Information and communication technology (ICT) and teaching english in rural vietnamese primary schools policies, pratices and implementation factors

1.1.2 Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam 61.1.3 The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools 71.1.4 Introduction of ICT into Vietnamese primar

Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and teaching English in rural Vietnamese primary schools:

Policies, practices and implementation factors

Submitted by

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang

M.A in TESOL B.A in English Literature

A thesis submitted in total fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of

Doctor of Philosophy

School of Education Division of Education, Arts and Social Sciences

January, 2015

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1.1.2 Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam 61.1.3 The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools 71.1.4 Introduction of ICT into Vietnamese primary schools 8

2.1.1 Introduction of the English language to primary students 202.1.2 Issues in teaching English to primary students 212.1.3 Leadership for teaching English in primary schools 232.1.4 Professional development and online resources for primary

2.2 ICT in primary schools 26

2.2.2 Obstacles to the implementation of ICT 282.2.3 Leadership for the use of ICT in primary schools 312.2.4 Professional development for ICT implementation 332.2.5 Online forum for professional development and learning 35

2.3.1 History of Computer Assisted or Aided Language Learning (CALL) 392.3.2 The benefits of ICT in English language teaching 40

2.3.4 Changes in EFL classroom practice with the use of technology 43

2.4.2 Equity in English language learning and teaching in rural areas 46

2.4.4 Effective language teaching in limited technology contexts 48

3.2.2 Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge 553.2.3 Application of theoretical perspectives 61

Rural primary schools in Ti n Giang province 62

Summary of data collection methods and objectives 70

Chapter 4 Implementation of English language education policy in

4.2 Achievement of policy planning goals for primary English

4.2.2 Personnel policy: Where do teachers come from and how are they

Pre-service training and qualifications 85

Participation in professional development 90

4.2.3 Curriculum policy: What are the objectives in language teaching/learning? 924.2.4 Methods and materials policy: What methodology and what materials

4.2.5 Resourcing policy: How is everything paid for? 974.2.6 Community policy: Who is consulted/involved? 984.2.7 Evaluation policy: What is the connection between assessment, on the

one hand, and methods and materials that define the educational

4.2.8 Summary: Key features relating to the achievement of the MOET’s

policy planning goals for primary English language teaching in

5.2 School facilities for ICT: Use by English teachers 106

5.3.1 School leaders’ attitudes towards ICT 1125.3.2 School leaders’ support for ICT implementation 1145.3.3 School leaders’ attitudes to professional development 115

5.4.3 Attitudes to professional development 121

7.1.1 Limitations in data generation methods 1627.1.2 Limitations in research participation 163

7.1.4 Limitations of geographical location 165

7.2 Rurality factors shaping primary English language education

7.2.1 Factor 1: Policies as universal documents 1667.2.2 Factor 2: Provincial policy implementation decisions 1677.2.3 Factor 3: School leadership in rural schools 1687.2.4 Factor 4: Facilities and English teaching resources in rural settings 1707.2.5 Factor 5: Rural teacher knowledge and skills 1717.2.6 Factor 6: Time and family responsibilities in rural communities 1757.2.7 Factor 7: Rural teachers’ professional development and learning 177

7.3.1 Recommendations regarding policy development 184

7.3.3 Recommendations for English teachers 1877.3.4 Recommendations for professional development and learning 1887.3.5 Recommendations for further research 192

List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Resources pyramid 25

Figure 2.2 A model of rural social space 45

Figure 3.1 The TPACK image 56

Figure 3.2 Visual description of teacher levels as their thinking and understanding merge toward the interconnected and integrated manner identified by TPACK 60

Figure 3.3 Research site and distances of rural primary schools 63

Figure 3.4 Sequence of research procedures 65

Figure 4.1 Number of English teachers per school 83

Figure 4.2 Primary English teachers’ age range 84

Figure 4.3 Primary English teachers’ experience range 85

Figure 4.4 Teachers’ qualifications (n=47) 86

Figure 4.5 Use of teaching tools in the English classroom 96

Figure 5.1 ICT facilities available in the schools 106

Figure 5.2 View of a computer room in a rural primary school in Ti n Giang province 107

Figure 5.3 View of a computer room used for English language learning in a primary school in H Chí Minh City 107

Figure 5.4 Use of ICT in the classroom by English teachers 109

Figure 5.5 School leaders’ awareness of the benefits of ICT in teaching 112

Figure 5.6 Comparison of the awareness of the benefits of ICT in English teaching between teachers and school leaders 113

Figure 5.7 English teachers’ awareness of the benefits of ICT in teaching 117

Figure 5.8 Teachers’ self-rating for ICT skills 119

Figure 5.9 English teachers using ICT tools 120

Figure 5.10 Comparison of the awareness of the importance of professional development for technology-enhanced ELT between teachers and school leaders 122

Figure 5.11 Duration of professional development activities (n=46) 124

Figure 5.12 Approaches for professional development activities 125

Figure 5.13 Necessary professional development topics for English teachers: Comparison between teachers and school leaders' opinions 126

Figure 5.14 English teachers rating their computer skills based on age 129

Figure 6.2 Forum Structure 135

Figure 6.3 Sub-forum structure 137

Figure 6.4 Snapshot of the sub-forums 137

Figure 6.5 Online forum contents relating to TPACK 140

Figure 6.6 Snapshot of Moderation Tools 141

Figure 6.7 Snapshot of forum post 142

Figure 6.8 Snapshot of a forum post 143

Figure 6.9 Snapshot of forum post 144

Figure 6.10 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Online resources' 146

Figure 6.11 Snapshot of sub-forum 'English teaching methods' 147

Figure 6.12 Snapshot of sub-forum 'Sample lessons' 148

Figure 6.13 Snapshot of a thread on Let's go songs 149

Figure 6.14 Snapshot of sub-forum 'ICT tips' 150

Figure 6.15 A snapshot of a post by a forum member 151

Figure 6.16 Forum thread follow-up 152

Figure 6.17 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Resources for Let's Go series – Third edition’ from the start date of posting for one month 152

Figure 6.18 Follow-up of the thread titled ‘Magic English - Learn English with Disney characters’ for 11 months since the start date of posting 153

Figure 6.19 Post smileys of 'thanks' and 'like' 153

Figure 6.20 Snapshot of forum post 154

Figure 6.21 Snapshot of visitor message 154

Figure 6.22 Internet searching skill by age 158

Figure 7.1 A TPACK representation of primary English language teaching (PELT) practice in the rural sample 172

Figure 7.2 Examining English teachers’ knowledge with TPACK levels 174

Figure 7.3 Relationship among rurality factors shaping ICT integration in Primary English teaching 181

