi trinh My dfla Vipt Nam vfio danh
sach "Cfle nflde ein quan tfim d$c bidt v l
tdn giflo" vfi qufl trinh Vi^t Nam ra khdi
danh sfleh nfiy cho thiy mdt thye t l lfi My
gifl thd' ehu dpng vfi sfl dyng vfl'n di nfiy
nhfl mpt cdng ey thye thi chfnh sfieh dtfi vdi
Vipt Nam Tuy nhidn, Vidt Nam da xii ly
thfinh edng vfi'n d l CPC, khdng d l vfi'n d l
nfiy anh hfldng din bfii mye tieu ldn nhfi't
trong quan hd vdi My giai dogn nfiy
(2003-2006) Ifi: (i) dfla quan hd hai nflde vfio
khudn kho on djnh Ifiu dfii vfi (ii) kd't thuc
dfim phfin vdi My v l vide Vidt Nam gia
nhlip To chflc Thfldng mgi Qutfc t l (WTO)
va dgt dfldc Thda thufin v l Quy che
Thfldng mai Binh thfldng Vinh vien vdi
My (PNTR) Trong qufi trinh dfl'u tranh,
Vi^t Nam da tflng bfldc chuyin quan hd
hai nfldc trong linh vflc tdn giflo tfl eye
didn dtfu tranh Ifi chu dao sang eye didn
vfla dfl'u tranh vfla hpp tfic cflng giai quylt
vin dl Sau khi dat dflpe thda thufln vdi
My, Viet Nam d i y nhanh vipe thyc hi^n
cac nhdm bien phfip d trong nflde vfl nfldc
ngofii, phll hpp hfinh dpng gifla cfle
nganh, eflc elp, tren nhilu linh vyc de dgt
dfldc muc tieu bude phia My phai dfla Vipt
Nam ra khdi danh saeh CPC
Dfic dilm the che chinh trj My, cude dfi'u
tranh ehinh trj npi bp, vai trd cua cac nhdm
ldi fch (interests groups) Ifl nhflng nhfin to
c6 anh hfldng quan trpng din quan h§ My
-Vift, dfic bipt lfi trong vfin d l ti? do tdn
giao Chfnh vi vfiy, vide nghidn cflu sflu di
hiiu ro quy trtnh ra quylt sfieh eung nhfl
ay v^n hfinh eiia cfle nhdm lpi fch trong qufi trinh nfiy mang y nghia h i t sflc quan trpng Thyc t l eho thiy, trong efie quylt djnh dtfi ngogi, qufi trinh ra quylt sflch chju tac ddng eua nhilu cfl nhan vfi td chflc cd lpi (ch khdng gitfng nhau d My Do v|y, vide nghien cflu h0 thtfng v ^ hflnh, qufl trinh tfldng tac gifla cfic nhdm Ipi fch trong qufl trinh ra quylt afleh sfi giup cho ehung ta hiiu ro hdn cfle nhfin ttf tfie ddng den chinh sflch ddi ngogi My cung nhfl nhflng vfi'n dl nfim sfiu trong ban chit eiia quan hd My -Vidt Nam
Vfi'n di tdn giao vfi ty do tdn giflo Ifi vfin
d l nhay cam trong quan hd My - Vipt, dfic bidt Ifl trong giai dogn 2003-2006, khi My dfla Vidt Nam vfio danh sflch "Cae nfldc cin quan tfim dfie bipt ve tdn giflo" vfi sd tilp tyc Ifl vtfn d l gai gde trong quan hd song phfldng Thfle t l Ijch sii cho thiy, cd sfl khac bidt trong quan nidm vl quyln ty do tdn giflo gifla My vdi cfle quoc gia khfle tren
t h l gidi, trong dd, gifla Vift Nam vfl My da vfi dang ton tgi nhflng khfle bift khdng nhd trong vfl'n d l nay Vipe gia tfing dtfi thogi, giao Iflu, tfing efldng bilu bie't lin nhau ed
t h l giam thieu sfl khae bidt, tuy nhien dl giai quylt nhflng vin de ty do tdn giflo trong quan hd gifla bai nfldc thi nhflng tien trien ciia Vift Nam trong vide thfle hipn cdng tfic tdn gifio, hofln thidn hp thtfng lufit phflp v l ton giflo, Ifi mpt trong nhiing nhfln
t i e d y nghia quylt djnh
CHU THf CH
(1) Catherine L Albaneae: "Sfl da d^ng vi tfin
gifio d nifdc My thdi ky mdi l$p quic" Tgp chf Cdc
nhdm tdn gido thiiu si d Hoa Ky, thfing 8-2008
http://vietnamese.vietnam.uaembasey.gov/doc_ej08
(2) Kirkpatrick, David D: "The 2004 Campaign: The Republican Agenda; Draft GOP Platform Backs Bush on Security, Gay Marriage,
and Immigration" The New York Times