A study on linguistic features of some varieties of english in asia

For this to be possible, English as a second language has to be discussed, and the development and characteristics of English varieties in Asia generally and features of vocabulary in so

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

LÊ QUỲNH MAI

A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA

NGHIÊN CỨU ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGÔN NGỮ MỘT SỐ BIẾN THỂ

TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC NƯỚC CHÂU Á

M.A THESIS

Field: English Language Code: 60220201

Hanoi, 2015

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING

HANOI OPEN UNIVERSITY

LÊ QUỲNH MAI

A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA

NGHIÊN CỨU ĐẶC ĐIỂM NGÔN NGỮ MỘT SỐ BIẾN THỂ

TIẾNG ANH Ở CÁC NƯỚC CHÂU Á

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CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY

I, the undersigned, hereby certify my authority of the study project

report entitled A STUDY ON LINGUISTIC FEATURES OF SOME

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH IN ASIA submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of Master in English Language Except where the reference is indicated, no other person’s work has been used

without due acknowledgement in the text of the thesis

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First of all, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my

supervisor Assoc Prof Dr Phan Văn Quế for the useful comments, remarks and engagement through the learning process of this master thesis Furthermore, I would like to thank him for introducing me to the topic as well as for the support on the way

Also, my sincere thanks go to the lecturers of Hanoi Open University, lecturers of the Faculty of Post Graduate Studies of Hanoi Open University,

my colleagues and friends who help the study to be fulfilled and willingly share their precious time during the process of conducting this thesis

Last but not least, I would like to thank my family for their continuous support and encouragement throughout entire process, both by keeping me harmonious and helping me putting pieces together I will be grateful forever for their support

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ABSTRACT

Globalization has helped the spread and further entrenchment of Standard British and American English in many obvious ways English at present maintains a significant role as a second or foreign language in the region of Asia as well as globally In a discussion of this topic, it is important to explore a brief history of the expansion of English and its origins in Asia It is also essential to provide a background of Asian English and its unique linguistic characteristics as well as its use in different contexts of Asia

This paper provides a description on the most notable linguistic features of some varieties of English in Asia That is: Indian English, Malaysian English, and Singaporean English For this to be possible, English as a second language has to be discussed, and the development and characteristics of English varieties in Asia generally and features of vocabulary in some varieties of Asian English in particular will thus be discussed

The crucial element in this study is the various implications of the role of English in Asia on English language practices These implications lead to suggesting some possible suggestions for effective approaches to communicating English effectively in some Asian countries

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AmE: American English

AmE: British English

InE: Indian English

MaE: Malaysia English

SgE: Singapore English

StE: Standard English

ESL: English as a Second Language: learning English in an English

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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES

Figure 1.1.1 - 10 most spoken languages in the world 1

Figure 2.2.1 - Three concentric Circles of English- Kachru (1997) 13

Figure 4.2.2 - The three levels of the lectal continuum (Baskaran) 26

Figure 4.1.1 – India map 36

Figure 4.2.1 – Malaysia map 39

Figure 4.3.1 – Singapore map 42

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS iv

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Rationale for the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 4

1.3 Objectives of the study 5

1.4 Scope of the study 5

1.5 Significance of the study 6

1.6 Structural organization of the study 6

Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 8

2.1 Review of Previous study 8

2.2 Review of theoretical background 11

2.3 Summary 28

Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY 29

3.1 Research-governing orientations 29

3.2 Research methods 32

3.3 Summary 35

Chapter 4 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 36

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4.1 Features of vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and

Singaporean English 36

4.2 The differences between vocabulary in some varieties of English in Asian and Standard English 43

4.3 Implications in using some varieties of Asian English 56

4.4 Summary 58

Chapter 5 CONCLUSION 60

5.1 Recapitulation 60

5.2 Concluding remarks 60

5.3 Limitations of the study 61

5.4 Suggestions for a further research 61

REFERENCES 63

BILIOGRAPHY 66

APPENDICES 70

Appendix 1 Status of English, historical background and number of speakers in Asian countries 70

Appendix 2 List of Indian English vocabulary compared to Standard English 72

Appendix 3 List of Malaysian English vocabulary compared to Standard English 79

Appendix 4 List of Singaporean English vocabulary compared to Standard English 82

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Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale for the study

The English language has spread many parts of the world The increase in the number of those learning it and using it has been the most noticeable example of its expansion in this century It has become the most important international language and is the most commonly taught second

or foreign language in the world Recent facts from the Internet show that there are about 780 million users of English of whom about 380 million are native speakers, about 300 million are second language speakers, and about