Figure 7.4 TPACK and Primary English Language Teaching (PELT) 191

List of Tables

Table 1.1 Sample of a school timetable for Grade 3 5

Table 2.1 Possible implications for schools and teachers for the integration of ICT into education 30

Table 2.2 Leadership of professional learning (Timperley, 2011, p 113) 32

Table 2.3 Three stages of CALL 39

Table 3.1 Language-in-education policy planning goals 54

Table 3.2 Summary of research participants in case studies 64

Table 3.3 An overview of the questionnaire structure 67

Table 3.4 Data collection methods 71

Table 3.5 Examples of participant coding 73

Table 3.6 Phases of thematic analysis 74

Table 4.1 A summary of primary English language teaching policies in Vi t Nam 79

Table 4.2 Key features relating to the achievement of the MOET’s policy planning goals for primary ELT in participating schools 99

Table 4.3 Obstacles to the successful implementation of ELT in the rural primary schools 100

Table 5.1 A summary of ICT policies in Vi t Nam 103

Table 5.2 Comparison of computer-based resources and supports in the four case study schools 111

Table 5.3 School leaders’ awareness of the importance of teacher professional development 115

Table 5.4 English teachers’ awareness of the importance of professional development for ICT-enhanced ELT 121

Table 5.5 Obstacles to the implementation of ICT for teaching English in the rural primary schools 130

Table 6.1 List of sub-forums 135

Table 6.2 Forum content targeting TPACK 139

Table 6.3 Sample of selection criteria of forum resources 141

Table 6.4 Obstacles to the successful implementation of the online forum for English teacher professional learning in rural primary schools 160

Table 7.1 Categorising rurality factors 180

Table 7.2 Suggestions for rural school leaders’ support for integrating ICT and English 186

Table 7.3 Suggestions for rural English teachers’ move into integrating ICT and English 188

List of Appendices

Appendix 1.1 The structure of Vietnamese education system 218

Appendix 2.1 CEFR global scale 219

Appendix 3.1 Map of Ti n Giang province 220

Appendix 3.2 Letter to the Director of Ti n Giang DOET 221

Appendix 3.3 Ti n Giang DOET’s Approval (Translation) 222

Appendix 3.4 Ethics approvals 223

Appendix 3.5 Information sheet (for questionnaires in Stage 1) 224

Appendix 3.6 Questionnaire (for English Teachers in Stage 1) 225

Appendix 3.7 Questionnaire (for principals/vice-principals in Stage 1) 228

Appendix 3.8 Questions for telephone interviews with school principals (Stage 1) 230

Appendix 3.9 Letter to the Principal of Primary Schools 231

Appendix 3.10 Questions for interviews with teachers (Stage 1) 232

Appendix 3.11 Consent form (Interview) 233

Appendix 3.12 Outline for the training session 234

Appendix 3.13 Information sheet (for school principals in Stage 2) 235

Appendix 3.14 Information sheet (for English teachers in Stage 2) 237

Appendix 3.15 Interview questions for the principals (Stage 2) 239

Appendix 3.16 Interview questions for the teachers (Stage 2) 240

Appendix 4.1 Detailed syllabus for teaching English in Grade 3 241

Glossary

BOET District-level Bureau of Education and Training

CALL Computer Assisted Language Learning

CEFR Common European Framework of Reference for languages

DOET Province/City-level Department of Education and Training

EFL English as a Foreign Language

ELT English Language Teaching

ESOL English for speakers of other languages University of Cambridge

ESOL Examinations (Cambridge ESOL) offers Cambridge Young Learners English Tests designed for school children aged between 7 and 12 in 3 levels: Starters, Movers and Flyers

ICT Information and Communication Technology refers to various

technologies concerned with speeding and facilitating the exchange and distribution of information Examples of computer-based ICT in this study include laptop/desktop computers, Internet, software, data projectors

MOET Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam

PD Professional development refers the traditional approach for

in-service that teachers often experience when they are asked to implement a new curriculum or some other policy initiative

PL Professional learning refers the learning that occurs through a less

formalised structure providing increased flexibility Involvement in professional learning is therefore more likely to be voluntary, and the subsequent learning is personal and appropriately shaped and directed by each of us as individuals (Timperley, 2007)

Project 2020 Vi t Nam’s National Foreign Language 2020 Project is a national

project to carry out the Vietnamese Government’s Decision 1400 to build national foreign language capacity The Project is the MOET TPACK Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge is a framework that

identifies the knowledge teachers need to teach effectively with technology (Mishra & Koehler, 2009)

Summary

The 21st century has seen the explosion of Information and Communication

Technology (ICT), including its ability to facilitate English language learning and teaching However, although ICT has been rapidly emerging in Vietnamese schools, little is known about its integration into English language education especially in rural areas

The purpose of this research study was to investigate the use of ICT in facilitating English language teaching in rural primary schools in Vi t Nam1 It employed a mixed methods approach using document analysis and three sequential data collection methods—questionnaire, interview and online forum The selected research site was

Ti n Giang, a province in Mekong Delta in the South of Vi t Nam Research

participants were primary school leaders and English teachers in rural districts of this province The research was conducted in three stages: the first to administer the questionnaire to 100 schools and identify follow-up case study participants, the second to conduct data collection with school leaders and English teachers in four case study schools, and the third to develop and trial an online forum to assist English teachers with integrating ICT Analysis of the data involved the application of the seven language-in-education planning goals proposed by Kaplan and Baldauf (2005) and the Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) framework,

developed by Mishra and Koehler (2006; 2009), as well as reference to diverse

Vietnamese sources of contextual information

In exploring policies and practices related to English language teaching and the use of ICT, it became evident that while rural primary schools in Ti n Giang province have attempted to implement government policies to introduce English language teaching

in their schools, they have not been able to achieve full implementation due to various

1

A note for use of Vietnamese diacritical marks in this thesis Vietnamese is written using letters of the Latin alphabet along with additional diacritical marks on certain letters to indicate tones and certain vowel sounds Vietnamese words or names without these diacritics are incomplete Therefore, I use diacritical marks on all Vietnamese words within the text for their accurate meaning or identification Diacritical marks are used in: (a) names of Vietnamese individuals in the thesis and authors in citations and references; (b) quotes and other words in Vietnamese; (c) names of places in Vi t Nam such as

obstacles As a result, equity in foreign language policy and implementation is an issue for the rural areas Similarly, the findings regarding ICT policy implementation highlighted significant obstacles, particularly in regard to integrating ICT across curriculum areas Professional development was identified as a crucial factor to bring about use of ICT in schools, and consequently the research design included the

development and analysis of an online forum intended to facilitate primary English teachers’ professional learning Although the forum had limitations in terms of

participation by the rural case study teachers, the forum itself indicated achievable ways of supporting independent professional learning for Vietnamese English

teachers and providing opportunities for sharing knowledge and building up a better connection between cities and rural areas

