Errors in the use of conditionals made by the eleventh grade students at co loa high school, dong anh, ha noi

However, due to complicated and numerous ways to form and use conditionals, and the fact that its uses have not been fully described in textbooks, Vietnamese high-school students of Engl

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION AND TRAINING HANOI PEDAGOGICAL UNIVERSITY N0.2 FACULTY OF FOREIGN LANGUAGES

TRAN THI HANG

ERRORS IN THE USE OF CONDITIONALS MADE BY THE ELEVENTH-GRADE STUDENTS

AT CO LOA HIGH SCHOOL, DONG ANH, HANOI

(SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF

THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS IN ENGLISH)

SUPERVISOR: TRAN THAI, M.A

Hanoi, May 2012

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

************

My graduation paper would not be fulfilled if there was no positive contribution

of many people in different ways

First of all, I would like to show my greatest gratitude to Mr Tran Thai, M.A.,

my respectful supervisor for his experienced and patient instruction, as well as his detailed, valuable comments, suggestions and advice during my conducting the paper

I am delighted to acknowledge my gratitude to all the lecturers at Hanoi Pedagogical University N02, particularly, the lecturers in the Foreign Languages Faculty for their devoted guidance so that not only my overall insight into the English language, but also my writing and researching skills might be enhanced

I also wish to thank the teachers and the students at Co Loa High School, especially Mrs Nguyen Ngoc Anh and the two classes 11A1 and 11A4 I am greatly indebted to all of them for their wholehearted assistance and cooperation when I was carrying on the survey questionnaire

Furthermore, I would like to express my sincere thanks to my close friends who have shared with me helpful reference documents and data concerned with my thesis

Constantly rather than finally, I owe an enormous dept of gratitude to my beloved family for their immeasurable support and continuous encouragement

ABSTRACT

********

The conditional sentence is one of the most significant categories in the English language However, due to complicated and numerous ways to form and use conditionals, and the fact that its uses have not been fully described in textbooks, Vietnamese high-school students of English sometimes get confused when using this sentence type

Students’ confusion in the use of conditionals causes them to make unexpected errors For this reason, an entailed paper on the subject of conditionals was conducted to investigate high school students’ understanding of conditionals and their ability to produce different conditional sentence types

Based on the result of the survey, the errors in use of conditionals and the detached causes have been found The students had difficulties distinguishing conditional types and choosing appropriate elements, namely verb tenses, conjunctions, etc for each clause of conditional sentences, especially of the two unfamiliar types: zero conditional and mixed conditionals

Finally, following an identification of these factors, several suggested solutions have been proposed with the hope that this type of sentences will be used more suitably It is advised that teachers should provide students with the knowledge of all conditional types including their variations and their usage For students, practicing hard is an asset to help them deal with this sentence type and other categories of the English language as well

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP

**************

Title: Errors in the use of conditionals made by the eleventh-grade students

at Co Loa High School, Dong Anh , Hanoi (Graduation paper submitted in partial fulfillment of the Degree of Bachelor of Arts in English)

My passion for English has inspired me to conduct this graduation paper I could have sworn that the paper was resulted in my own working seriously for a period

of time Certainly, this must not be copied from any honorable authors’ work illegally without asking their permission

Date submitted: May 2012

ABBREVIATIONS

***********

EFL: English as a Foreign Language

ESL: English as a Second Language

L1: Students’ First Language

L2: Students’ Second Language

TABLE OF CONTENTS

************

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

STATEMENT OF AUTHORSHIP iv

ABBREVIATIONS v

TABLE OF CONTENTS vi

PART ONE INTRODUCTION 1 Rationale 1

2 Research questions 2

3 Research aims and objectives 3

4 Research scope 3

5 Research methods 4

6 Significance of the proposed research 4

7 Design of the research work 5

PART TWO DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 1.1 Literature of review in brief 6