100 million are foreign language speakers

Figure 1.1.1 - 10 most spoken languages in the world

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The spread of the English language has not gone unnoticed in today’s world English has found its way to every continent and many of the remotest areas in the world The English language has not, however, remained the same, in terms of grammar, pronunciation and lexis, in the countries where it has spread Each country or each linguistic area has shaped the language to fit its own communicational needs Therefore, the English language is slightly different in each of the areas it has spread to, though there are also similarities between the varieties

It is important to be aware of these different English varieties spoken and written around the world and therefore also realize that the original varieties, namely British English and American English, are not the only ones spoken nowadays These varieties of English, which are spoken around the world are also called New Englishes among researchers and the term is generally used when referred to post-colonial varieties of English It should not be forgotten either that today there are actually more non-native English

in the world than native ones This is due to the fact that the English language has spread around the world and is nowadays used as a lingua franca These New Englishes are therefore not to be left unnoticed

Despite the fact that varieties of English, which is considered a very important branch of English language, is investigated and studied by many

of lexicologists In addition, English varieties and New Englishes and even Asian English have been studied fairly extensively in general This study was undertaken because studies on Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English are quite few in number Also, I found that most of us often care for vocabulary while communicating in English which there are many problems for people as an international language I found that one of

it

The purpose of this present study is to find out what are the linguistic features of some major varieties of English in Asia The varieties in Asia that my study focus on is getting an idea of what vocabularies are in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English which are somehow characteristic to this particular variety In addition, these are items that are different from the original varieties, British English and American English

or the English-speaking world at large In other words, this study would like to point out the differences in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and the original varieties in terms of vocabulary

Moreover, as pointed out above, Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English have not been extensively studied and therefore this study is of importance in shedding a little light on the features of Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their vocabulary

Besides, I have been very interested in different varieties of English for some time and I am fascinated by the idea that a culture of a given country can have an effect on a language which is not native to the country

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and therefore also have an enormous influence on its vocabulary My interest in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in particular is mainly due to my personal interest with the country’s culture, nature and people In terms of Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English, I am eager to learn more about the influence of Standard English on Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English Hence, as I conduct my study I will also gain more information about Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and learn more about India, Malaysia and Singapore culture in general

So, I hope that my study on Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English is able to show some features of the vocabulary in these countries and therefore contribute to the knowledge of Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and perhaps also to English varieties in Asia in general Also, I hope that the results of my study may contribute to the study of Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their vocabulary As pointed out above, not much research has been conducted in this aspect of Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in Vietnam and therefore I believe that my study will provide new information and can be useful for Vietnamese people in understanding and using English varieties as working

in these Asian countries With all these reasons, I made up my mind to

choose and to go further into the topic: ‘A study on linguistic features of

some varieties of English in Asia’

1.2 Aims of the study

This research is conducted to aim at finding out linguistic features of some major varieties of English in Asia such as Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their vocabularies, thus

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helping Vietnamese people to improve their English profiency when working in such Asian countries

1.3 Objectives of the study

To achieve the aims mentioned-above, the following objectives are put forwards

(1) Describing the features of vocabulary of Indian English,

Malaysian English and Singaporean English;

(2) Pointing out differences between the vocabulary of Indian English,

Malaysian English and Singaporean English and Standard English; (3) Suggesting some possible implications of Indian English,

Malaysian English and Singaporean English in terms of their vocabularies for Vietnamese labour people working in Asian countries

1.4 Scope of the study

as grammar, phonology, etc are to be left for the further researches In this study, I focus on the features of vocabulary in Indian English, Singaporean English and Malaysian English Illustrated examples in the study are selected merely from literatures works, books and Internet

1.4.2 Social scope

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In the process of communicating in English, we recognize that people sometimes have the difficulties in understanding or using different words of different English varieties So it is very necessary to work in depth with this

to help people who work in Asian countries be aware of differences in terms

of vocabulary between some varieties of English in Asia and avoid confusing when facing it

1.5 Significance of the study

1.5.1 Theoretical significance

The study is expected to help people to know some linguistic features involved in English varieties in general and English varieties in Asia in particular

In addition, in this study, the writer wish to point out, describe and analyze the features in terms of vocabulary of some major English varieties

in Asian countries

1.5.2 Practical significance

With the purpose of making a study on the linguistic features of some major varieties of English in Asia, the study will be able to provide Vietnamese people who work in Asian countries the features of some major varieties of English in Asia in terms of vocabulary This study may help them in facing with English varieties in Asia and may be a contribution to the understanding and using English varieties to some extent

1.6 Structural organization of the study

With the purpose of creating an easy-understanding research, this paper is divided into five chapters:

