An investigation of the construction of CTU khmer students’ identities under the motivational english learning framework

iii ABSTRACT Key words: identity, the construction of identity, English learning motivation, language, ethnicity, CTU Can Tho University Khmer students, bilingual and bicultural learnin

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

B.A Thesis

Putting on a Mask or Putting off the Mask

Guiding Theme:

An Investigation of the Construction of CTU Khmer Students’

Identities under the Motivational English Learning Framework

Supervisor: Student:

Mr NGUYỄN HỒNG CHÍ, MEd Trần Thị Diễm Phúc

(Center of Foreign Languages) Code: 7063030

Class: NN0654A1

Can Tho, April 2010

CAN THO UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

B.A Thesis

Putting on a Mask or Putting off the Mask

Guiding Theme:

An Investigation of the Construction of CTU Khmer Students’

Identities under the Motivational English Learning Framework

A 10-credit thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the

Degree of Bachelor of English of Can Tho University

Supervisor: Student:

Mr NGUYỄN HỒNG CHÍ, MEd Trần Thị Diễm Phúc

(Center of Foreign Languages) Code: 7063030

Class: NN0654A1

Can Tho, April 2010

ii

Statement of Originality

I certify that this work has not been submitted in whole or in part to this university or to

any other educational institution for marking and assessment either previously or

concurrently I also certify that I have not received any outside help and that unless

otherwise attributed the material presented is all my own original work

Trần Thị Diễm Phúc

April 2010

iii

ABSTRACT

Key words: identity, the construction of identity, English learning motivation,

language, ethnicity, CTU (Can Tho University) Khmer students, bilingual and bicultural

learning environment

The construction of individuals’ identities which is often seen as a complex process of

identity formation and transformation and EFL learners’ motivation in learning English

are two common topics that have been researched and reported in literature in order to

facilitate the learner-centered teaching approach This paper explores the process of

identity construction of Khmer students at CTU (the dependent variable) under the

influences of motivation in learning English (the independent variable) The current

study aims to find out how CTU Khmer students construct their identities in English

classrooms and what types of learning motivation affect this process The study is a

qualitative one which employs recorded face-to-face interviews as the main instrument

for data collection and analysis The participants involved in this study were 10 Khmer

students randomly chosen from different majors and courses studying English at CTU

The findings of the research are supposed to help English educators have an insight into

the construction of Khmer students’ identities in order to apply appropriate pedagogical

approaches in teaching Khmer students at Can Tho University which is now seen as a

bilingual and bicultural learning environment The results demonstrated that the Khmer

students try to adapt themselves in a new environment by changing some identities at a

salient level such as habits, language and dressing styles whereas their ethnicity as the

core identity remains unchanged In addition, the Khmer students have a tendency to

integrate another core identity – that of the dominant group – into their own, becoming a

bicultural individual If each identity is seen as a mask, then the Khmer students have

worn some masks as they changed their identities and added in new identities However,

these masks are positive ones The results of the study showed little relationship

between the construction of Khmer students’ identities and English learning motivation

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study has been completed with the help and support of many people Therefore, I

am grateful to all of them

First and foremost, I would like to express my deep gratitude to my dedicated

supervisor, Mr Nguyen Hong Chi, who instructed me during the process of the thesis

Dear Thay Chi, thank you very much for your suggestion on the research topic and your

support during the time I was conducting the research You have devoted a lot of energy

and valuable time advising and correcting my thesis Without your help, encouragement

as well as patience to me, I would not have completed the thesis Working with you, I

have learned a lot of valuable knowledge and experiences of doing research and other

social knowledge as well In short, I owe a great debt of thanks to you for what you have

done for me

Next, I would like to send my special thanks to Bui Thi Diem Thuy and Ngo Thi Hong

Nhung, my two close friends and classmates, who supported me in translating the

covering letter and the interview questions and transcribing the record for my easy

analysis I am particularly grateful to Ngo Thi Hong Nhung for searching and lending

me related books for my reference

I am also grateful to Ngo Vinh Hung, my classmate, who advised me on the recording

software and lent me the microphone to record the interviews Many thanks to Phung

Xuan Truc, Duong Thi Ngoc Mai and Le Kieu Oanh, my three group-mates in the

Translation 3 course as they gave me good conditions during the time I conducted my

study

Finally, my thanks are due to Khmer students at Can Tho University who

enthusiastically participated in the interviews Without their assistance, my study could

not have been conducted

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS Statement of originality Page ii Abstract iii

Acknowledgements iv

Table of Contents v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale 1

1.2 Research questions 2

1.3 Research objectives and significance 2

1.4 Organization of the thesis 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 4

2.1 The construction of identities 4

2.2 Definition of English learning motivation 9

2.3 Interrelationship between the construction of identities and learning motivation 11

2.4 Some social-cultural features of Khmer people in the Mekong Delta 12

2.5 Hypotheses 15

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 16

3.1 Research design 16

3.2 Participants 18

3.3 Data collection instruments 18

3.4 Data collection procedure 19

3.5 Methodological limitations 20

CHAPTER 4: DISCUSSION 21

4.1 Language as a marker of Khmer students’ ethnic identity 21

4.2 Other distinctive factors 22

4.3 Integration but not assimilation 23

4.4 Ethnicity in foreign language education 25

4.5 Khmer students’ adaptation in the new context 27

4.6 Khmer students’ attitudes towards English learning 27

vi

CHAPTER 5: IMPLICATIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 30

5.1 Implications 30

5.2 Conclusion 30

5.2 Topics for further research 31

References 32

Appendices 36

Appendix 1: Covering letter 36

Appendix 2: Interview questions 38

Appendix 3: Interview scripts 40

Recently, a variety of studies (Hamley, 2001; Meynert, 2007; Purdie et al., 2000; Ricento, 2005; Schopflin, 2001; Stets & Burke, 2003) have been conducted on English learners’ identities since the flourish of multiculturalism and multilingualism The acquisition of a new language equally means the acquisition of a new culture which could impose many influences on the construction of one’s identities that are normally seen as their core values to construct their nature, instinct or as existential self Likewise, as an important factor in English learning success, motivation has become one

of the major topics for research on English language learning and the success of English proficiency According to Gardner (1985), motivation has many influences on English learners’ attitudes toward learning English as well as their academic results Therefore,

it is assumed that motivation may also have influences on the construction of English learners’ identities

However, little is known about the effects of English learning motivation on the construction of identities of English learners, especially, learners of English as a foreign language One’s identities consist of social identities, personal identities and collective identities (Snow, 2001) In addition, as stated by Hamley (2001), one’s identities may turn different or even disappear in different contexts and different periods of time Therefore, the concern of how Khmer students’ identities is constructed or changed under the motivational English learning context should be taken into consideration

2

1 2 Research Questions

The construction of identities depends on both objective factors and subjective factors Objective factors can lead to internal changes that culminate in changes in one’s identities or create new identities However, Meynert (2007) states that it is subjectivity that determines the construction and transformation of an individual’s identities Specifically, the construction and transformation of one’s identities in an English learning context, as posited by Yihong, Yuan, Ying, and Yan (2007), are in close relation to many different types of learning motivation For the above reasons, this study aims to investigate the construction of Khmer student’s identities in the English classrooms at CTU Additionally, the types of motivation affecting their construction of identities in different ways will be examined to verify whether there is a relationship between identities and motivation Therefore, this study is going to answer the following questions:

1 How do the Khmer students construct their identities in the English learning context of CTU?

2 What types of English learning motivation affect their identity construction?

3 How do these motivation types affect their identity construction?

1.3 Research Objectives and Significance

Learning English in a Vietnamese speaking environment seems hard for Khmer students

to neutralize the differences among the different languages and cultures Therefore, they may change or generate some identities in order to adapt themselves to the new context This study aims to investigate the process and the ways they construct their identities as well as the motivational factors influencing this construction process; and through the result, propose appropriate pedagogical strategies so as to motivate their construction of positive identities and to minimize their sufferings and sacrifices As discussed earlier, the study investigates the ways in which the Khmer students in English classrooms at CTU construct their identities and what motivational factors affect this process of construction The results of the study are of value in terms of helping langauge educators, higher education practitioners and administrators pay close attention to the design of English curricula and teaching styles to help the Khmer students construct their identities positively without losing their identities, especially collective ones

3

1.4 Organization of the thesis

1.4.1 Organization of the thesis

The thesis consists of five chapters, including (1) Introduction, (2) Literature Review, (3) Research Methodology, (4) Results, and (5) Discussion, Conclusion, and Limitations

Chapter one has presented the statement of the problem concerning CTU Khmer students’ identities and the possibilities they may give up or add in some identities under the influences of the English learning environment The background information and the reasons for the conduction of the research are also presented The chapter also introduces the research questions as well as the research objectives Finally, the thesis organization and significance of the research are mentioned in the last section of the chapter

The literature review presented in Chapter Two attempts to clarify the definition

of the terms identity and motivation, specifically motivation in English learning Besides, a number of related studies are cited along with the theoretical analysis of the issues The literature review also mentions the correlation between English learning motivation and the construction of identities, and it wraps the review with a brief overview of Khmer students’ identities

Chapter Three focuses on the research method with the description of the research design, and the participants A detail description of the instruments used for the data collection and methodological limitations are also included

Chapter Four shows the results of the investigation It then compares the identities of Khmer students at CTU and those at their hometown to examine how they construct their identities in the different environments

The last chapter tests the hypotheses, summarizes, and concludes the main results

of the study

Literature Review 4

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 The Construction of Identities

Identity is important to every person’s sense of their own individuality and positions in society In general, identity or the self is seen as a discrete entity with a unique and distinctive esteem, image or individuality In other words, we could tell an individual apart from every other thanks to his or her identities It is necessarily noticed that identity is a complex combination shaped by individuals’ multiple identities of several domains ranging from physical and mental characteristics to behaviours, experiences and relationships with others in society, etc No single identity could fully and distinctively describe an individual as a whole self Individuals’ identities could be identified through their perception of themselves or others’ view of them One’s identities could be viewed by different individuals’ perpectives Still some of his or her identities exist unconsciously For example, student A may see himself as easy-going and humorous while his friends see him as friendly and trustworthy, his teachers notice his intelligence and his parents think of him as a hardworking child, but no one realizes that A still has a good sense of music Additionally, identities involve both positive and negative aspects A student may see herself studious but inactive Therefore, a full image of a person should be all the characteristics described by all different perceptions

Individuals’ identities serve two basic functions: to distinguish them from others and, at the same time, to include them in groups of other individuals who have similar identities to their own According to Hall (1991, cited in Meynert, 2007), identity does not mean a product but the process of identification, i.e the process of understanding oneself and how one is different from others However the structure of identification is formed through ambivalence – through the inclusion of what is mine and the exclusion

of what is others’ People with similar identities tend to get together forming a group in which their identities would be shared, appreciated and confirmed, which helps them feel confident, comfortable and secured They naturally form a bound to prevent the invasion of others whose identities are different from theirs in an attempt to protect their ease and security However, in reality, individual differences within a group still exist Individuals could share the same identities with other members in the group, but it is their background, internal beliefs, feelings, meanings as well as different reactions toward these same identities that keep them apart from the others For example, a

Literature Review 5

student may think that he or she must be studious and academic while another student may feel him or herself active and sociable being a student A certain identity thus implies many different meanings to one individual or different individuals

It is supposed that there are two hierarchies of identity In the first order that is termed “salience hierarchy” by Stryker (1980, cited in Stets & Burke, 2003), identities are expressed through explainable and visible signs or expressions through which one could present themselves For example, one may say that “I keep my hair long because I

am a girl,” or “I greet you by bowing and clasping my hands because I am a Khmer.” However, there are some beliefs or moral values that are unexplainable These identities belong to the second hierarchy termed “prominence hierarchy” by McCall and Simmons (1978, cited in Stets & Burke, 2003) It seems hard to explain why girls’ hair must be long and why Khmer people have such a style of greeting Unexplainable identities are

ascribed to myths or divine arbiters

Modernist discourses, which assert the existence of a stable and knowable self and absolute truth, emphasize that people’s identities are stable Each individual would correspondingly have a static and fundamental identity with his or her own subjective meaning and reasoning that distinguishes the “self” from the “other”, and “we” from

“they” Whereas, postmodernist ideology, which rejects modern grand narratives, favoring “little-narratives” and fragmentation, believes that identities are contemporary and could probably be displaced and replaced in different locales and different points of time Advocating the viewpoint of postmodernism, Hamley (2001, p.7) states that identity is not a fixed thing, but “something that is constructed over a period of time and can constantly be updated or changed completely.” According to postmodernist conceptions, people may well have both new and old identities The new may replace the old completely, or they may co-exist simultaneously with each other However, in reality, some of an individual’s identities such as gender and race, which partly compose

of their core identity, do remain unchangedalthough, over time and space, some of his or her characteristics may be adjusted

Snow (2001) points out that there are three kinds of identities: personal identities, social identities and collective identities Personal identities or self-identities, as suggested by Snow (ibid., p.2), are “self-designations and self-attributions regarded as personally distinctive.” In addition, self-identities have “both a knowledgeable and an evaluative component” (Berry, in press; Tajfel, 1982, cited in Purdie, Tripcony, Boultn-Lewis, Fanshawe, & Gunstone, 2000, p 4) That is self-identities involve both “who I am” and “what I think of who I am.” Social identities, also called “role identities” (Stryker, 1980, cited in Snow, 2001, p 14) or “categorical identities” (Calhoun, 1997,

Literature Review 6

ibid.), are created since individuals interact with the society in which they play a certain role such as “teacher”, “student”, “child”, or “parent.” (Hall, 1991, cited in Meynert, 2007) According to Snow (ibid.), social identities are fundamental to social interaction Collective identities are constructed when individuals share the same identities and try

to maintain these similar identities to be in the crowd (Snow, ibid.) In other words, if personal identities are concerned with the concept of “who I am”, then collective identities concern that of “who we are.” The shared meaning of the self in a collectivity enables its members to make assumptions about another’s identities (Schopflin, 2001)