1.2 Conditional sentences 7

1.2.1 Definition 7

1.2.2 Forms of conditionals 8

1.2.3 Types of conditionals 9

1.2.3.1 Conditional type 0 10

1.2.3.1.1 Definition 10

1.2.3.1.2 Form 10

1.2.3.1.3 Use 11

1.2.3.1.4 Variations 12

1.2.3.2 Conditional type 1 12

1.2.3.2.1 Definition 12

1.2.3.2.2 Form 13

1.2.3.2.3 Use 13

1.2.3.2.4 Variations 14

1.2.3.3 Conditional type 2 16

1.2.3.3.1 Definition 16

1.2.3.3.2 Form 17

1.2.3.3.3 Use 17

1.2.3.3.4 Variations 19

1.2.3.4 Conditional type 3 21

1.2.3.4.1 Definition 21

1.2.3.4.2 Form 22

1.2.3.4.3 Use 22

1.2.3.4.4 Variations 23

1.2.3.5 Mixed conditionals 24

1.2.3.5.1 Definition 24

1.2.3.5.2 Classification 24

1.2.3.5.2.1 Mixed third-second conditional 25

1.2.3.5.2.2 Mixed second-third conditional 26

1.2.4 Implied conditionals 27

1.2.5 Other conjunctions having similar meanings to “if” 28

1.2.6 Inversion in conditionals 32

CHAPTER TWO THE METHODOLOGY AND RESULTS

2.1 Methodology 34

2.1.1 Purpose of the survey 34

2.1.2 Population of the survey 35

2.1.3 Type of the survey 35

2.1.4 Construction of the test 35

2.1.5 Preparation of the survey 36

2.1.6 Administration of the try-out 37

2.1.7 Method of data analysis 38

2.1.8 Results of the survey 38

2.2 Discussion of the results 40

2.2.1 Errors in the use of conditional types 40

2.2.2 Errors in the use of conjunctions in conditionals 44

2.2.3 Errors in the use of verb tenses in conditionals 45

2.2.4 Errors in the use of positives and negatives in conditionals 47

2.2.5 Errors in the use of punctuation in conditionals 48

2.2.6 Errors in the use of inversion in conditionals 49

CHAPTER THREE SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS AND EXERCISES 3.1 Suggested solutions 51

3.1.1 For teachers 51

3.1.2 For students 53

3.2 Suggested exercises 55

3.2.1 Sources of exercises 55

3.2.2 Types of exercises 56

3.2.3 Samples of exercises 57

PART THREE CONCLUSION

1 Summary of the researching process and implications 62

2 Limitations and suggestions for further research 63 REFERENCES

APPENDIXES

PART ONE INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

Even if one does not want to, one might recognize that English grammar is really challenging On the way to the competence in English, students have to overcome many obstacles They are a system of complex categories such as reported speech, comparatives and superlatives, relative clauses, and many types of clauses, verbs, etc Among these issues, conditionals are one of the most complicated and significant to master They are used very commonly in both professional and personal life To cope with this grammatical category, learners

must concern many types of conditionals structured with two clauses: if-clause

and main clause Each of them has variations which create certain meanings for certain contexts Additionally, there are combinations of different tenses and a variety of modals required to form any conditional sentences Therefore, we need

to be knowledgeable and sensitive when using this type of sentences without getting confused

However intricate the conditional is, it is still an interesting category to deal with Surprisingly, it has not been paid much attention by any forth-year students of Faculty of Foreign Languages at our university when they selected the subject for their graduation papers

Conditionals are naturally taught in secondary schools, they are re-designed in the curriculum for high-school students to consolidate their insight on this issue Regrettably, there are only three main types of conditionals introduced to students: type one, type two and type three, whereas each type of these sentences

is categorized into many different subtypes with many varied forms Besides, there are numerous ways to express conditions, using a variety of conjunctions,

verbs except “if” For this reason, students have missed a large part in the

immense fund of knowledge involved in conditionals Inevitably, their challenges when handling materials concerning all conditional types are not really easy, especially when they are sitting for the entrance examinations into universities Hence, it is necessary to research the use of conditionals at high schools