This study provides an in-depth insight into the current implementation of ICT in teaching English in rural primary schools In addition, it has identified and described seven distinctive rurality factors shaping the achievement of policy implementation in primary English language education and ICT use These are: policies as universal documents, provincial policy implementation decisions, school leadership in rural schools, facilities and English teaching resources in rural settings, rural teachers’ knowledge and skills, time and family responsibilities in rural communities, and rural teachers’ professional development and learning need To effectively facilitate the use

of ICT across the curriculum in rural primary schools, all of these factors need to be considered, and all have implications not only for English language teachers but also for policy makers, school leaders, and curriculum and textbook writers

Declaration

I declare that:

this thesis presents work carried out by myself and does not incorporate without acknowledgment any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university; to the best of my knowledge it does not contain any materials previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text; and all substantive contributions by others to the work presented, including jointly authored publications, is clearly acknowledged

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang

Date

15 January, 2015

Thesis-related publications and presentations

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang (2011) ICT implementation and teacher development for

teaching English in rural primary schools Paper presented at the 2nd Annual International Conference on TESOL, Hu , Vi t Nam

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang (2012) English language policies for Vietnamese primary

schools and issues of implementation in rural settings The Journal of Asia TEFL Special Issue (Winter 2012), 115-134

Nguy n, Th Thu Trang (2013) The impact of leadership on the use of ICT and

teacher professional development in rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

Paper presented at the 1st International Seminar on Leadership and

Development: Leading for positive change, Phnom Penh, Cambodia

encouragement during the process of this study Thank you, Jenny and Ruth

My thesis grew also through the vital aid of other researchers Dr Monica Behrend provided the critical reading on my manuscripts and ongoing guidance She has been

my advisor, colleague and friend Dr Hannah Young also always extended honest and helpful feedback, and more importantly her time, which shaped and influenced my writing and presentation Nur Sofurah Mohd Faiz, my close friend and officemate, I will never forget your kindness and assistance from day one! To these individuals, thank you

I would like to acknowledge the influence of Associate Professor Huy Th nh, the previous Director of Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Training Centre (SEAMEO RETRAC) for his important guidance, encouragement and support for my study He nurtured my interest and stimulated my constant

lifelong curiosity in the use of technology in education, especially in the field of English language teaching and learning

To my colleagues and teachers at SEAMEO RETRAC for having shared my

concerns, for having understood my needs and for always being there with a helping hand

To all the primary English teachers and school leaders that have participated in the research, for their kindness and collaboration, for inspiring me in so many instances and for their openness towards change and innovation

I would like to thank my parents and my younger brother for their understanding and patience and their unconditional love and their support all throughout my life I am also grateful to my uncle, Dr Nguy n B o Toàn and his family for their great support during my study in Australia

This study would have never been possible without the financial sponsorship of the Ministry of Education and Training in Vi t Nam, SEAMEO RETRAC and the

University of South Australia

Finally, I would like to thank my officemates, friends and the TESOL Research Group who made time to comment on my writing and encouraged me during this

Communist Party of Vi t Nam has made this possible and is allowing Vi t Nam to

gradually instigate global innovations and growth Vi t Nam has made significant

progress in its economic development and it is now a member of the World Trade

Organization (WTO) and an emerging member of the globalised community (H C

Nguy n et al., 2009; WTO, 2006) Learning and teaching English as a foreign language has been influential in this process ( , 2006; Wright, 2002) Vi t Nam’s Ministry of Education and Training (MOET) aims to comprehensively renew and implement foreign language teaching and learning programs at different education and training levels in the national education system in order to improve the foreign language proficiency of its human resources (Government of Vi t Nam, 2008)

With the rapid development in ICT, and its capacity to facilitate learning and teaching (Underwood, 2009), teachers around the world are exploring more teaching resources with new teaching methods that utilise computer-based ICT Similarly, the Vietnamese

government and many educators have been aware of the need to incorporate

computer-based ICT into the foreign language curriculum (T N ng, 2011; X T ng, 2012; Government of Vi t Nam, 2008; V L Nguy n, 2009), going beyond the already current use of other digital technologies such as cassette/CD players ICT in this study thus will generally refer to digital technologies or computer-based technologies which reflects the use of the term in many recent policies issued by the MOET (2003, 2008a, 2011a)

Five years ago, in a United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) document aiming to promote ICT literacy in the Asia-Pacific region, Pernia (2008) estimated that Vi t Nam was high in appreciation but low on availability of

technology Only three years later, as reported by Vi t Nam’s Ministry of Information and Communications (MOIC), ‘all schools, colleges and universities in the country have the Internet connection’ (MOIC, 2011, p 15) Initially the limited infrastructure in

schools only allowed Internet access for school administration purposes, and not for classroom purposes However, infrastructure in schools has gradually improved, starting with big cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City where most classrooms are now equipped with computers and data/LCD projectors As a result, more and more ICT-based instruction has been seen in metropolitan classrooms and in particular in language

classrooms, which is the focus of this study In recent research into the use of ICT in five teacher education institutes in five Northern and Central provinces of Vi t Nam, Peeraer and Petegem (2010) note that important conditions, such as availability of equipment and teacher educators’ awareness of ICT potentials for successful implementation, are now met, with computer access no longer being the main factor holding back the use of ICT in these teacher education institutions They conclude their article by emphasising that

‘Vietnamese teachers and teacher educators should be prepared for a changed teacher role and should know how ICT can be used in a way it improves the learning process towards active teaching and learning’(p 922) This suggests that the challenge will now be for professional development on effective pedagogical implementation, a position basic to this study

Also central to this study is the question of whether all the important conditions for successful implementation of ICT in English language teaching are met specifically in the rural areas of Vi t Nam, as distinct from the urban areas According to the World

agricultural country has 69% of its population living in rural areas as defined by the General Statistics Office of Vi t Nam (World Bank, 2013b) Yet there has been a

widening gap between urban and rural education in terms of access and quality (V , 2012), with the minority urban population having much greater access to technology and Internet resources than those in rural areas, thus resulting in increased inequality

The idea of this research grew out of my realisation that ICT is expected to be integrated

in teaching English in rural Vietnamese schools, especially at primary level, but little information is available about accessibility to technology in rural schools, how ICT has been used in such schools and whether ICT can help English teachers to facilitate their professional learning There is little research evidence on related questions such as the following Do the primary schools in rural areas have any obstacles in implementing ICT? What are the views of school leaders and English teachers about ICT and its use in

teaching and learning? Can ICT bring any benefits for rural English teachers to improve their professionalism and compensate for the disadvantages of distance?