Snow (2001) also acknowledges that the three kinds of identities of a person often overlap and function reciprocally Those who identify themselves as a member of

a collectivity or group would integrate the group’s values, attitudes, and perspectives into their personal identities to build up the whole self However, the expression of these identity types could be somehow different in specific situations (Hamley, 2001) The identity or the self we show to a friend may be different from the identity we present to a teacher or a family member This indicates the diversity in people’s expression of identities

Besides, Hong, Wan, No, and Chiu (2007) suggest another kind of identity termed cultural identity The researchers highlight that collective identity and cultural identity are two distinct constructs although they may well overlap each other Individuals may identify themselves with collective identities but not with cultural identities which characterize that collectivity and vice versa For example, Buddhism is commonly distributed in the Khmer community, but some Khmer people may solely undertake their Khmer identities not Buddhist identities Hong and colleagues (ibid.) also points out that those who strongly identify themselves with collective identities are likely to take on the cultural identities that are widely spread within the collectivity Similarly, people having strong identification with cultural identities that belong to a particular group may also integrate the identities of the group to the definition of the self

Schopflin (2001) emphasizes that collectivities, minorities, for example, mark their identities with boundary markers and filters and sustain their existence through

“collective norms” or “moral regulation” regarded as criteria to judge others’ behaviours

or ideas Boundary markers can be a place, kinship, history, traditions, etc., and, most importantly, language Cobb (2001) suggests that if the norms are apparent, people’s sense of membership would be strengthened because they could clearly distinguish between their own and other groups According to Papalia and colleagues (2001), however, if their ethnicity reveals some conflict with the values of the dominant group –

Literature Review 7

for example, when they face prejudices against their ethnic community - then they may

experience some confusion and uncertainty about their identities In response to the conflict, as Meynert (2007) points out, the minorities may choose one of three options The first option is that they may assimilate This means they would lose their own language and boundary markers and define themselves as the dominant people The second option is to “co-exist peacefully” and accept their subordination To do so, they have to reproduce their norms in order to make their identities accepted because they recognize the power of the dominant group However, as proposed by Doreen Rosenthal and Shirley Feldman (1992, cited in Cobb, 2001), some ethnic identities may be unchangeable because they constitute to the core of the groups The third option is to struggle for secessionism and full independence

The construction of identities is a complicated and fluid developmental process throughout one’s life The process occurs when there is a need for defining new aspects

of the surroundings and the self because of people’s awareness of the differences between the self and the other (Cobb, 2001) Individuals or groups are considered as a social being under the great influences of the society or the surroundings to which they belong and interact Each individual in the collectivity often upholds shared identities to show their membership in the group, and as such, their previous identities may be at risk

of disappearance In these cases, factors that help guarantee their identities perhaps are the collective meanings or the internal spirit each individual because, as explained by Schopflin (2001, p 4), “all collectivities and individuals use various forms of cognitive

shorthand to make the world intelligible.”

Additionally, when the sense of membership of individuals becomes inconsistent with the sense of their self or somehow presents a negative self-image, spiritual conflicts within the individuals are more likely to occur They would become confused about who they really are These individuals, in order to solve the problems, may selectively form identities that present their positive self-image or positive identities in a specific context (Turner, 1987, cited in Pittinsky, Shih, & Ambady, 1999) This implies that they try to deflect some of their identities, which may make them exhausted from not feeling free

to show their actual self According to Claude Steele’s (1988, cited in Gale, 2008) affirmation theory, if a certain identity is threatened or criticized, people tend to reinforce another identity in an area of their dominant value so that their self-integrity would be rebuilt by leading others to identify them through their achievements rather than their weaknesses For example, student Qu may be not very good at sports, but she would try to show people that she sings well

self-Literature Review 8

Identity construction and transformation may also take place owing to the potential conflicts of multiple identities within an individual Therefore, this kind of identities should be adapted in accordance with the others in order not to cause identity conflicts or cognitive dissonance Festinger (1957, cited in Heine & Lehman, 1997) asserts that cognitive dissonance is an unpleasant experience caused by the inconsistency between two or more components, typically between one’s beliefs and behaviours It is considered by many researchers (Markus & Kitayama, 1991; Triandis, 1989; Weisz, Rothbaum, & Blackburn, 1984, cited in Heine & Lehman, 1997) that individuals’ behaviours are executed under the control of their internal thoughts, beliefs, attitudes, and judgments Therefore, by changing their controlling values over their behaviours, people could modify their behaviours in accordance with common social expectations; and in so doing they could reduce or remove cognitive dissonance

In the process of development and interaction with the world outside, individuals frequently confront changes which create possibilities to construct a new identity According to Cobb (2001), people who open themselves to new possibilities tend to allow themselves freedom to accept new identities or identity changes in the construction of their whole identity Conversely, foreclosed people who take their identities (especially religious beliefs) for granted tend to be more authoritarian and closed to possibilities that may challenge their self integrity Therefore, changes seem hard to occur Whether a new identity or an existing identity is successfully constructed

or transformed or not depends on the degree of personal desire and the power of influential factors If one’s desire corresponds with external forces, a new identity is likely to be formed Otherwise, one must sacrifice some identity, which usually leads to resistance, conflicts, struggles during the process of identity construction Even so, the transformation of identities is believed to take place at superficial levels of subjective identities like appearance, actions and so on Whereas, the one’s base or inner meanings

or objective identities like race, gender, religion, class, and national origin are unlikely

to be changed

2.2 Definition of English Learning Motivation

Various studies have been conducted to investigate the importance of motivation as one

of the influential factors to the success of English learning In the context of this study, motivation would be examined as a determining factor during the construction process

of the Khmer students’ identities in CTU English classrooms Motivation is an internal psychological force within an individual that fosters the individual to devote effort in order to achieve certain goals As stated by Kanfer (1990, cited in Ke & Zhang, 2007), motivation could determine one’s behaviour, increase their level of effort and the ability

Literature Review 9

to stay persistent when facing difficulties In terms of foreign/second language learning, specifically, Gardner (1985) describes motivation as a construct with three aspects: effort, desire to achieve the goal of learning the language, and favorable attitudes toward the study of the language Among the three factors, learners’ attitudes seem to be a prerequisite for learning motivation For example, if learners like the target language, they would learn it effectively with great effort and pleasure; otherwise they can make little effort or pay little attention to learning it In other words, as Vo (2002) suggests, learners’ view of the importance of the target language determines how they engage in the learning of that language However, Gardner (1985) also emphasizes that the lack of any of the three factors would not lead to actual motivation Therefore, a truly motivated learner is the one who is enthusiastic in learning and tries his/ her best to make progress

in that activity Also, motivated students, as described by Winke (2005), are those who are persevering and willing to confront challenges or difficult tasks during the learning process to achieve their objectives or aspirations Motivation is thus considered an essential and determining factor to English learners’ success, although English learning may have different meanings to different learners

There are a variety of factors that could well become good motives and motivational conditions for English learning students These factors include external ones like learning situation which Dornyei (1994, cited in Vo, 2002) divides into three areas: course-specific motivational components, teacher-specific motivational components, and group-specific motivational components There are also internal factors such as “self-confident” (Clement, Dornyei & Noels, 1994, cited in Gao, Zhao, Zheng & Zhou, 2004), “salience of goals”, and “self-efficacy” (Tremblay & Gardner,