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Chapter 1 is Introduction of the thesis in which rationale of the

study, aims of the study, scope of the study, method of the study, design of the study are introduced to give the background of the study

Chapter 2 entitled Literature review refers to the overview of some

studies on English varieties of scholars worldwide, provides the basic knowledge about the theory of Kachru on “Three circles of English” and pointing out some features of English in some Asian countries

Chapter 3 which is Methodology designed to provide the general

information about research methods, describe the methods and materials used in carrying out the study, including data collection and data analysis techniques

Chapter 4 is Findings and Discussion which consists of three parts in

which describes linguistic features of English in some Asian countries This chapter focuses on presentation of features of vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English; pointing out differences between the vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and Standard English; and then supplies some possible implications for Vietnamese people in understanding and using English varieties as working in these countries

Chapter 5 with the title of Conclusion is the last chapter which

reviews and emphasizes what have studied, points out the limitation of the study and provide some suggestions which may pave the way for further research

References, Bibliography and Appendices come at the end of the thesis

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Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of Previous study

It is universally acknowledged that English is globally accepted language as being used first, second, third or a foreign language in most countries The reason behind this fact is related to colonialism in the 19thcentury and the spread of technology in this century in which English is used as the language of science worldwide for over a century

In addition, English has become the focus of attention for many scholars worldwide The interest in the English language no longer concentrates only on the original varieties, British English and American English More and more studies are being conducted on the new varieties, especially the post-colonial varieties of English such as Nigerian English, Singapore English, Indian English and Philippine English Furthermore, the comparative studies of different English varieties have become a major area

of academic research as well The growing interest is partly due to the pioneering work of scholars such as Manfred Görlach, Sidney Greenbaum and Braj Kachru In addition, numerous books and articles have been written describing the different varieties of English spoken around the world today These include, for instance, books and collections by Platt, Weber and Ho (1984), Kachru (1985), Cheshire (1991), McArthur (2003), and Melchers and Shaw (2003)

Studies on varieties of English have been conducted in all areas of language As Melchers and Shaw (2003) observe, there is variation at all levels of language in new varieties In other words, they differ from each other in terms of spelling, phonetics or phonology, morphology, syntax, the lexicon and discourse Therefore, varieties of English have been studied in

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terms of their characteristic vocabulary, differences in pronunciation and distinct features of grammar Usually the distinctiveness or deviation in the new varieties has been compared to the original varieties, often to British English and American English However, the deviances are not treated as errors or mistakes, but instead they are recognized as characteristic features

of a particular variety Therefore, by studying the distinct features of new variety it has also been possible to determine them as varieties of English in their own right

One fairly popular way of approaching and learning about a variety is

to study their lexicon Several studies, for instance, by Dubey (1991) and Tent (2000), have investigated and analyzed the characteristic vocabulary of

a specific variety The lexis of some varieties, for example, Indian English, has been studied more extensively than others and even dictionaries have been compiled of the findings

The interest in lexis is justified because, as pointed out by Platt, Weber and Ho (1984), a new variety of English inevitably creates a whole range of new expressions in order to fulfill the communicative needs of the speakers Therefore, studying lexical items in a particular variety is likely to

be rewarding as well, at least in terms of finding those items in a variety

A specific area of interest in the vocabulary studies are loanwords According to Yang (2005), borrowing in the studies of New Englishes has been recognized as a valuable part of nativization and therefore it is also widely studied Moreover, as Görlach (1998) states, borrowings are the most conspicuous features illustrating lexical innovation in a variety and therefore widely studied Preshous (2001) studied the lexical features of Malaysian English by analyzing texts from several Malaysian newspapers and other sources He observed that Malay loanwords are frequently

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incorporated in the text Furthermore, Preshous (2001) presented words that have acquired a distinct meaning in Malaysian English compared to other Englishes

In his study, Tent (2000), catalogued and analyzed the corpus of Fiji English lexemes and expressions Tent’s material for the corpus was collected from numerous different sources, for instance, stories, articles, letters, advertisements in the local print media, hand-written and printed notices and signs, conversations and television and radio news broadcasts,

to name a few

Bautista (1997), as quoted in Bolton and Butler (2004) conducted a detailed study on Philippine English lexis, concentrating on the vocabulary items used by educated Filipinos Bautista divided the localized lexical items into four categories, such as normal expansion, preservation of items, coinages and neologisms and borrowings

A study conducted by Bakshi (1991) revealed some similarities in the lexis of Indian English He analyzed characteristic features of Standard Indian English, as used by bilingual speakers, based on letter columns collected from three Indian newspapers He categorized these words into loanwords and neologisms, and partly in different categories, such as lexis and initials