1.1 Context of the study

The administration of the education system in Vi t Nam is centralised and hierarchical (London, 2011) The MOET is mainly responsible for educational matters including planning strategies, budget and human resources management, and policy formulation At the province-level, Departments of Education and Training (DOETs) are in charge of educational affairs to implement the national policies At the district-level, Bureaus of Education and Training (BOETs) manage all schools in the district and are accountable to their provincial DOET The DOETs and the BOETs

… also play liaising roles (communication, management…) between the MOET and the institutes The BOET-members are thus the specialized, liaising education

officers which are the closest to the communities and the schools (Flemish

Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance in Viet Nam,

2008, p 9)

The structure of the Vietnamese education system comprises 12 years of schooling for general education consisting of five years in primary (Grades 1–5), four years in lower secondary (Grades 6–9) and three years in upper secondary education (Grades 10–12) All Vietnamese children have to complete at least primary education General education can be followed by three to six years for a Bachelor of Arts (BA) degree, two years for a Master (MA) degree, and three to four years for a Doctoral degree (See Appendix 1.1 for

an overview of education and training in Vi t Nam.) This following section outlines the context of the research with a focus on rural primary schools

1.1.1 Primary schooling in Vi t Nam

According to the 2005 Education Law of Vi t Nam issued by the National Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vi t Nam (2005), children start primary education at the age of six and continue for five years Education at this level is free and compulsory for all Vietnamese children Primary students receive a certificate issued by the school principal when they successfully complete their primary education The Education Law of Vi t Nam states:

Primary education aims to help the pupils form initial foundations for a correct and

long-lasting moral, intellectual, physical and aesthetic development, along with the

development of basic skills for them to enter lower secondary education (National

Assembly of the Socialist Republic of Vi t Nam, 2005, p 10)

The total enrolment in primary education of Vietnamese children in 2011 was 99% (UNESCO, 2013) In the school year of 2010–2011, there were 15,242 primary schools with a total of 7,048,493 students and 359,039 teaching staff in the whole country

(MOET, 2012a)

As stated in this law, the aim of primary education is to assist students to ‘acquire simple and necessary knowledge about nature, society and human beings; with basic skills in listening, reading, speaking, writing and calculating, with habits of physical exercise and hygiene; and with initial understanding of singing, dancing, music and arts’ (p 11) Therefore, the education program at this level is structured with compulsory subjects, namely Vietnamese Language, Mathematics, Morality, Science, History, Geography, Basic Techniques, Music, Arts and Physical Education (Tr nh, 2006) This program is followed by all primary schools in the Vietnamese educational system

Normally, primary students study compulsory subjects for about four hours per day Depending on each school, this class time can be divided into class periods lasting 35 minutes each with five-minute break between two periods and a thirty-minute break after two class periods (See Table 1.1) Students spend about thirty to forty minutes per day on play activities In those schools that can meet all the basic requirements of teaching, such

as classroom equipment and sufficient teachers, the students can study elective subjects

A school year runs from September through May, divided into 35 weeks Most primary students throughout the country are at school five days per week: four periods between about 7:00 and 10:00 o’clock in the morning and three class periods from 1:30 o’clock in the afternoon The break between the morning and afternoon shift allows students to return home or to their relative’s place nearby for a meal and rest

Table 1.1 Sample of a school timetable for Grade 3

Maths Vietnamese Physical

Team activities

Team activities

Class meeting

Vi t Nam has five municipalities and 58 provinces and each municipality or province has its own teacher training college/university Therefore, local primary teachers are mainly trained by provincial universities or colleges In the past, primary teachers in the

provinces were trained in the local Vocational Teacher Training School or Teacher

Training College for two years after they finished their upper secondary education They received a Primary Teacher Certificate when completing the training and applied to be a teacher in a local primary school In recent times, all primary teachers have been trained

at a local college or university

There are three types of primary teachers Some teach all compulsory subjects in primary education including Music and Arts, some are in charge of only the core subjects

(excluding Music and Arts), while others teach only one subject, e.g Music, Arts,

Computing or English Teachers in the first and second group work as a class teacher with

their own class, while teachers in the third group teach many classes across all year levels, each for a small number of periods

At the time of the study, a primary teacher was required to teach 23 periods per week (MOET, 2006) out of more than 30 that students engage in This would suggest that teachers had adequate free time for preparing their lessons However, in reality their schools assigned a higher workload to them They had to attend a variety of meetings and

be in charge of different duties at their schools, such as being involved in the school trade union, administrative work, or school events

1.1.2 Differences between urban and rural primary schools in Vi t Nam

Despite a perceived established primary education system in Vi t Nam, differences between urban and rural primary school have been reported In his introduction to

primary education in Vi t Nam, Tr nh (2006) states that there has been an ongoing

difference in the quality of primary education between regions in the country The main difference between urban and rural primary schools relates to funding sources and

structure Primary schools are funded by MOET through DOETs and each DOET’s district representative offices (BOETs) Most of this funding is spent on salaries for teachers and administrative officers at schools (World Bank, 2013a)

The operating expenditure in education includes wages, salaries, and excludes capital investments in buildings and equipment The education sector receives a larger share of the total public expenditure than other sectors, receiving 20% in 2011 (World Bank, 2013a) in which 80% was for salaries and 20% for school operation

However the introduction of the policy of ‘xã h i hoá giáo d c’ (‘socialization of

education’) issued by the Government of Vi t Nam in 2005 has resulted in some

inequities The policy aims to draw on community financial resources to contribute to educational services, but the rural areas generally have less financial capability than the urban areas As part of the ‘socialization of education’ policy, primary schools are

expected to receive donations from students’ parents and communities through bodies called Parents’ Unions These donations go to school construction and maintenance, school facilities, instruction materials and teaching aids, and pay for additional classes Students’ parents are invited to join the Parents’ Committee at their children’s school and

basic curriculum’ (Behr, 2005, p 17) However, the Parents’ Union is the main reason for the difference in funding between urban and rural schools (Behr, 2005)

Parents in rural areas have less money, most are farmers or labourers They have

enough money for their students to attend required classes and own necessary

materials, but not enough to give to the school for language teachers, school

construction, or full day staff In the city the Parents’ Unions are stronger and more

able to build new schools and hire teachers for not just English, but also French and

other extracurricular classes (Behr, 2005, p 17)

Thus, this policy contributes to the differences between urban and rural primary schools

in terms of financial resources for English Students’ parents in the cities voluntarily contribute 30–60% to the primary school budget (Nguyên Minh, 2010) To date I have not been able to find statistics on how much parents in rural areas contribute, although statistics on general income levels indicate that rural incomes are lower (Justino &