1995, cited in Gao, Zhao, Zheng & Zhou, 2004, p 10) Recently, in-depth research on the structure of motivation conducted by Qin and Wen (2002, cited in Gao, Zhao, Cheng

& Zhou, 2004) has suggested other contributing factors of motivation such as learning achievements, attribution to learning results, learning interest, self-efficacy, and orientation of goals Yihong, Yuan, Ying and Yan (2007), in their study on the relationship between English learning motivation types and self-identity changes among Chinese students, suggest seven different motives the Chinese students may possess including intrinsic interest, immediate achievement, learning situation, going abroad, social responsibility, individual development, and information medium

Motivational factors basically fall into two distinct types proposed by Porter and Lawler (1964, cited in Ke & Zhang, 2007): intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation indicates being motivated for one’s own sake and feelings (Vansteenkiste, Simon, Lens, Sheldon & Deci, 2004, cited in Seven & Engin, 2008) In this sense, intrinsic motivation is internally generated depending upon each

Literature Review 10

individual’s identities, emotional states and situations; and “appears to be self sustained” (Deci, 1975, cited in Ke & Zhang, 2007, p 32) In contrast, extrinsic motivation in learning English is outside factors that motivate a person to learn in order “to achieve some instrumental end such as earning a reward or avoiding a punishment” (Deci & Ryan, 1985, cited in Conttia, 2007, p 20) Thus, extrinsic motivation in an English classroom may derive from such factors as the teacher, the class atmosphere, the course content, materials and facilities, etc which could be classified into another type of motivation proposed by Gardner (2007) namely classroom learning motivation

Regarding social psychological aspects of English language learning, Gardner and Lambert (1972, cited in Vo, 2002) suggest another classification of motivation: instrumental motivation and integrative motivation Instrumental motivation is the aspiration to learn a new language as a means to gain a certain practical goal or to meet some requirement such as passing a credit course, or getting a well-paid job Meanwhile,

an integratively motivated learner desires to learn a new language because he or she likes that language and wants to be part of the group of people who speak it In other words, the learner feels like integrating or communicating with the community in which the target language is spoken However, Benson (1991, cited in Norris-Holt, 2001) suggests that integrative motivation also means the desire to become bilingual and bicultural to EFL learners, and that this type of motivation may occur during the integration of the target language and its culture to the learners’ own cultural identities Comparing and contrasting the two kinds of motivation, many researchers (Crookes et al

1991, cited in Norris-Holt, 2001; Ellis 1997; Taylor, Meynard & Rheault, 1977) insist that integrative motivation has a deeper and longer influence on language acquisition of learners, and thus students being integratively motivated are more likely to succeed than those with instrumental motivation

It is difficult to identify particular motivation types a student may have In fact, there may be an intricate combination of multiple types of motivation that occurs during the process of English learning For example, a student may learn English for fun, to get

a good job and at the same time to communicate with English speakers It is obvious that this student has intrinsic, instrumental and extrinsic motivation As for Vietnamese EFL learners, Ellis (1996, cited in Tran, 2007, p.153) concludes that their motivations are formed by the “teacher’s initiative” and the “students’ will to succeed.” This conclusion indicates that Vietnamese students seem to hold instrumental motivation rather than integrative motivation To a larger extent, they tend to sustain extrinsic motivation instead of intrinsic one as their usual goals in learning English are to get a better job, to study abroad, or simply to meet a course requirement In addition, it is supposed that each student could probably hold different motives; and as motivation is

Literature Review 11

influenced by specific learning environments and each leaner’s identities, some kinds of motivation a student possesses may change if he or she is in a different classroom environment or if his or her identities change A student studying English as a foreign language in the monolingual homeland may have more instrumental motivation than integrative motivation since he or she has little or no contact with the target community However, if the student goes to study overseas, he or she may tend to learn English in order to interact with native speakers

In conclusion, with respect to the achievement in English learning, motivation is considered an essential factor that learners should have in order to become successful Besides, being an attribute strongly related to learners’ identities, motivation is supposed

to impose its influences on the construction of their identities In the current study, motivation would be examined whether it influences the construction of Khmer

he or she likes the new language and the culture in which it is spoken Moreover,

“individual development” motivation is found to be interrelated to “self-confidence” change This result reveals the importance of English learning as an instrumental motivation to meet one’s self-esteem needs (Maslow, 1957, cited in Yihong, Yuan, Ying, & Yan, 2007) Motivation types, the process of identities construction and the correlation between the two variables may vary depending on specific contexts, and it needs further investigation and examination

2.4 Some Social-Cultural Features of the Khmer people in the Mekong Delta

Khmer people in the Mekong Delta were originated from Cambodia, having the same culture and the same Khmer language with different dialects, which is part of the Mon-Khmer language They immigrated to the Mekong delta since the 12th century because

Literature Review 12

they had to suffer from hard labor and beggarly poverty caused by Cambodian Feudal oppression (especially the Angkorean Empire) In the 15th century, Khmer people continued to be stricken by poverty caused by Thai domination as the Angkorean Empire collapsed (Nguyen, 1998) To escape from foreign oppression, more and more Khmer people emigrated to the Mekong Delta During the late 17th century, Mac Cuu, a Chinese anti-Qing general, began to expand Vietnamese and Chinese settlements deeper into Khmer lands in Ha Tien At that time, Khmer people along with the Vietnamese and Chinese lived peacefully together without any government Until 1698, the Nguyen Lords set up their authority in the Mekong Delta

Although the Khmer live together with other peoples, they could also remain their traditional inhabitation A typical Khmer family consists of parents and their children, and several families having blood relations and neighboring relations get together forming their traditional settling place called phum and srok Phum and srok are

a traditional self-governed social organization of the Khmer The head of a phum or srok

is an aged and experienced person who has prestige in the community Nowadays, the leader of the phum or srok no longer controls the community but still has influences on the community members in terms of feelings (Trinh, 2006)

The Khmer have a wide area of accommodation throughout the Mekong Delta They can live on hills, along mountain sides, river sides, etc (Nguyen, 2005) However, there is an unequal distribution in the Khmer population in the Mekong Delta For example, according to (Nguyen, 1998), in Tra Vinh Province the Khmer primarily center at Tra Cu district, which makes up 68.2 % of the province’s population And only

3 out of 13 communes of Tra Cu consist of over 70% of the Khmer population The other communes consist of 50% or less

In the Mekong Delta, they live mostly on agriculture and handicraft, so their annual incomes are still low As concluded by Nguyen and Tran (2005), this difficulty results from both internal problems like low education, small land holding, poor economic management capacity, etc and external problems such as less opportunity to education, training, low access to information, poor infrastructure facilities Recently, the number of pupils dropping school tends to increase in the Mekong Delta Statistics

in the first semester of the 2007-2008 academic year have shown that 56% of drop-outs are Khmer pupils (Vinh, 2008) Teachers at the Mekong Delta schools having a large number of dropping pupils said that beside financial difficulties, the major problem of these pupils is that they cannot speak the Vietnamese language and they cannot understand what teachers say