Having been studying English for several years, variations of conditionals sometimes cause myself certain confusion, and then interest me Thus, I have come to the decision that this sentence type would be chosen as the topic of my graduation paper with the hope that during my research, I could find out the answers to the questions I have been asking myself for a long time

Because of all subjective and objective factors mentioned above, conditionals have surpassed other possible subjects, becoming the topic of my paper Hopefully, it can make certain contribution to the process of teaching and learning English in Vietnam

2 Research questions

Many ESL/EFL students find it difficult to solve the errors related to conditional sentences, so do the eleventh - grade students at Co Loa High School, Dong Anh, Hanoi For this issue, there are several questions raised

1 Which kind of errors do the students in grade 11 at Co Loa High School in the academic year of 2011 – 2012 make?

2 What are the most common errors made by these students?

3 By what way can we reduce the number of such errors?

These questions have paved the way for my studying the issue

3 Research aims and objectives

The research was conducted mainly to seek the accurate answers, or at least, the most acceptable ones to the questions put above Firstly, the research aims at finding out the kinds of errors that are often made by the eleventh-grade students

at Co Loa High School in the academic year of 2011 – 2012 Its second purpose

is to determine what the most general errors that these students have made are Next the causes of these errors must be clarified Finally, the research is designed

to recommend useful tips to help students improve their understanding of conditionals

The paper needs to finish the steps as follows:

1 To study the forms of different types of conditionals with “if”, from the

basic forms to the variations

2 To research the use of the conditional types, clarifying the meanings of each type in each certain situation

3 To learn about the other ways to form a conditional and their uses

4 To carry out a survey in order that the students’ use of conditionals is investigated, the errors will be found, and then suggested solutions to the problems will be introduced

4 Research scope

There is no doubt that conditional sentences are a large grammatical category In

general, conditionals are known as sentences containing conjunction “if” Besides, ones formed with other conjunctions such as “providing that”,

“otherwise”, “but for”, “if only”, “even if”, etc or some verbs namely “wish”,

“hope” are also regarded as conditional patterns However, due to the limited

scope of a graduation paper and the shortage of time, the author would like to

concentrate just on the types of conditionals structured with conjunction “if” and

the errors made by students in term of this conditional sentence type

As mentioned, the study will be about the errors made by the eleventh-grade students at Co Loa High School in the academic year of 2011 – 2012 with sixty-two students attending as the population

5 Research methods

To achieve the aims mentioned above, the research uses material collection, quantitative and qualitative methods Quantitative method is applied to obtain the percentage of errors made by the students, while the qualitative one is for analyzing their errors based on the result of the test

6 Significance of the proposed research

To many ESL/ EFL teachers and students, it might be unfeasible to avoid making any mistakes due to the complexity of English grammar However, in some specific aspects, if we find out proper solutions, we can be able to help minimize the errors For this reason, a graduation paper is worth being conducted with the following expectation:

1 By synthesizing documents, the paper is hoped to help learners of English equip quite entailed and appropriate knowledge of conditionals

2 By pointing out the errors in students’ use of conditional sentences and elucidating the problems, it is expected that students will avoid making those errors again

3 By presenting suggested solutions to the problems, the author wishes that teachers and students will improve their methods of teaching and learning English remarkably

7 Design of the research work

The paper is composed of three main parts:

The first part, Introduction, offers an overall picture of the thesis

The second part is divided into three subparts corresponding to three chapters

1 Chapter one named Theoretical Background clarifies all the grammatical features of conditionals including definitions, forms, uses, variations, etc

2 Chapter two entitled The Methodology and Results reports the process in which the survey was carried out, from determining the research purpose, listing the methods applied, to revealing the results of the survey In the final point of this chapter, the findings of the research would be presented after the survey results were analyzed

3 Chapter three gives some suggested advices as well as exercises for both teachers and students so that the number of errors would be minimized

The paper comes to an end with the third part, Conclusion, References and Appendixes

PART TWO DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER ONE THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 Literature review in brief