Dubey (1991) studied the lexical style of Indian newspaper English mostly concentrating on matrimonial advertisements where a lot of loanwords and culture-related features can be found Dubey used the term

‘native item’ to refer to loan lexical items and culture related items characteristic of the native languages spoken in India

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In sum, Englishes have used very similar strategies when forming the lexis of the new variety and a significant number of new words have been incorporated into the lexis of new varieties This suggests that the vocabulary of the original varieties, British English and American English, has not been adequate for the people to express themselves in their new socio-cultural environments

2.2 Review of theoretical background

2.2.1 Theoretical framework

Many models on World Englishes have been posited by scholars in the past twenty years (e.g Kachru, 1992; McArthur,1998; Schneider, 2003

& 2007) The most influential model of the spread of English is Kachru’s

model of World Englishes The theory of Kachru “Three circles of

English” is chosen for theoretical framework of this thesis In this model

the diffusion of English is captured in terms of three Concentric Circles of the language: The Inner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle

Kachru’s (1985) pioneering model for world English spread and usage has been widely used as a framework for the study of World Englishes His idea was that the spread of English could “be viewed in terms of three concentric circles representing the types of spread, the patterns of acquisition and the functional domains in which English is used across cultures and languages”

Kachru’s Model of World Englishes (1997) argued that new models for the teaching of English relevant to linguistic input, methodology, norms and identity have been proposed to explain and imply the spread and diffusion of English as a global language diversified in several nativized dialects known as world Englishes

Secondly, the Outer Circle represents the spread of English in native contexts, where it has been institutionalized as an additional language The Outer Circle is made up of post-colonial countries in which English, though not the mother tongue, has for a significant period of time played an important role in education, governance, and popular culture The Outer Circle includes those countries where English was spread as a second language through colonization, e.g India, Nigeria, Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines Here English has official status and functions It has already undergone some acculturation and nativization, and there is a creative literature written in the local variety of English, hence these are termed norm-developing countries

non-Thirdly, the Expanding Circle, with a steady increase in the number

of speakers and functional domains, includes nations where English is used primarily as a foreign language The Expanding Circle refers to those nations where English has the status of a foreign language, such as China, Japan, Thailand, Taiwan, Egypt and Korea These are norm-dependent, or exocentric, generally looking to “StE” for their norms The use of English in these societies is generally restricted to limited domains such as science and education

Consequently, Kachru’s three concentric circles model of English have been accepted as a standard ontology for defining and categorizing world Englishes into Inner Circle (native), Outer Circle (ESL) and

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Expanding Circle (EFL) varieties The diffusion of English and the resultant varieties induce cross cultural and cross linguistic universalization of the English language in a cause and effect cycle Kachru (1997) argued that new models for the teaching of English relevant to linguistic input, methodology, norms and identity have been proposed to explain and imply the spread and diffusion of English as a global language diversified in several nativized dialects known as world Englishes

The Figure represents the issue

Figure 2.2.1 - Three concentric Circles of English- Kachru (1997)

In replacing the original English as a native language (ENL), English

as a second language (ESL) and English as a foreign language (EFL) terminology with the concepts in his model, Kachru emphasizes that English belongs to all who use it; that “norms and standards should no longer be determined [solely] by Inner Circle/ENL contexts” (Schneider,

2.2.2 Theoretical background

2.2.2.1 Terms of varieties of English

The terminology within the literature is highly controversial Some

authors prefer the term dialect; others prefer the term variety or variation

In this paper the term variety and varieties in the plural is used, because it is less stigmatized As the terminology is so controversial, it is very difficult to find an appropriate definition for the term variety, and impossible to find a

universal one Bauer (2002) defines variety as an academic term used for

any kind of language production, whether we are viewing it as being determined by region, by gender, by social class, by age or by our own inimitable individual characteristics

Varieties of English are the different kinds of English used around the

world Often these are geographically based The varieties are more or less similar and while most English speakers can understand each other, there are occasional problems

A standard variety exists from which other varieties are distinguished British English originating in south-east England is what is regarded as the StE which is promoted in schools and is expected to be used by broadcasters and officials The status of being the standard arises not from linguistic perfection, but from the social, economic and political context in which it is

StE is one variety of modern English, alongside a wide range of standard varieties StE may be distinguished from non-standard varieties according to a relatively small number of linguistic features, exemplified in the following incomplete list:

I was, we were I/we was or I/we were

Those books Them books

The house that Jack built The house what/as Jack built

He did it He done it

He came yesterday He come yesterday (and likewise for thirty

or so other irregular verbs) Nobody said anything Nobody said nothing

He ran really quickly He ran real quick

I didn't break it I never broke it

He hasn't finished He ain't finished

Almost all these differences consist of alternative ways of expressing the same meaning, and in almost every case the differences are linguistically trivial and show no communicative advantage either for standard or for non-

standard For example, the sentences “He ain't done nothing” and “He

hasn't done anything” are different ways of expressing the same meaning, each of which follows a clear set of grammatical principles It is not the case