Literature Review 13

The Khmer people still remain several special festivals including both traditional and religious ones which form a unique identity for the Khmer collectivity Each year, they organize hundreds of celebrations and festivals out of which the three most important ones are Chôl Chnăm Thmây, Sen đônta, and Ok Om Bok These festivals are somewhat similar in terms of worship and beliefs, etc.; each yet has its specific legends, meanings as well as ways of organization These celebrations still remain today even though there have been changes in organizational forms and scales along with changes in society, economy and governmental policies These days, most festivals just last for 1 to 3 days instead of 2 weeks or more as they did in the past Most ceremonials

of the religion are performed widely since most of the Khmer people are religious and their social activities involve religiousness as a result Simply put, there is no clear distinction between the two common kinds of the Khmer peopleỖs festivals

It could be said that the Vietnam located KhmersỖ identities are strongly identified by their religious beliefs and practices Their official religion is Theravada Buddhism since the majority of them are followers of Buddhism The religion has been imported to the Khmer population since the 13th century, becoming the main creed of the Khmer people However, before the presence of Buddhism, the Khmers were influenced by Brahmanism and folk beliefs which were practiced by their Cambodian ancestors Little of these beliefs still exist these days (Nguyen, 2003) In the Khmer commune, social life and religious life often overlap since most people are religious and the religion is socialized Cultural and traditional activities as well as important meetings of Khmer people mainly take place at pagodas A Khmer boy at the age of 12 will be sent to a pagoda to gain knowledge and to learn traditional moral values After a few years leading a religious life, he could choose whether to return to the secular life or not The Khmer people believe that those who have been trained in a pagoda would become smart, trustworthy and widely respected Unlike Kinh peopleỖs Mahayana Buddhism, Theravada Buddhism of the Khmer people solely worship the Great Buddha

Regarding Khmer Pagodas, statistics show that there are over 400 Khmer pagodas with about 10000 monks throughout the Mekong delta (Trinh, 2006) The Khmer people protect their pagodas as their own life They always devote their effort and properties to the beauty and prosperity of the pagodas regardless of difficult living conditions It is often said that where there is a Khmer person, there is a Khmer pagoda, which may indicate that, to the Khmer people, pagodas are the most solemn and respectful place thanks to their several important roles in every Khmer personỖs life The Khmer pagodas are a place not only for religious practices and praying but also for social and cultural activities and conmmunal meetings Beside festivals and celebrations, the Khmer people also go to pagoda regularly when experiencing a happy or

Literature Review 14

problematic event Additionally, the Khmer pagodas teach the Khmer monks and people general knowledge and the Khmer and Pali language so as to help the people become more knowledgeable and lead an honest and helpful life Especially, the Khmer pagodas are the only place that represents the Khmer group’s masterpieces of architecture, sculpture and panting showing the intelligence, aesthetics, creativeness and skillfulness

of talented Khmer craftsmen The structures and decoration of the Khmer pagodas in the Mekong Delta are mostly similar to those in pagodas in Campodia In short, the Khmer pagodas are the very place where their distinctive traditional and cultural values like language, manners and customs, legends, cultural and religious activities, folk arts, etc are maintained and popularized That is the reason why pagodas always win the Khmer people’s faith and respect

On the whole, their history, traditions and culture are similar to the Khmer people

in Cambodia in many aspects For example, besides Sakyamuni Buddha that is mainly worshipped in each Khmer pagoda, statues of Gods from Hinduism are still worshipped

in some Khmer pagodas However, some of their cultural values have also been modified to fit the residential environment Their narrative of Chôl Chnăm Thmây is a typical example If the main character of the legend of Chôl Chnăm Thmây in Cambodia

is a prince, that of the Mekong Delta legend is just a normal boy (Pham, 2007) Specifically, the Khmer students in the Mekong Delta feel a strong ethnic identity when they are at home and their community They speak in Khmer and practice their tradition cultural values However, they also see themselves as part of the Kinh group when being with Kinh people They speak Vietnamese and act as the Kinh people do As most of their time spent on studying from the very first age of schooling, they mostly communicate with others in Vietnamese and solely learn the Khmer language in summer vacations, some of the Khmer students could not speak Khmer fluently and still some could speak but could not write in Khmer

2.5 Hypotheses

Based on the analysis of the practical background at CTU as well as my understanding

of identity and English learning motivation, it is hypothesized that the Khmer students at CTU would have multi-layered identities since they are influenced by different cultures

of different languages In addition, the research hypotheses are that Khmer students may give up some of their true identities and add in some superficial identities while they still remain their core identities

This study is a qualitative one because, as stated by Ereaut (2007, p 8), “qualitative research is used to gain insight into people's attitudes, behaviours, value systems, concerns, motivations, aspirations, culture or lifestyles” In this research, an in-depth exploration of how Khmer students at CTU construct their identities (the dependent variable) under the influences of learning motivation (the independent variable) in English classrooms was carried out

In this research, validity and reliability of the data and the research methods were also taken into consideration Reliability is considered “a necessary but insufficient condition” for validity in research (Cohen et al., 2005, p 105) Although it is said Golafshani (2003) that validity and reliability are not seen separately in qualitative research as they are in quantitative research, it is necessary to clarify the meanings of the two terms Validity deals with the appropriateness of the methods used to collect data in order to answer the research questions According to Cohen and colleagues (ibid.), validity of data collection instruments may take many forms depending on the types of research For example, in qualitative data, validity might be addressed through the honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data achieved, the participants approached, etc

In quantitative data, validity might be improved through careful sampling, appropriate instrumentation and appropriate statistical treatments of the data Cohen and colleagues (ibid.) claim that although it is important to ensure certain kinds of validity in research it would not mean that a piece of research is invalid if it fails to meet some kinds of

Research Methodology 16

validity Reliability is more emphasized in quantitative research than in qualitative research Reliability refers to the consistency and replicability of the findings (Cohen et al., 2005) That means, as suggested by Cohen and colleagues (ibid., p 119), “if the same methods are used with the same sample then the results should be the same” However, reliability in qualitative research is somewhat different since qualitative research does not deal with statistical data Instead, in such research, reliability could be seen as a match between the data collected by the researcher and the actual occurrences

in the setting being researched (LeCompte & Preissle, 1993, cited in Cohen et al., ibid.)

In the present research, descriptive validity, interpretive validity, and reliability are

ensured Descriptive validity refers to the factual accuracy of the account Descriptive

validity is also regarded as reliability of the research according to LeCompte and Preissle’s (1993, cited in Cohen et al., ibid.) notion of reliability in qualitative research described above That means the research describes what actually happens in reality

Interpretive validity is the ability of the research to catch the meanings or terms used by the participants The participants and the researcher had no difficulty understanding each other for the Vietnamese language was used in the conversations

This qualitative research used a random sampling strategy for it did not aim to produce a statistically representative sample or draw statistical inference According to Cohen and colleagues (ibid.), in a non-probability sample, participants are selected purposively based on some pre-defined criteria determined by the focus and purposes of the research For example, the current study aims to provide an understanding of the Khmer students’ formation and transformation of identities while they study English at CTU Therefore, only students who were Khmer and who had been studying English at CTU were invited for an interview Those who belonged to ethnic groups other than Khmer and those who were Khmer but did not study English could not join the interviews Cohen and colleagues (ibid., p 102) also notes that a non-probability sample “does not represent the wider population, it simply represents itself” There are several types of non-probability sampling techniques such as convenience sampling, quota sampling, dimensional sampling, purposive sampling and snowball sampling (Cohen et al., ibid.)