Litchfield, 2003; T H Lê & Booth, 2013)

Behr (2005) also indicates that ‘probably the most significant difference is the amount of time that children spend at school’ (p 20) Students in urban schools can stay at school nearly the whole day whereas far fewer students in rural schools can stay all day because their parents cannot afford it Some of the students have to help their parents in the fields

or fishing farms after schools to earn some more money for their family This has direct effects because ‘[t]he amount of time at school determines how much material is learned and how thoroughly it can be learned’ (p 20) The curriculum, including that for English language, is also offered differently based on how much time the students spend at

school Finally, yet importantly in regard to the English language program, students in the urban areas may have more opportunities to study English and communicate with native English speakers, and see some relevance for English in the world outside school

1.1.3 The introduction of English into Vietnamese primary schools

Since the 1990s, English has been taught in language centres and in some private primary schools in large cities such as Hà N i and H Chí Minh City In 1996, English was

introduced as an elective subject in primary schools with two 40 minute teaching periods per week in some provinces because of the strong demand from parents and society (T

M H Nguy n, 2011) This demand put pressure on the education system to legislate for compulsory English language teaching Following the Decision No 1400/QD-TTg (Government of Vi t Nam, 2008), which approved the scheme on foreign language

teaching and learning in the national education system in the 2008–2020 period (known

as ‘Project 2020’), the pilot project introducing English as a compulsory subject at

primary level from Grade 3 was implemented in 2010 in 100 primary schools in 18 cities and provinces nationwide, including Hà N i, H Chí Minh City, H i Phòng, C n Th (VietNamNet, 2010)

However, the limited number of English teachers does not meet the growing popularity of teaching English in primary schools The other subject/class teachers tend not to teach English because of their lack of English proficiency, as English language proficiency is not a criteria for successful completion of a primary teacher training degree (Grassick, 2007) As reported by the media, Vi t Nam may need more than 6,000 English teachers each year (Minh Châu, 2011) As a result, schools have to recruit English teachers who do not necessarily have any primary teacher training qualification Many primary schools have to ‘borrow’ English teachers from secondary schools or even high schools, but these teachers are not trained in primary education and do not know how to teach English to young learners Finding enough primary English teachers is a big challenge for the project (Phúc i n, 2010) Thus Vi t Nam lacks English teachers who are proficient in English language as well as having appropriate pedagogical approaches to teaching English in primary schools (Minh Châu, 2011)

1.1.4 Introduction of ICT into Vietnamese primary schools

As early as 1993 Vi t Nam recognised the importance of developing an ICT policy, but a Master Plan for ICT in Education was not published until 2001 (United Nations

Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization, 2010) The Master Plan focuses on: the demand for ICT human staff; educational reform in content, teaching and learning

methods; study modes; and educational management This plan prioritised building ICT infrastructure for education (MOET, 2000) As reported by the Ministry of Information and Communications of Vi t Nam (MOIC), ‘all schools, colleges and universities in the country have the Internet connection’ (MOIC, 2011, p 15) Teachers are encouraged to implement ICT applications as part of new and innovative methods of teaching and learning at each grade (MOET, 2010a) Moreover, provincial DOETs are requested to locally implement the education network to improve communication among schools and between schools and higher levels such as BOET, DOET, and MOET Teachers are

Although ICT has been rapidly implemented in Vietnamese schools, its integration into learning and teaching at primary level remains inequitable in rural areas because of

differing living standards (Thành Nam, 2011) Limited use of ICT in rural areas is

considered to be due to: inadequate infrastructure; lack of integration into existing

curriculum and textbooks; teacher overload and lack of incentive and motivation; lack of interactive ICT-based materials that are truly interactive; shortage of technical personnel; lack of technical support, lack of funds for operations and maintenance and even lack of space to accommodate computers (Th Ph ng & Nguy n Th y, 2008) Other important barriers to the use of ICT in teaching and learning in Vi t Nam are the lack of teacher trainers’ computer skills and confidence in using ICT (Peeraer & Petegem, 2010)

Even when some teachers do have access to computers and their basic ICT skills are satisfactory, ICT implementation for teaching purposes remains low (Flemish Association for Development Cooperation and Technical Assistance in Viet Nam, 2008) According

to Hoàng H ng and L u Trang (2010a), much of the current use of ICT in classrooms still focuses on a drill and practice type of learning They also report that some teachers seem to have negative attitudes about using ICT in teaching because they are afraid of using technology, and if they are obliged to use a computer and data projector they use it

in much the same way as a blackboard Others mostly use ICT in a way that replaces the traditional practice of students writing down what their teachers said or wrote on the blackboard with students copying lesson notes from the projector screen When designing PowerPoint presentations, some teachers do not know how to use font type, font size, background colours, or utilise effects properly (Hoàng H ng & L u Trang, 2010a) This misuse of ICT affects students’ learning, e.g those students at a distance from the data projector cannot see the lesson contents clearly because fonts are too small or the choice

of colours does not allow them to be easily read

1.1.5 Section summary

In brief, this section has highlighted the Vietnamese educational contexts for this study

In Vi t Nam, the primary schooling follows the national educational system monitored by the MOET However, educational access and quality are different between rural and urban areas, especially with the introduction of English language and ICT in primary schools My personal experience with teaching English and using ICT reflects these broad

educational contexts, and provides a historical picture representing the learning journey of many other rural Vietnamese teachers of English

1.2 Coming to this research: A personal story

My father, who is a farmer, encouraged me to apply for a university program when I completed my upper secondary education He said to me, ‘I cannot give you money Education is all I can invest for you And I think English language is useful for your future.’ I have been fortunate to follow my educational aspirations with great support from my parents compared to my other rural friends who were not permitted to complete their lower secondary education Usually, the girls were forced to get married early and the boys had to find jobs to earn money as soon as possible

Unlike most children today, I did not learn English during my primary education but only when I started Grade 6 in a rural lower secondary school, 20 years ago when aged 11 Before that, I did not know anything about the English language, I just remember feeling astonished on hearing some of my friends speaking some English words when they

started taking extra classes in English during the summer vacation At that time, I saw English only as a new subject I would have to learn in my lower secondary education I also had no experience of ICT There was not even access to electricity at my house and surrounding communities during the time I was in primary school A television, if any of the neighbours could equip themselves with one, was black and white only and operated with a large rechargeable battery

When I started Grade 6 there was no cassette player, and there were no computers at any

of my schools during in the mid-1990s My English teacher read from the textbooks and

my classmates and I followed as the teacher dictated the texts I remember that my