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that non-standard shows worse logic or less care in speaking, any more than this would be true of French English and French are very different linguistic systems, and similarly, standard and non-standard varieties of English are slightly different linguistic systems

In discussing language variation, it is conventional to distinguish

between dialects (varieties that differ in terms of pronunciation, grammar, lexis, semantics) and accents (varieties that differ just in terms of

pronunciation) According to this distinction, StE is a dialect that may be spoken in a range of accents, including Received Pronunciation (RP) and regional accents A distinction may also be made between standard or nonstandard varieties which based on the social and regional background of

speakers and registers, associated with particular contexts of use, for

example, the language of law, education and casual chat between friends There is however a relationship between these different dimensions of variation, in that StE is commonly associated with more formal registers such as those of law and education though it also has a range of casual registers like any other dialect

While it is possible to identify some linguistic characteristics of standard and non-standard varieties of English, as in the list above, the relationship between these varieties is more complex than the list suggests:

• While some non-standard features are widespread, for example,

“Nobody said nothing”, or “He ran real quick”, many are local so they vary from place to place, for example, “We had us tea”- us for standard our, this found in Yorkshire, Central and East Lancashire

and parts of the East Midlands

• Equally important is the regional variation in StE, with small but recognizable differences even between England/Wales and Scotland

• Forms such as “between you and I”, which are hard to classify as

either standard or non-standard

• There are also considerable overlaps between varieties because differences between standard and nonstandard varieties are relatively small

• All varieties, including StE, change over time (e.g the older “Have

you any children?” is giving way to “Have you got any children?” or

“Do you have any children?”)

• Individual speakers vary in the way they use language, and may also shift between varieties for stylistic effect

Varieties of language, therefore, do not exist as discrete, fixed, unified entities, and indeed ‘StE’ may be better regarded linguistically as an idealization

Varieties of English is also a widely used term, which emphasizes the subdivisions of the English language According to McArthur (2003), it is considered a safe term, because it allows language scholars to be less specific about the kind of speech and usage whereas dialect would require more specific social distinctions Furthermore, the term dialect fails when English as a world language is discussed It is totally inadequate, for instance, when referring to African-American English and Spanglish, a hybrid of Spanish and English The reason for this is that the traditional dialect criterion of regionality cannot be applied to these two cases; both

by Braj Kachru Kachru points out that the concept of World Englishes includes both native and non-native languages and it belongs equally to everyone who uses it Around the same time Kachru categorized these Englishes according to their uses into three circles: inner, outer and the expanding circle The inner circle includes countries such as Great Britain, Canada and New Zealand, where English is the first language of the people The outer circle includes countries where English is an official language and has an extended range of uses, for instance, in education The expanding circle consists of countries where English is learned as a foreign language

Platt, Weber and Ho (1984) introduce another term to refer to different Englishes, which is New Variety This term, as defined by them, suggests that there are somewhat recognizable varieties spoken and written

by groups of people in the world However, not all speakers of English always speak a New English Schneider (1997) emphasizes that this term is generally used when referring to post-colonial varieties as spoken in the Caribbean, Africa, Asia, Australia and New Zealand These New Englishes include, for instance, Philippine English, Singapore English, Nigerian English and Sri Lankan English However, Platt, Weber and Ho (1984) remind that it is difficult to define this term and that there are always borderline cases that do not neatly fit into categories

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According to Gunnel Melchers and Philip Shaw (2003), “the varieties

of English spoken in outer circle countries have been called New

Englishes” but the term is controversial Singh (1998) and Muwee (2000)

argue that it is meaningless, in so far as no linguistic characteristic is common to all and only New Englishes and all varieties are recreated by children from a mixed pool of features, so all are 'new' in every generation These points are certainly true, and it is important to avoid suggesting that the new varieties are inferior to the old ones Nevertheless, the Englishes of India, Nigeria, and Singapore and many other outer-circle countries do share

a number of superficial linguistic characteristics which, taken together, make it convenient to describe them as a group separately from America, British, Australian, New Zealand, and many other varieties

The spread of English can be viewed in terms of the “old Englishes”, the “new Englishes” and English as a foreign language variety Apart from