In this study, specifically, convenience sampling and purposive sampling were adopted With convenience sampling, also called accidental or opportunity sampling, the researcher chose the sample from those who were known by the researcher because they were easy to access Then, among the participants in the sample, the researcher solely selected those who met the researcher’s requirements and excluded the others This process is called purposive sampling The sample size for this investigation was small for it was partly determined by the instrument for data collection

Research Methodology 17

The data collection instrument used in this study was the employment of interviews Cohen and colleagues (2005) suggest that interview in research could serve three functions Firstly, it is the main tool to obtain information for the research objectives Secondly, it may be used to test hypotheses or to suggest new ones Thirdly, it is also used as a complementary means to validate other methods in a piece of research The authors also explain the atmosphere of an interview could be formal, less formal or completely informal In formal interviews, the questions are asked on a standardized schedule The interviewer in less formal interviews may freely modify the sequence and wording of the questions or explain them During a completely informal interview, the researcher may raise questions around a key issue in a conversational way This research used less formal interview as the principle tool to collect data

3.2 Participants

The subjects involved in this study were ten Khmer students at CTU Most of the participants were first introduced to the researcher through the researcher’s friends Then, the researcher tried to contact these Khmer students and invited them to join the interview Out of 10 participants, 6 were male and 4 were female The participants studied in different majors and from different courses ranging from course 32 to 35 7 out of 10 students had been studying Basic English courses for non-English majors Two students were third-year and fourth-year English-majored students The other student was first-year students majoring in English translation and interpretation Most

of the participants came from Tra Vinh province (9 out of 10), and the other student cam from Soc Trang Province

3.3 Data Collection Instrument

To answer the research questions in this study, the qualitative data on Khmer students’ motivation in learning English and their construction of identities were obtained through recorded face-to-face interviews The interview questions were pre-designed based on the theory discussed in the literature review section These questions (often referred to

as an interview guide) helped to make sure the researcher asked the right questions for the research purpose The interviewing questions were designed in Vietnamese because most of the participants did not speak English well

There were four parts in the interview guide (please see Appendix 2) The first part was expected to gain demographic information about the interviewees such as their hometown, major, and discipline The second part asked about their perception of their identities as well as their identities as a Khmer There were 9 questions relevant to the

Research Methodology 18

issue The next part consisted of 6 questions related to their motivation in learning English at CTU Finally, the last part with 3 questions was an attempt to investigate how English learning motivation affects the construction of the participants’ identities A recording software with a microphone integrated to a laptop was also prepared to record the content of each interview

3.4 Data Collection Procedure

The feasibility and comprehensibility of the interviewing questions were first tested by two pilot interviews with one Kinh student and one Khmer student The pilot interviews were also recorded for further review and modification After the two interviews, some questions were deleted Still some other questions were added in the interview guide, and the researcher’ interview etiquette was also improved

At the beginning of each official interview, the researcher read a covering letter (please see Appendix 1) to introduce the topic of the research and to ask for consent from the participant so as to start the interview The interviews were considered an informal talk in order not to put any pressure on the participants The interviews were undertaken individually for two days during the participants’ free time The researcher informed the participants that their participation was voluntary and that their responses would remain confidential There were ten interview meetings lasting 10-25 minutes each Most of the meetings took place at the participants’ dormitory, some in the discussion room at the Learning Resource Center of CTU, and one in a classroom at Building A3 During the interviews, a number of open-ended questions were asked The open-ended questions employed in this study helped to leave freedom for the participants to express their own points of view However, the interview was semi-structured based on the participants’ responses and the researcher’s inquiry One of the advantages of semi-structured interviews is that the interview process is flexible The questions did not follow on exactly in the way outlined on the schedule Questions that were not included in the guide were also asked based on the interviewees’ responses Therefore, the interviewer had a chance to extend the probing questions and the participants were free to make responses in their own ways During each interview, the interviewer took notes on the participants’ responses in order not to repeat the questions The recording of the interviews was transcribed in details for easy and detailed analysis (please see Appendix 3)

Research Methodology 19

3.5 Methodological Limitations

It is acknowledged that there are some limitations of the methodology of this qualitative research Firstly, the sample size was small because the data collection method was labour- and time-consuming Due to the small number of the participants, the results of the research did not generate representativeness This also means that external validity is not ensured in this research According to Cohen and colleagues (2005) external validity requires the researcher to provide sufficiently rich data so that the findings of the data are applicable to another situation Moreover, validity and reliability in the interviews were not entirely ensured Cohen and colleagues (ibid.) characterize some potential sources of bias that make interviews invalid These include the interviewer’s attitudes and expectations to seek for answers that support his or her preconceived notions; and the interviewer’s misunderstanding of the answers and the interviewee’s misunderstanding of the questions The authors also suggest that it is important to be aware of the notion of power in interviews because they are also a social situation where the interviewer asks questions, and the interviewees have to answer them, especially when the interview is recorded It is inevitable that the interviewees felt some pressure, which may have somehow influenced their responses or may lead ro dishonest answers Finally, the unreliability of the research may lie in the lack of experience of the interviewer when she could not use clear and comprehensible questions, or when she tended to use leading questions which drew assumptions about the interviewees, and thus influenced their answers

Discussion 20

CHAPTER 4

DISCUSSION

4.1 Language as a marker of Khmer students’ ethnic identity

All of the interviewed students could recognize some distinctive features that helped identify them as a Khmer The most common feature given by the interviewees was their mother tongue – the Khmer language In their opinion, the Khmer language is the first distinguishing characteristic of Khmer people In other words, as discussed in Chapter Two, language is the most important boundary marker that makes them apart from other ethnic groups, and helps them strengthen their sense of membership The Khmer students believed that the Khmer language is an indispensable part of their ethnicity One student says,

Since I was born, the Khmer language has been closely associated with my life I

do not need to learn the Khmer language but it is my own flesh and blood My parents impart the language to me

Obviously, by strongly identifying themselves with the Khmer language, the Khmer students do not choose Meynert’s (2007) first option, which is termed assimilation, in dealing with ethnic identity conflicts The Khmer students do not have a tendency to lose their language or put off a mask to define themselves as the dominant people

On the one hand, it is language that makes the Khmer students different from other Kinh students On the other hand, language evokes in them the feeling of the peripheral or inferiority, which gives them a complex In fact, one student thinks that because he is a Khmer, his ability to acquire knowledge is worse than that of Kinh students Also, the feeling of the peripheral is demonstrated by another student’s response:

My classmates still somehow discriminate against me They hate to talk with me because they know I’m a Khmer

In interactions with other students in class or at their dwelling, they use Vietnamese as their major language However, the use of Vietnamese of Khmer students still reveals some differences One student admitted that his accent and pronunciation of Vietnamese

is not as natural as those of Kinh people Another student says,

Perhaps I study with more difficulties than other Kinh students because I think I’m

a Khmer and my Vietnamese is still imperfect However, I learn English through Vietnamese, so it’s hard for me to understand the lessons Moreover, I come from the countryside and I don’t have enough chances to improve my knowledge, so it’s rather hard…