English classes began regularly with a vocabulary memory check, and then my teacher started the lesson with new vocabulary The meaning of new words was translated into Vietnamese and written on the blackboard so that we could copy them down in our

notebooks Then the new sentence pattern was introduced with its particular formation, which was called grammar study, and we were asked to learn the pattern by heart My teacher gave some explanations, examples, and grammar exercises for the pattern

Following on from this, we read aloud the text passage or role-played the dialogue in the textbook A home assignment was given at the end of the class time with some more

grammatical exercises My experience involved the grammar-translation method, which focused only on reading and writing skills This method was also used when I studied English in my upper secondary school which was near the centre of my hometown

district

Following my father’s recommendation, I applied for the entrance examination of

University of Social Sciences and Humanities in H Chí Minh City with English

literature as my major However, in the first year when I started my university program, I struggled to catch up with my peers many of whom were born in the city and had more opportunities to access and speak English language in authentic ways than those of us who came from rural provinces

After I completed my university degree in 2000, I stayed in H Chí Minh City and started teaching English to children aged 4–15, and then also to adults At the same time, I studied the Master program in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages

(TESOL) offered by the University of Canberra, Australia, and conducted in Vi t Nam While studying in this program I was introduced to the instructional design and the implementation of ICT in language teaching and learning, and in many seminars and workshops I realised that ICT was engaging and helpful for both my learning and my teaching I was fascinated with the practice of utilising media or communication

technologies and digital content in order to help learners gain knowledge more

effectively

After completing the Master program, in 2002, I joined the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization Regional Training Centre (SEAMEO RETRAC), one of the fifteen regional centres of the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Organization (SEAMEO), as an English instructor and a program coordinator I was very eager to determine how teachers might implement ICT into TESOL and was able to have some input into how this might happen SEAMEO RETRAC turned out to be a good institution for me to put my learning theories into practice The use of technology in English

teaching in this Centre started from 2003, not long after I was first employed In 2005, this Centre officially launched a comprehensive project titled ‘Developing e-Materials in ELT’, jointly managed by the Division of Foreign Studies and the Division of

Technology and the Administration The Centre encountered a number of obstacles relating to teacher readiness, English teaching resources, teacher professional

development, ICT facilities and technical issues To address these obstacles, a series of regular training workshops and sharing sessions were conducted and ICT staff also

received training to improve their skills and learn how to support teachers After six years

of implementing this project,

a bank of electronic materials and resources has been built and uniformly used

throughout the entire centre In conjunction with that, each of our 45 classrooms has

turned into a ‘smart’ classroom with basic electronic equipment for effective

teaching and learning More importantly, teachers have been able to use the new

style of teaching with ease and begun to develop their own activities/practices for use

in class (SEAMEO, 2010, p 154)

The Centre digitalised most of the programs that it offers The lessons were flash-based designed with audio and video embedded and hosted in the Centre servers, which the teachers could access through shortcuts on the classroom computers With this initiative, the Centre has gained a great reputation in the country as a flagship centre in the field It aims to be a leading centre in using ICT in learning and teaching As a teacher at this Centre, I designed my lessons using Microsoft PowerPoint and other authoring software such as Hot Potatoes and Question Tools As a program officer, I was in charge of teacher schedules, syllabus, program design and curriculum development I was responsible for organising a group of teachers at SEAMEO RETRAC participating in the Centre project

to design PowerPoint lessons for the whole course of English programs for children aged 7–10 with six levels

Over the past eight years, I have thus had the advantage of working towards the

implementation of ICT in teaching English to adults and children in Vi t Nam This has resulted in designing PowerPoint lessons and Moodle courses; implementing and

evaluating the use of ICT in teaching English; and training teachers in ICT skills I

wanted to delve deeper into this field of study to carry out independent research and analysis, hence my decision to join the Doctoral program with a focus on the integration

of ICT in language learning and teaching

My interest in this research thus comes from my personal history of growing up in a rural environment and my subsequent goal to use ICT to develop my own and others’

efficiency in speaking and teaching English As I did not study English until starting lower secondary education, which I believe is similar to the experience of a number of English teachers in rural areas, I have an understanding of the difficulties rural English

facilitate managing their teaching workload, improve their language teaching

performance, and help students improve their English skills In pursuit of this passion, I decided to undertake research on the use of ICT to improve English language teaching and learning in rural primary schools

1.3 The research problem

The research problem underpinning my study arises out of the context described in the previous two sections and is based on the following:

• Rural schools play a significant role in Vi t Nam with nearly 70% of the population living in rural areas (World Bank, 2013b) Vi t Nam is hugely diverse, ethnically and linguistically, particularly in rural areas This has resulted in significant educational challenges

• Research in rural primary schools is limited even though there are substantial numbers

of rural schools in the educational system Most educational research has focused on urban and suburban schools that possess readily accessible and gathered populations

• Over the past few years, MOET has been investing significant amounts of financial resources with the intention of supporting the implementation of ICT into classroom settings Mainly lower secondary schools, upper secondary schools and higher

education have made progress in this area while rural primary schools have fallen further behind

• Few surveys have been conducted in Vi t Nam on the use of ICT at primary school level

The issue of implementation of ICT in language learning and teaching in primary

education in the rural areas in Vi t Nam has not yet received appropriate consideration or investigation A report of case studies on ICT in teacher education from the Asia-Pacific region, conducted by the UNESCO in 2010, indicated that Vietnamese educators believed that the use of ICT in primary schools is unnecessary Teachers use ICT for

administrative purposes, but seldom for teaching Therefore, there is a need to encourage teachers to utilise the available digital resources as well as using ICT first to improve their own expertise and then to engage their students in English language learning and develop students’ English language skills

At the time of my study, MOET lacked a professional ICT training program (UNESCO, 2008a) In some regions, this teacher training has just begun, mostly focusing on

computer literacy in basic software such as WinWord and Excel, PowerPoint and basic programming The majority of teachers are being trained in computer literacy Training in the use of ICT for teaching specific subjects such as English or Mathematics has begun, but at the time of this study was not yet fully systematic with careful consideration of each level in the education system (UNESCO, 2010) I designed my study to enable me

to explore methods that could be used to provide ICT training for teachers in rural

settings

1.4 Objectives and research question

This research is intended to explore the process of ICT implementation by investigating, within the Vietnamese rural context, the conditions likely to favour the successful

integration of ICT in English language learning and teaching in primary schools This study also seeks to better understand how rural teachers respond to supported professional development and learning in the implementation of ICT for teaching English It aims to gain insight into the types of circumstances that support or constrain integration of ICT and participation in associated professional development The research is thus aligned with the requirements of Project 2020 of the MOET which states that:

foreign language is a compulsory subject starting from third grade at all levels of the general education From the 2010–2011 school year, to implement the new foreign

language teaching program for 20% of third graders and gradually expand the

program to reach the rate of around 70% by the 2015–2016 school year and 100% by the 2018–2019 school year ( Government of Vi t Nam, 2008)

The study is also intended to provide primary English teachers in rural schools with an opportunity to reflect on their use of ICT in language teaching and learning and to offer suggestions on how ICT can best be implemented in learning and teaching in rural areas

of Vi t Nam

Accordingly, the research question is:

In what ways does the use of ICT facilitate English language teaching in rural

Vietnamese primary schools?