Conditional sentences have been paid regard by many grammarians namely L G Alexander (1988), John Eastwood (1994), George Yule (1998), Michael Swan (2005), and so on Each of them conducts their studies on conditionals, employing different methods However, they all consider carefully the basic features of conditionals like a grammatical category such as definition, forms, classification, and use

George Yule (1998) in Explaining English Grammar gives a quite

comprehensible overview of conditional sentences: the definition, the forms, the variations, and the uses In his opinion, there are two main types of conditionals: Real conditional which expressing factual or predictive relationship, and unreal conditional which involves hypothetical and counterfactual relationship Furthermore, he assumes that the meanings of conditional structures are closely pertaining to the contexts He also pays much attention to uncertainty and politeness in conditionals expressions

In the book Practical English Usage, 3rd e.d., Michael Swan (2005) gives a lot of

additional information on the conditional subordinator “if” He specially regards the meanings created by the combination of “if” and structures with past tenses and modals “would”, “will”, the use of if – clause in both academic and spoken English

L G Alexander (1988) in Longman English Grammar focuses his attention on

three types of conditionals, their basic structures, several variations and their use

Besides, mixed conditionals, implied conditionals, conjunctions expressing

meanings of condition, the typical features of “will” and “would” are also referred

to

The book How English Works composed by Ann Raims (1998) is also on topic

related to conditional sentences According to the author, there are four types of conditionals used in the English language: real conditions of fact, real conditions

of prediction, hypothetical conditions of speculation and hypothetical conditions

of hindsight He emphasizes that in conditions, a change in tenses might be a signal of a change in types of the conditions rather than a change in time

Collins Cobuild (1994) in the book “Colbuid Students’ Dictionary and Grammar” does not name the types of conditionals, but presents the use of each

sentence type in accordance with the situation He cautiously issues warnings in order that students can avoid some predicable grammatical mistakes In addition,

the author considers modals and conjunction “unless” in conditional sentences

In brief, conditionals have been studied for ages Several errors in the use of conditional sentences have been mentioned in some researches, such as Cobuild’s However, students of English still get confused when they use this type of sentences Actually, there are far more errors that can be pointed out Hence, a more detailed study on errors in the use of conditionals should be required to assist English learning lovers

1.2 Conditional sentences

1.2.1 Definitions

Conditionals are defined in various ways by grammarians

According to George Yule, a structure regarded as a conditional sentence presents one event which is a condition for the occurrence of another event The

previous one is typically in a clause beginning with conjunction “if”, another is stated in a clause called the main clause If-clause is sometimes described as the antecedent and the main clause as the consequent (Explaining English Grammar, 1998: 124)

e.g If he passes the entrance exams, his father will buy him a motorbike

 Condition: he passes the exams

 Result: his father will buy him a motorbike

Another definition of conditionals is formed by Sydney Greenbaum (1996: 340)

in “The Oxford English Grammar” Conditionals are made up by two clauses The conditional clause (also termed protasis) often conveys a direct condition Its

fulfillment plays a role as the foundation of the certainty in the host clause

(termed apodosis) Occasionally, protasis may express an indirect condition

In term of structure, it can be concluded that conditionals consist of two clauses,

if - clause (or protasis, condition clause, subordinate clause, dependent clause) and the main clause (or apodosis, result clause, independent clause) These

clauses interrelate closely The main clause expresses an event following another

supposed in if - clause

1.2.2 Forms of conditionals

As mentioned above, the conditional sentence embraces two clauses If - clause

(the condition clause) containing a condition often comes first, preceding the main clause (the result clause) which consists of a consequence The adverb

“then” is optional in the main clause, but is always implied We have the

sentence structure:

Structure 1:

Or sometimes, the order of the two clauses can be reversed, as in the structure:

Structure 2:

It is not difficult to point out the difference between the two structures In structure 1, which is preferred, two clauses are separated by a comma, especially when one clause is quite long

e.g If you promise to keep secret, (then) I will tell you the truth

If I had known you were waiting for me, (then) I wouldn’t have chatted with Ha so long

However, there is no need for a comma in structure 2

e.g Every one would admire me if I bought a car like this

I could ring her up if I knew her number

The if- clause, in very limited cases, can be put at the middle of the sentence

e.g It may be possible, if both parties desire it, to reduce the time scale

(Folley, M & Hall, D 2003: 120)

In spoken language, we often use conditionals that contain only one clause

Sometimes, if - clause is omitted, for example:

e.g Actually, it would be pretty difficult (If we did as you asked)

And vice versa: e.g.:Let’s go house-riding! – O.K., if you want (We’ll do that.)