“old Englishes” and English as a foreign language variety, the new Englishes, on the other hand, have two major features, in that English is only one of two or more codes in the linguistic repertoire and that it has acquired an important status in the language of such multilingual nations Also in functional terms the “new Englishes” have extended their functional range in a variety of social, educational, administrative, and literary domains in India, Malaysia and Singapore would be examples of countries with 'new Englishes’

The definitions of terms given above all define the English language which is used around the world in slightly different ways For instance, world Englishes, the term introduced by Braj Kachru includes, both native and nonnative varieties, whereas New English emphasizes the post-colonial varieties spoken, for example, in the Caribbean, Africa and Asia For these

slight difference in meaning of terms, I will use the term “New English” or

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the plural form, “New Englishes” when I refer to Indian English, Malaysian

English and Singaporean English or Standard Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English or to the other varieties of English spoken

in Asia or other parts of the world; also, I use the term “Standard English”,

“Original Variety” or “Original Varieties” for English in British and

America in my thesis These terms, in my opinion, best fits this particular context

2.2.2.2 Some general features of English in Asia

Over the past fifty years, the English language has come to play an increasingly important role within the Asian region In societies such as India, Malaysia, and Singapore, English serves many functions within these societies as a co-official language in such domains as government, law and education Over recent decades, however, the importance of English has changed even in these societies, as a result of educational, economic and cultural forces linked to globalization

Asia is geographically an extremely large area with dozens of different nations Melchers and Shaw (2003) state that there are several hundred languages spoken in South Asia, however, many of them by very small numbers The dominant languages are Indo-Aryan which are related

to Hindi and Urdu in the north, Dravidian languages such as Tamil in the south, and English as an ex-colonial language in most areas Thus, English has a major role in Asia and it is used in many different areas of life Moreover, as McArthur (2003) notes, Asia is different from other major continents in terms of English speakers, because it has no large population

of native English speakers On the other hand, as Qiong (2004) points out, there are 350 million English users in Asia, which more or less adds up to the same number if the population of the United States, Canada and Britain

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are combined This, therefore, is no small number and should not be overlooked The countries of Asia have a long history with English because several of them have been part of the British Empire and even the United States Furthermore, Kachru (1994) adds that originally the English language was introduced to Asia over two centuries ago

It states that English is used to communicate both within a nation and between nations in Asia; English, thus, has become a popular link language between different language groups For instance, people in Southern India prefer English to Hindi in intra national communication In other words, English has become the international and intra national language of the countries in Asia Moreover, McArthur (2003) states that English spoken in Asia is a language in its own right; in other words, it has been thoroughly indigenized According to Kachru (1996), the English language has thus established a position in these countries and developed new models and norms Asia provides an integrated profile of English within the ‘concentric circles’ model of the spread of English This model is said to be more dynamic model than the standard version, and allows for all manner of shadings and overlaps among the circles The ‘inner circle’ is represented by Australia and New Zealand, where English functions primarily as a first language The ‘outer circle’ is represented by, for example, India, Singapore, Malaysia and the Philippines, where English is used as an institutionalized additional language; and the ‘expanding circle’ is rep-resented by, for example, China, Thailand, Taiwan, and Korea, where English is used primarily as a foreign language All three circles of English present in Asia have certain shared features such as all the varieties are transplanted varieties and these varieties comprise the formal and functional distinctiveness of the various varieties of English

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By and large the Asian Englishes are separate from one another The

term ‘Asian Englishes’ would seem to imply a degree of unity among the

varieties of English which it refers to Many of the linguistic features listed below occur in some specific Asian Englishes

2.2.2.3 Linguistic features of English in some Asian countries

(1) Linguistic features of English in India

Indian English is one of the oldest regional varieties of the English language India has the largest number of second-language speakers of English Crystal (2004) claims that, combining native and non-native speakers, India has more people who speak or understand English than any other country in the world Actually 4% of Indian use English Thus India ranks third in the world after USA and the UK to use English as spoken language

Although Indian English is seen as a member of the 'outer circle' of the English, where English is not the mother tongue of the speakers, there have been some historical links with the inner circle: English has been in the country since the early days of British colonialism Later on, this language was also included in the Constitution of India as the National Associate Official Language In India, social prestige and mobility are immensely associated with this language, which is why this language has attained the status of elite language Since the early seventeenth century, when the East India Company established trading posts in the East Indies, English has been used widely throughout the country and quickly gained importance in the fields of economy, industry, education, as well as in India’s political and social life Consequently, the English language became the official language