This overarching question is expanded through three subsidiary questions as follows:

1 What are the policies and practices relating to English language teaching and the use

of ICT in rural Vietnamese primary schools?

2 What is involved in the development and conduct of an online forum in response to English teachers’ identified technology-enhanced teaching needs?

3 What factors shape the use of ICT in teaching primary English and associated

professional learning opportunities?

1.5 Definition of terms

In order to provide a specific context for the discussion in this study, several terms need

to be defined

• In this research, the term ‘rural’ refers to non-metropolitan areas, which are districts

of a province, not including the centre of the province (city/town), and centres of districts in that province

• ‘School leaders’ refers to the principal and vice-principal/s of a school and in this research specifically of a rural primary school One primary school usually has one principal and two vice-principals

• A provincial Department of Education and Training (DOET) is established by and under the control of the People’s Committee of a province Its main functions are to give the provincial people’s committee advice on education management A DOET is under the direct management of the MOET in terms of academic management issues

• The Bureaus of Education and Training (BOETs) are under the direct management of the DOET A BOET manages all the schools in a district of a province

• English education refers to English language learning and teaching in schools where Vietnamese students have to study this language as a subject

• English teachers teach English language in schools They have studied English

language to various levels of proficiency and are eligible to teach Vietnamese

students, based on government regulations

• The term ICT used in this study stands for ‘Information and Communication

Technology’ (in Vietnamese: ‘công ngh thông tin’ or ‘CNTT’) and to refer to

technologies that provide access to information through telecommunications This term has been used by researchers since the 1980s and became popular in the 21stcentury It is used in most Vietnamese policies and media in its short form ‘CNTT’ ICT is similar to Information Technology (IT), but expands that concept to include

communication technologies Therefore ICT in this study refers to computer-based ICT and includes computers, the Internet, and devices such as data/LCD projectors It does not include other IT technologies, such as cassette/CD/DVD players While it is acknowledged that digital technologies is becoming a more popular term than ICT nowadays, this research will use ICT as it is the term most used in Vietnamese

government policies

• A ‘Computing subject’ is taught to students from Grade 3 to Grade 5 in Vietnamese primary schools with the focus on introduction to computing, composing documents, and basics of graphic design

• ‘ICT classroom’ refers to the traditional classroom with the availability of some ICT equipment such as computers and data/LCD projectors

• ‘ICT facilities’ refers to the ICT equipment facilitating teaching and learning such as computers, computer room, projector, cassette/CD/DVD player, Internet access

• ‘Professional development’ has typically been understood as the more formal

traditional approach to in-service that teachers often experience when they are asked

to implement a new curriculum or some other policy initiative It is a top-down

approach

• ‘Professional learning’ is about informal learning and how that learning is able to be applied and refined in practice Involvement in professional learning is therefore more likely to be voluntary, and the associated learning is personal and appropriately shaped and directed by each individual (Timperley, 2007)

1.6 Significance of the study

Research in the implementation of ICT in education in general, and in English language learning and teaching in particular, has had great impact on the education profession in

Vi t Nam (X T ng, 2012; V L Nguy n, 2011; Peeraer & Tr n, 2011) This study contributes to this body of research and provides information and insights that can

increase understanding of the current nature and the process of implementation of ICT in English language learning and teaching in rural primary schools The study can also inform MOET, DOETs and BOETs in their efforts to create more opportunities for English teachers to implement ICT in their teaching by supporting the provision of

facilities and conducting professional development courses It can also inform English teachers as to know how to utilise ICT in their professional learning and then help their

primary students to develop necessary qualities and skills needed for active and effective learning The insights and suggestions provided by research participants will thus be of value not only for language teachers and learners but also for curriculum and textbook writers, researchers and policy makers

1.7 Foreseen limitations

A number of limitations are recognised in the design of this study First, communicating with primary school leaders and English teachers in rural areas is not always easy because they are afraid of talking to a stranger Second, school leaders and teachers do not always

‘tell the truth’ about their current situation because they may be afraid that the researcher will report to their higher authority and affect their career Third, it is difficult to retain strong participation during the data collection process because educators are all busy with heavy workloads Finally, this study only focuses on the use of ICT to teach English language in rural primary schools and not secondary schools

1.8 Thesis organisation

This chapter has provided the background and motivation for this study and a brief

introduction to the study, its research questions and its objectives

A review of current literature on policy and implementation relating to ICT and primary English language teaching will be provided in Chapter 2 The literature on ICT use for primary English language education and its possibilities for English teachers’ professional development is directly related to this study The chapter will first examine each field of ICT and English language teaching separately focusing on primary education These two fields will be integrated in the second section The concepts of rural and equity in

education with the implementation of ICT will be the focus of the final section

Chapter 3 explains the methods that have been used for conducting the research, as well

as its theoretical framework of language-in-education policy and Technological

Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK) It describes the study sites and participants, the operational procedures and the instruments used for data collection, the selection of data for analysis, and the methods of analysis

The results of questionnaire and interview analysis based on a selection of themes will be presented in results Chapters 4, 5 and 6, with some discussion of the themes and the

issues raised Chapter 4 reports on current practice in the implementation of English language education in rural primary schools Chapter 5 reports findings on the

introduction of ICT into such schools Chapter 6 describes the design and use of an online forum which was established to facilitate English teachers’ professional learning to address the obstacles identified in Chapters 4 and 5

Chapter 7 summarises the research findings, draws conclusions from those findings, and indicates some of the implications of the findings Conclusions relate to the factors

shaping the use of ICT in teaching primary English, including associated professional learning opportunities Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research in this field are also considered

Chapter 2 Policy and implementation relating to ICT

and English language teaching

Chapter 1 has outlined the motivation and contextual information for my study of ICT implementation for primary English teachers in Vietnamese rural areas, including the investigation of opportunities for professional development and independent learning First, this chapter aims to relate this study to previous scholarly attempts to describe, analyse and explain ICT use and implementation for primary English language education The second purpose is to establish what has been revealed in diverse educational contexts

as a basis for understanding the findings in my study A further purpose is to critically evaluate the current research To address these purposes, this chapter draws on a broad range of literature from various fields and sources: computer-assisted language learning (CALL), English teachers, the Vietnamese Ministry of Education and Training (MOET), English language education and ICT classroom integration researchers However, to maintain the focus of the study as a whole, this chapter will concentrate on studies related

to ICT and English language teaching in primary education and to the utilisation of ICT

in professional development for primary English teachers

The literature review chapter begins with a focus on the teaching of English language as a foreign language subject in primary schools Next, the topic of the implementation of ICT for learning and teaching in primary schools in general will be investigated The chapter will then focus on the integration of ICT for teaching English to primary students Finally, Section 2.4 will give a brief overview of matters related to equity and rural education