1.2.3 Types of conditionals

Grammarians have classified conditionals sentences in different ways and have had innumerable explanations for their viewpoints The paper, finally, follows the way of classification given by Eastwood (1994) since it seems to be the most obvious to deal with According to him, conditionals are divided into 4 types: conditional type 0, type 1, type 2, type 3 Furthermore, mixed conditionals formed by the combination of earlier types are also listed because of the popularity of this type in the English language

1.2.3.1 Conditional type 0

1.2.3.1.1 Definition

Conditional type 0 or zero conditional “means that one thing always follows automatically from another” (Eastwood, 1994: 335) In other words, the conditional type is used to describe general cause- effect truth, situations and

“unchanging relationships” (Hewings, 1999: 198) The condition is thought to be either testable or observable For example:

If you heat water 100 degree C, it boils (Physics)

If the weather is nice on Sundays, we often go fishing (Habit)

1.2.3.1.2 Form

Notice in the above examples, the present simple tense is applied in both

condition clause (if-clause) and result clause to indicate the certainty of

situations We have the zero conditional structure:

Present simple tense Present simple tense

e.g Wood cannot burn if it is put in fastidious environment

If Dung encounters a difficult exercise, she often bites her nails

1.3.1.3 Use

Conditional type 0 is often seen in academic writing to talk about scientific facts that always have the same results

e.g The circle is called the unit circle if the radius is 1 (Mathematics)

If you expose phosphor to the air, it burns (Chemistry)

If people don’t eat, they get hungry (Biology)

Additionally, this type is used for possible future situation:

e.g If she wins the contest this evening, she becomes the Miss

In daily language, speakers use type 0 to mention habitual activities or rules

e.g If the kids have homework, they do it right after school

The result clause can also be in a form of an imperative to give general instruction

e.g If you want to operate the machine, just press the button “START”

Sometimes, to make suggestion or permission, we use the zero conditional Some

modals are acceptable in both clauses, particularly “can”, “may”

e.g If you feel tired, you can take a sleep here

If you need somewhere to live, there’s still an empty room in our house (or, you can live in our house)

Note that conjunction “if” in conditionals type 0 can be replaced by other conjunctions, namely “when”, “whenever” without changing the meaning of the

sentence

e.g If / When / Whenever it rains, everyone gets wet

If / When / Whenever I see her, my heart beats uncontrollably fast

According to (Yule, 2006: 185), conditional type 0 can express common situations in the past In this case, past simple tense is applied in both clauses

e.g They sat on the glass if it was fine

If my grandmother went to market, she bought me some cakes

1.2.3.1.4 Variations

Variations of a conditional type are presented by the changes of verb tenses in the condition clause or in the result clause or in both These changes make the meaning of the whole sentence slightly different

Apart from the present simple tense, we can use other present tense in the two clauses, particularly the continuous

E.g If he is making a date with that girl, he is lying me

(He said to me he loved me, but he is making a date with another girl.)