of India English has a special status in India Apart from having a place in

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the public institutions of the country, in parliament, the law courts, broadcasting, the press and the education system English has spread in our daily life English plays a key role in professional relationships between foreign and Indian companies English permeated symbolizes in Indian minds better education, better culture and higher intellect Indian English comprises several dialects or varieties of English spoken primarily in India This dialect evolved due to British colonial rule of India for nearly two hundred years English is the co-official language of India, which has the world's largest English-speaking population Indian speakers of English intelligibly enough even much better than other European or Asian non-native speakers of English English is spoken in almost all educational, public and governmental settings, media, etc It is also used as the written medium in many local newspapers In some areas of India, it is even safer to speak English rather than to speak local languages because of ethnical and religious issues In fact, Indian English is regarded as a dialect of English just as British or American English It has its own distinctive phonological, lexical and syntactic features For instance, Indian English is still holding some old usages that were inherited from the British during the colonial

period The phrase “Your obedient servant” is still used while exchanging

formal emails or letters among some Indians Although, native speakers of English might consider such usage as antique, it is still a correct usage of English Such features do not in fact lessen its status as an intelligible variety of English or mark it as a different language

In the midst of such linguistic variety, English serves as a medium to unite people who do not share the same mother tongue As mentioned above, the English language plays a pivotal role in administration, international communication and its usage enables technological progress The English spoken on the Indian subcontinent has some distinctive

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characteristics that set it apart from other international varieties of English such as RP (Received Pronunciation) and GA (General American) These differences arose as a result of a long period during which English was in constant contact with languages spoken natively in India As a result, the variety of English spoken on the subcontinent is frequently called Indian English The English which is spoken in India is different from that spoken

in other regions of the world, and it is regarded as the unique variety which

is called Indian English Indian English is a distinct variety of the English language Many Indians claim that it is very similar to British English, but this opinion is based on a surface level examination of lexical similarities

Of course, one must keep in mind that not every linguistic item is used by every Indian English speaker and that a great deal of regional and educational differentiation exists Even so, items can be identified which are indicative of Indian English speech and which are widely used These operate on various phonological, morphological, lexical, and syntactic levels

Apart from English, India’s other official language is Hindi Although there are almost two hundred local languages spoken in the Indian subcontinent, there are only a few languages that are considered official Interestingly, English along with Hindi and Urdu are the most official widely used languages all over the subcontinent of India Hindi English is the most commonly spoken language in India But usually Indians mingle English with Indian languages Stylistic influence of Indian local languages

is a particular feature of Indian literature in English Indian English speakers often mix Hindi and other languages with English Similarly Indians say

“Today morning” (aaj Subha) or “Yesterday night” (kal raat) to mean this morning last night Indians use “shut up” (chup bhait) which is generally

used more causally in Hindi but it is offending term in America Indians

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commonly use “you people” when they want to address more than one

person It is a simple translation of “aap log” or “tum log” but they do not realize that it carries with it racial connotation Some expressions such as

“general mai” (in general) and “ek minute” (one minute) are prevalent in

Indian English

(2) Linguistic features of English in Malaysia

More than 300 million people in the world speak English and the rest sometimes seem to or are trying to At the same time, English is spoken in many different varieties in dependence to the country, as what it is known throughout as the World Englishes The British introduced English to Malaysia more than two centuries ago It became the most important language for generations and it is often associated with power and prestige However, in post-British era, when Malaysia became independent in 1957, English was made the second language in conjunction with the promotion of Bahasa Malaysia as the national language After independence, Bahasa Malaysia became the language of education and administration in Malaysia However, in 2002 the government decided to use English to teach science and mathematics in primary and secondary schools The reason for this change was to take advantage of globalization, but in 2009 it went back to Bahasa Malaysia because of the shortage of teachers who were able to teach

in English, and the fear that the students’ command of their first language was at risk English is often used in business and workplace

Then, in the 1990s, spurred by the government's objective to push the nation into globalization, the importance of English increased As the second language of the country, English is used by Malaysians in various domains such as administration, education, business and communication The multi-ethnicity of Malaysian citizens contributes to the unique

“Basilect” (Baskaran, 1987) An illustration of such division can be observed in the following figure:

Figure 2.2.2 - The three levels of the lectal continuum (Baskaran)

(3) Linguistic features of English in Singapore

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Singapore English refers to varieties of the English language spoken

in Singapore, of which there are two main forms – Standard Singapore English (StSE) and Singapore Colloquial English (better known as Singlish)

Singapore English can be classified into Standard Singapore English (SSE) and Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish) The language consists

of three sociolects, they are Acrolect, Mesolect, and Basilect Both Acrolect and Mesolect are regarded as Singapore English, while Basilect is considered as Singlish

- Acrolect; there is no significant and consistent difference from the features of Standard British English;

- Mesolect; it has some features distinct from StAmE;

- Basilect (Singlish)