2.1 English language teaching in primary schools

This section reviews studies on the introduction of the English language to primary students, issues in teaching English to primary students, leadership for teaching English in primary schools, and professional development and online resources for primary English teachers

2.1.1 Introduction of the English language to primary students

Teaching the English language has recently gained much attention in

language-in-education policies in Asian countries Parallel to recent trends in many countries that have lowered the age of exposure to English, it is now a compulsory subject in primary school curriculum in Singapore, the Philippines and Malaysia By way of contrast, China,

Taiwan, Japan and South Korea have started to provide access to English as a foreign language at primary level, without making it compulsory

Whether students learn better if they begin learning a foreign language at a younger age has been debated for a long time (Read, 2003; Sharpe & Driscoll, 2000; Stern, 1967) However, there is no consistent support for the idea that, the younger children begin learning a foreign language the better they will be Nunan (2008) reports that among groups of students from the same demographic, there is no difference between those who started learning English at the age of ten and those who started at the age of five when they are tested at the age of 15

However, other authors confirm the advantages of learning a foreign language at an early age First, children who learn a language when they are young have a much better chance

of having a better accent when speaking another language because they are good at imitating new sounds and adopting pronunciation (Merritt, 2013) Listening skill and pronunciation benefit most but only when learning language in naturalistic contexts (Cameron, 2001) Second, young children have time to learn something well because as Singleton and Ryan (2004) assert, in terms of natural language acquisition, children learning a foreign language ‘do better than adult learners in the long run’ (p 96), often because it is difficult for an adult to find sufficient time to devote to their language

learning Third, young children enjoy learning and quickly pick up a new language while having fun They will try to learn without being afraid of making mistakes Through

‘learning by doing’, language competence can be built up gradually and naturally and provide the basis for more abstract, formal learning in secondary school (Read, 2003; Scott & Ytreberg, 2004)

Carol Read (2003) agrees with Rixon (1999) that it is not ‘optimal age’ but ‘optimal conditions’ that support ‘younger’ to be ‘better’ in learning English as a foreign language She identifies three broad areas relating to potential conditions for effective foreign

different to older learners because they are ‘in a crucial formative phase of their social, psychological, physical, emotional and cognitive development’ (p 6) Second are

potential benefits to the individual and society due to children’s spending a longer time for study Third is the learning context of the primary school because ‘through “learning

by doing”, language competence can be built up gradually and naturally’ (p 6) Read (2003) also identifies a ‘need for coherent primary and secondary policies to provide for progression and continuity throughout the school years’ (p 7) because primary teachers may not be aware of how to prepare their students for secondary school

2.1.2 Issues in teaching English to primary students

The nationwide implementation of curriculum innovation, however, presents various problems and challenges in particular regarding teacher education, time frames, and in-service teacher training programs designed and implemented by ministries of education Many research studies (Ali, Hamid, & Moni, 2011; Baldauf, Kaplan, Kamwangamalu, & Bryant, 2011; M Li, 2007; T M H Nguy n, 2011) have identified issues associated with the implementation of foreign language policies for primary education Some of these issues are also reflected in education more generally For example, early research on policy enactment highlighted that implementation problems were not only caused by faulty policy design but also, and ‘even more importantly, from the policy’s relationship

to the local institutional setting’ (Odden, 1991, p 5) Honig (2006) states that policy instruments including mandates, incentives, capacity building, and system change are provided to motivate the implementers to change and make the policies more or less effective However, implementers do not always do as they are advised nor do they always act to maximise policy objectives (Cohen & Ball, 1990; McLaughlin, 1987) Nguy n (2011; 2007) confirmed differences between government policies and practices

of foreign language teaching at primary level in Vi t Nam, pointing out that teacher supply, methods, materials, training, and professional development hinder the

effectiveness of the English language policy implementation

Cameron (2001) identifies two common misunderstandings related to teaching English to young learners First is the wrong assumption that teaching English to children is a

straightforward process that can be undertaken by a teacher with a basic training

‘Teachers at primary level are often given less training, lower status, and lower pay, than their colleagues in the same educational system who teach teenagers or adults’ (p xii)

The second misunderstanding is that the language taught to children only needs to be simple, such as ‘colours and numbers, nursery rhymes and songs, and talking about themselves’ (p xii) Cameron argues that teaching languages to children needs all the skills of a good teacher In addition, children need more than ‘simple’ language because they can be interested in complicated topics and structures She also suggests that

amongst other knowledge and skills in teaching English, teachers at primary level need (a) an understanding of how children think and learn; (b) skills and knowledge in spoken English and the capacity to pick up on children’s interests and use them for language teaching; and (c) to be equipped to teach initial literacy in English (Cameron, 2003)

A major problem that has been mentioned in the literature is the quality of English

teachers at primary level Emery (2012) reports in her global study of primary English teachers’ that key considerations are qualifications, training, teaching experience and career development This argument is supported by the fact that there are a low number of English teachers with a degree and low numbers of those with specific training to teach primary students

This problem has also been mentioned frequently in the Vietnamese media (Lâm, 2010; Minh Châu, 2011; Phúc i n, 2010) The MOET expects English teachers to achieve level B2 of the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) (The various CEFR levels of English competency are outlined in Appendix 2.1) Nevertheless, Parks (2011) noted in a media report that it was difficult for teachers to meet that expectation,

especially those in rural provinces The DOET in Ben Tre province (2011) reported that,

of 700 teachers sitting the First Certificate in English Test in May, 2011, only one teacher reached level B2 and only 63 reached level B1 Dr Nguy n Ng c Hùng, Deputy Director, International Co-operations Department in MOET, who is leading Project 2020 (see Section 1.1.3), reported that English teachers in 30 provinces sat the English proficiency examination in 2012 (H ng & Giang, 2012) The results showed that 93% of primary teachers could not attain the MOET expectation and that 17% of those teachers were only

at level A1 of CEFR, which means they are just at beginner level Lê and (2012) in their study on teacher preparation for primary education in one province in Vi t Nam find that English teachers showed weakness in pedagogical skills, oral skills, vocabulary knowledge and pronunciation The issue of staffing is also identified in Malaysia by Ali

et al (2011) as a problem in foreign language education, while in China Li (2007) also