The feeling of complex or inferiority would well become a barrier in their studying with Kinh students It is recommended that schools, especially in rural and remote areas, work out some strategies to increase the access and participation of Khmer students For example, schools should create flexible schooling hours and encourage students to attend and to find time for other traditional activities which may keep them from school When Khmer students have opportunities to improve knowledge, the feeling of inferiority would not exist It is also suggested that English teachers should know the Khmer language and include it in their English lessons so that they can explain their lessons in Khmer to Khmer students Before doing so, however, it is recommended that

a plan be developed to increase teacher awareness of the importance of and the use of Khmer language by Khmer students It is assumed that teaching English through Khmer would help to get Khmer students more involved in the lessons with more interest since their pride of their ethnic identity is satisfied As a result, they acquire the lessons more effectively Thereby, they could get rid of the feeling of being marginalized or inferiority However, this inclusion should solely be seen as integration not the main content of the curricula because most of the students are still Kinh people Educators and educational administrators should not focus on a small number of students and at the same time ignore the larger one English in classrooms where there are students of different ethnic groups should play a role of a bridge connecting the groups together instead of marginalizing one or some of them

4.2 Other distinctive features

Besides the language, some students also thought that it was their background and living environment that helped them recognize themselves as a Khmer They simply identified

Discussion 22

themselves as Khmer because their parents or one of their parents were/was Khmer Also, they lived in the community where Khmer people were the majority The Khmer community has closely associated with them since they were born until now In addition, the student felt that appearance (i.e skin, eyes, and teeth) was another distinctive feature of Khmer people Most of them did not show differences between them and Kinh people in life style or daily activities However, some of them recognized their Khmer identity through their attendance in some Khmer traditional festivals or their regular visit to pagodas In their opinion, thus, their Khmer identity inherits from their parents, community and religion; and their performance of cultural values is seen as their practice of personal identities When asked if they saw any difference between them and other Khmer students, 9 out of 10 students could recognize

no or little difference They believed that they were similar to other Khmer students This result shows that Khmer students do not pay much attention to their personal identities, but their personal identities and collective identities are intertwined In other words, they somehow assign their collective and cultural identities as their personal identities As such, according to Cobb’s (2001) theory, the construction of Khmer students’ new identities seems unlikely to occur in a Khmer community when there is

no need for defining differences between the self and the surroundings

4.3 Integration but not assimilation

When studying at CTU, most of the Khmer students who were interviewed acknowledged that they studied, lived and played in harmony and equality with other students, and that their daily life appeared as normal as Kinh students’ More noticeably, they speak Vietnamese with other students The fact that they receive fair treatment from their friends is reflected in the following comments:

I think we get along well with each other There are only 3 Khmer students out of

82 in my class, also 3 Khmer students in my room but I feel very pleasant We live together with no difference

An example of our harmony is our solidarity when we play football Whenever we have a football match, all members in my room team up and play with all our strength

Every one loves me so much They treat me well and equally When I have difficulties, they help me, especially in the common language They help me to translate into Vietnamese some words in daily activities and studying that I solely know in Khmer

Another student says,

I try to communicate with Kinh people so that they realize that I’m also like them

Obviously, the results of the interviews indicate that they are trying to integrate themselves in the larger community Here the construction of their personal identity is put into a new pattern of group identity They accept and consider the sacrifice of language and culture as inevitable They learn to speak and speak Vietnamese instead of Khmer They play football instead of joining Khmer traditional holidays These acts indicate that they are changing the core identity to create a new identity in order to be in the crowd and to go with the flow Apparently, they are entirely aware of their identity changes, accept and allow these changes to take place The process of their integration seems easy for they do not have to confront many social or cultural conflicts because we all are living in a stable and healthy politico-society where political struggles among ethnic groups seldom take place This also means that the Khmer students have put on a mask, but the mask does no harm to them, rather, it is a positive one since it makes the Khmer students become bilingual and bicultural and feel easy to switch between the two core identities

However, they do not tend to lose their language and culture in the new environment

At home, they use Khmer as their major language because members of their family and community are Khmer At CTU, they still use Khmer when they communicate with a Khmer student Most of the interviewed students think that it is their responsibility to maintain the Khmer language

I want to speak Khmer to get used to it I’m afraid I will forget some words that I usually use at home Khmer is my origin; of course I must remember it

Again, language is the very issue that challenges bilingual education To facilitate CTU Khmer students in their studying, there are two important things that educators have to carry out simultaneously On the one hand, educators should help Khmer students speak

Discussion 24

Vietnamese fluently On the other hand, they should maintain and develop Khmer

students’ own language Where is the solution for this issue?

4.4 Ethnicity in Foreign Language Education

According to Yinger (1976, cited in Chávez & Guido-DiBrito, 1999, p 40), ethnicity or ethnic identity is seen as an individual’s identification with “a segment of a larger society whose members are thought, by themselves or others, to have a common origin and share segments of a common culture and who, in addition, participate in shared activities in which the common origin and culture are significant ingredients” More specifically, Torres (1996, cited in Chávez and Guido-DiBrito, ibid.) suggest that the sense of ethnicity is constructed from shared culture, religion, geography and language among individuals who are often connected through kinship and proximity The sense of ethnicity of Khmer people also develops based on these attributes, especially language and culture

Khmer students are greatly proud of their ethnic identity Most of the students feel happy and proud when they could become a Khmer student at CTU They feel full of pride because they are one of very few Khmer people who could study with many Kinh students in a university Some of the interviewed students say,

I feel very happy because I’m the only one student in my class who is Khmer, so I feel proud of my Khmer ethnicity

I feel honourable being a student at CTU because as a Khmer, I can study in a high level Usually in my hometown, Khmer people rarely go to school If they can study, they usually stop studying after grade 12

Some of the Khmer students interviewed also stated that they felt happy as a Khmer student at CTU because they received special treatment from the university since the university held some recreational activities and traditional festivals for them to play and relax In addition, they feel honourable because of the positive curiosity of Kinh students about their Khmer culture One student happily states,

Everyone usually asks me to sing an ethnic song in front of the class I think because they live in a Kinh community,… they want to know ethnic singing voice

or an ethnic song

Discussion 25

Thanks to special concern and interest of the university and Kinh students, Khmer students feel special of their distinctive ethnicity and of themselves and thus appreciate themselves as a Khmer student As a result, they appreciate their ethnicity for their ethnicity could satisfy their self-importance Otherwise, they are likely to feel confused

or ashamed towards their ethnicity When asked if they thought they were entirely a Kinh person, most of them say,

I’m not Kinh because Khmer ethnicity has associated with my blood If you say I’m a Kinh person, I don’t agree because Khmer is my blood

I don’t think so I merely change myself to adapt to the new environment I still maintain and respect my ethnic identity If possible, I will develop my ethnic identity Everyone will have a different view of my people, because I’m a Khmer Generally speaking, I love Khmer people because they are very good, very honest

Obviously, Khmer students possess a high and strong sense of their ethnicity, as evidenced by their responses when they were asked if they tried to present themselves as Kinh students in English classrooms:

When I study English I don’t present to be a Kinh student, because my ethnicity is Khmer

I don’t think I present to be a Kinh student; I just want to prove my ability

I still uphold my ethnicity There are many friends asking me about my ethnicity I’m willing to tell them about my culture Of possible, I will invite them to visit my hometown

The issue of ethnicity becomes a big concern for English educators when they teach Khmer students in a Vietnamese environment Khmer students do not want to give up their ethnicity Therefore, English educators should respect the pluralism of a bicultural and bilingual learning environment This means that English educators should include the language and culture of both Khmer and Kinh ethnicity in their curricula Responses

of interviewed students reveal that Kinh students feel interested in the culture and language of Khmer people and Khmer students desire to know those of Kinh people as well Why do we not integrate these topics in our orthodox curricula? The problem arising here is that who would be a pioneer in this process of integration Because Khmer students have a strong sense of ethnicity, English educators should avoid offending their ethnic pride Otherwise, the inclusion of the issue of ethnicity in pedagogical programs would show a negative effect Finally, English teachers should

Discussion 26

promote and satisfy Khmer students’ proudness of being a university Khmer student in English classrooms When they consider themselves as an excellent member of their

community, they would try to study to help their community

4.5 Khmer students’ adaptation in the new context

Entering the university, most of the students have formed new habits and characteristics

to support the student life They have constructed different personal identities related to studying, living and thinking as well There are some students who used to be shy but have become more active and socialized There are students who have more positive attitudes towards studying thanks to the new environment Some students comment,

I used to feel nervous when I talk in front of a public However, after a period of time studying here, … I have formed the communicating skill I like to have many friends

Now I usually get up early, which I have never done before

My dressing style is an example At home I wear my traditional clothes Here, there are a lot of Kinh people, so I changed my dressing style

Once in the past, I wanted to leave school, but now, when I study here, I see that everyone is trying their best to study, and I also want to strive like them

It is clear that the process of adaptation of Khmer students involves the process of their identity construction and transformation which is seen to take place at superficial levels while their ethnicity as a core identity remains unchanged They play with Kinh students, speak Vietnamese and prove to be as good as Kinh students However, their race, language, religion, and cultural values are unchangeable attributes that they try to preserve and bring into play While their core identity is fixed to some limits, they are adaptable enough to respond to particular situations

4 6 Khmer students’ attitudes towards English learning

Almost all of the students interviewed recognized the importance of learning English First of all, it is important for their well-paid job after graduation They think that their major and English capacity must go together One student says,

Discussion 27

I think English is important Our country has now joined the international market,

so there are many foreign companies and people coming to Vietnam Therefore, when I learn English, I can easily apply for a job in these foreign companies

Second, all of them learn English so that they could communicate with native speakers When asked if he wanted to learn English to communicate with foreigners, one student answered,

Surely yes I’m sure 100 percent that learning English is to communicate with foreigners Learning English to speak to the Vietnamese is non sense It is communicating with foreigners that is the purpose of learning English

However, communicating with foreigners may have different meanings to each student

To one student, communicating with foreigners helps him study better To another, communicating with foreigners is a good chance for him to learn their culture Still others desire to study abroad so they communicate with foreigners to improve their English speaking skills

It seems that there is a combination of two types of English learning motivation – the integrative and the instrumental – often manifested by Khmer students Thanks to motivation they try their best to learn English well Their learning motivation also reveals some changes over time depending on their positive changes in attitudes towards English learning and the English language itself The following comments show their positive attitudes English:

In the past I studied English as my parents proposed After studying English, I gradually like it There are many new things to learn

In the past, I learned English under the school’s compulsion Now English is very useful for me as well as all others, so the learning of English is now different To

me English is very important

At high school, I did not know the real purpose of learning English Now I think learning English helps me feel more self-confident

Since Khmer students recognize the importance of learning English They try to learn as well as they can to achieve their goals Each student learns in his or her specific ways such as learning vocabulary, listening to English tapes, reading bilingual books, doing exercises, or practicing speaking with friends However, some students gain little

Among the four basic English skills, speaking skill is the most favorite to most of the interviewed students In their opinion, speaking English helps them improve their pronunciation, feel more self-confident, and study slang words They also think that speaking skill is not complicated or not demanding in terms of grammar Therefore, it is suggested that English educators pay more attention to speaking skill in their curricula when teaching Khmer students Moreover, it is English teachers that should create many opportunities for Khmer students to practise speaking as they would study what they like effectively and interestedly

In short, most Khmer students could recognize the importance and necessity of learning English for their own purposes It is their positive attitudes towards English that helps them stay motivated to try to learn it It is noticed that most of the students favour speaking skill than other skills in English language, which needs some care from English educators in teaching English for Khmer students

Implications, Conclusion and Recommendations 29

CHAPTER 5 IMPLICATIONS, CONCLUSION AND

RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Implications

Based on the findings that the Khmer students have changed some salient identities of their own and add in those of Kinh people to intergrate into the dominant group, the research implies that the Khmer students have put off some of their own masks and put

on the masks of the dominant people However, they do not lose their ethnicity and still feel greatly proud of their language as well as their ethnicity Therefore, the issues of language and ethinicity in CTU English classrooms where there is Khmer students’ participation should be taken into serious consideration by language educators and pedagogical practitioners

5.2 Conclusion

Although the findings of the research show little relationship between English learning motivation and the construction of identities of CTU Khmer students, the results indicate that Khmer students’ attitudes towards English learning and English itself help them become motivated in learning the language More noticeably, this study shows more information about the formation and transformation of Khmer students’ identities

in the bilingual and bicultural learning environment of CTU Khmer students tend to change their identities in the salience hierarchy such as habits, dressing style, etc rather than those in the prominence hierarchy Therefore, the core identities of Khmer students still remain unchanged More exactly, they add another core of the dominant group in their self in order to integrate themselves in the common flow The study finds no or little information about their difficulties or cognitive dissonance during the process of the construction and transformation of Khmer students’ identities The issue of ethnicity

is worth considering by pedagogical educators, higher education practitioners and administrators when dealing with Khmer students since they possess a high and deep sense of ethnic pride The current study suggests that EFL teachers and educational institutions should pay attention to not only the language, but also the learner, especially bilingual one When they have positive attitudes towards English teaching curricula, classroom atmosphere and when they feel their pride of ethnic identity is satisfied in when studying English, they would study more effectively with more interests and

Implications, Conclusion and Recommendations 30

efforts Finally, the findings of the current study are considered as hypotheses for further theoretical research and experimental examination

5.3 Topics for further research

The focus of this study is the construction of Khmer identity when they study English in

a Vietnamese speaking environment at CTU Therefore, a more detailed study over a longer period of time may produce information on the construction of Khmer students’ identities in terms of the economic, political, social, cultural and linguistic dimensions in CTU In the study, there were no or little information about the difficulties or cognitive dissonance faced by the students during the course of their identity construction Therefore, future research should also be conducted on the feelings of Khmer students

on the process of their identity construction Finally, another in-depth study on Khmer students’ motivation in learning English could be conducted in order to help English educators and researchers construct pedagogical strategies in bilingual and bicultural education

References 31

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university undergraduates Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14, 45-64

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