For more educated Singaporeans with a higher level of prestige, they tend to speak the Standard Singapore English (the Acrolect) On the other hand, and typically in less prestigious circles, Singaporeans who are not fluent in Standard English speak Singlish (the Basilect) The constant use of both StSgE and Singlish has resulted in the gradual emergence of a Mesolect, an intermediate form of Singapore English, between formal and informal Singapore English Although Standard Singapore English is mainly influenced by British English and, recently, American English, there are other languages that also contribute to its use on a regular basis The majority of Singaporeans speak more than one language, with many speaking three to four Most Singaporean kids are brought up bilingual They are introduced to Malay, Chinese, Tamil, or Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish) as their native languages, depending on their families' ethnic backgrounds and/or socioeconomic status They also acquire those

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languages from interacting with friends in school and other places Naturally, the presence of other languages in Singapore has influenced Singapore English, something particularly apparent in Singlish

2.3 Summary

This chapter has established the framework of the theoretical background from which the linguistic features of varieties of English in general, varieties of English in Asian countries in particular and other related concepts to the matter of this thesis have been introduced The World Englishes are rapidly changing worldwide The use of English in the Outer and Expanding Circle societies continues its rapid spread, while at the same time new patterns of language contact and variety differentiation emerge The different varieties range from English in the Inner circle societies such as British, America to the Outer circle post-colonial societies

of Asia such as India, Malaysia and Singapore

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Chapter 3 METHODOLOGY

The chapter has established with a view to mapping out the way to conduct the whole study It focuses on introducing methodology of the thesis, in other words, the methods of collecting data for analysis This chapter is divided into two parts: (1) Research-governing orientations and (2) Research methods

3.1 Research-governing orientations

3.1.1 Research questions

This study focuses on the features of vocabulary in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English In other words, this study will deal with vocabularies that make India English, Malaysia English and Singapore English a distinct variety and different from AmE Moreover, vocabularies which are not used in other varieties of English, particularly in the original varieties, AmE, are of interest

In line with the above considerations, the following research questions are investigated in this thesis

(1) What are the features of vocabularies in some varieties of English

in Asia?

(2) What are the differences between the vocabulary in some varieties

of English in Asia and Standard English?

(3) What are some possible implications for Vietnamese people in

understanding and using English varieties as working in these Asian countries?

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The first research question is the question “What are the features of vocabulary in some varieties of English in Asia?” in which the present paper will describe various features of vocabulary used in Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English

The next section, the second research question “What are the differences between the vocabulary in some varieties of English in Asia and Standard English?” will concentrate on pointing out differences between the vocabulary in some varieties of English in Asia including Indian English, Malaysian English and Singaporean English and Standard English

Finally, the third research question “What are some possible implications for Vietnamese people in understanding and using English varieties as working in these Asian countries?” which discuss the role of English in Asia and give some implications that may be applied in English language practices The numerous possible options may be used for people

in Vietnam in using English varieties as working in these Asian countries

3.1.2 Research setting

The data of the study is features of some varieties of English in Asia

in terms of their vocabulary which are collected from books of linguistic scholars and Internet google The study is conducted in the educational environment with the purpose of helping EFL learners to know some theories involved in English varieties and understand or use the different words as studying different English varieties Besides, the study supplies some possible implications for export labour workers avoid confusing when facing these English varieties as well as communicating effectively

3.1.3 Research Approach

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The thesis is conducted by combining the two research approaches of quantitative and qualitative, which are carried out with the following orientations Firstly, the thesis is started with data collection by using a various sources of printed publications as dictionaries, books, articles, journals After finishing collecting data, InE, MaE and SgE are qualitatively described, analyzed and illustrated in terms of their vocabulary The data collected from the reliable sources then are quantitatively computed under a process of statistical analysis to find the answers to the research questions It determines the features of some major varieties of English in Asia Finally, the thesis give certain conclusions and some possible implications for Vietnamese people as facing with English varieties in Asian countries

3.1.4 Criteria for intended data collection and data analysis

The selected material related to some varieties of English in Asia in terms of their vocabulary plays a crucial role in terms of supplement data for the study The vocabulary for the research has been collected from trusted dictionaries in which the words are carefully collected and categorized into alphabetical arrangement This study is an applied research

to arrive at a solution for the problem in the process of using different varieties of English in Asia The available data and unknown aspects of the problem have to be related to each other to make the solution possible This procedure is divided into three steps:

Firstly, collecting data step in which the data are collected from many reliable sources, choose the data and give the results

Secondly, the statistic technique step means establish relationships between the data and the unknowns Statistical sampling technique is the strategy applied by researchers during the statistical sampling process This process is done when the researcher aims to draw conclusions for the entire