If she is studying, don’t bother her

1.2.3.2 Conditional type 1

1.2.3.2.1 Definition

While conditional type 0 is used to talk about something generally true, type 1 is

structured for expressing prediction about a specific event in present or in the

future The connection between the event and another possible one is considered

likely (Yule, 2006: 185)

e.g If he accepts to marry her, her parents will let him run the company

If you buy this for her, she will be very happy

1.2.3.2.2 Form

In the first conditional, the future simple tense is used in the main clause, with the most

common modal “will” and contraction “’ll”, whereas future time in the if-clause is

described in present simple tense

Present simple tense Future simple tense e.g I will buy a new cell phone if I receive my salary next month

If you spend 30 minutes speaking English each day, your speaking

skill will be considerably improved

1.2.3.2.3 Use

As mentioned, the first conditional sentence expresses the possibility of a

situation when a certain event occurs in present or in the future

e.g If I have time, I will go there

Conditional type 1 is frequently used in spoken language It can function as:

 An warning

e.g If you hit me, I will tell that to my mum

e.g If you see her, give her my love

Don’t try to stay up late if you feel unpleased

1.2.3.2.4.2 Changes in modals

Modals such as “can, could, may, might, ought to, should, had better, must”,

additionally, can appear in one of the clauses or either two clauses We use them

when we are not sure enough to use “will” or when we need to express necessity,

etc (Alexander, 1988: 275)

e.g If you finish your homework, you can go out

If she cannot walk herself, you should help her

“Should” (not “would”) used in the if-clause reduces the degree of the reality and

make the speech more polite

e.g If you should need to buy a car, contact us

Although “happen to” is not a modal, the structures “if…should” and “if…happen to”, have similar meaning Sometimes, they can be combined

e.g If someone should happen to come this way, it will bring to a blind alley

Notice that these structures are typically used in the first conditional, not usually

in other types of conditionals

Another modal that should be paid attention to is “will” It is often considered incorrect if we use “will” in if-clause to refer to future time However, if-clause can contain “will” to express willingness and “won’t” for refusal

e.g If you will come this way, I’ll show you your room (Swan, 2005: 237)

1.2.3.2.4.3 Changes in verb tenses

As well as present simple tense, other present tenses can be used in if-clause, but

less common

e.g If he is standing in the rain, he will get a cold (Alexander, 1988: 274)

If you have been staying up all night, you should have more sleep

In addition, we can also use other future tenses in the main clause

e.g If you don’t rush, the plane will have taken off

It is known that conditional type 1 is sometimes used to make threats or warnings Threats here are someone’s negative attention and stronger than

warnings Therefore, “be going to” is preferred in the main clause rather than the modal “will”

e.g If you don’t stop, I’m going to inform the police

Also, it is possible to combine modals with continuous or perfect tense:

e.g If her daughter has got scholarship, they may be celebrating tonight

1.2.3.3 Conditional type 2

1.2.3.3.1 Definition

Conditional type 2 or the second conditional is used to express imaginary situations and their imaginary results in the present and in the future (Baugh, 1987: 347) By comparison, conditional type 1 talks about a real situation and its possible consequence in the same time

e.g If I become the President, I will not raise taxes (A candidate’s

statement)

If I became the President, I would not raise taxes (A salesman’s statement)

It is not difficult to recognize the differences between the two above examples

The situation in if-clause of the first example might happen in the future, so that

the sentence is conditional type 1 Whereas, it might be impossible or much less probable for the situation in the second one to happen so this sentence is called conditional type 2

1.2.3.3.2 Form

We have basic structure of the second conditional:

Past simple tense Would + bare infinitive Past simple tense is the most common tense used in if-clause not to indicate the past time, but that the situation is unreal In the main clause, modal verb “would” with the contraction “’d” plus bare infinitive also express an unlikely situation

e.g If snow fell in summer, I would get married to him

1.2.3.3.3 Use

Conditional type 2 is used:

 When the supposition and the known facts are opposite

e.g If I had the money, I would lend you

(In reality, I don’t have the money.)

 When the supposition is totally impossible

e.g What would happen if I woke up and found I were the president of the United States?

 When we do not look forward to the occurrence of the situation in if-clause

e.g If he came here, I’d ask him to compensate for my injuries

(Actually, I don’t expect him to come here.)

 When we give advice Your speech in form of a conditional type 2 will be more indirect and tentative than using a direct way with modals like

“should” or “ought to”

e.g If I were you, I would tell him the truth (Indirect)

You should tell him the truth (Direct)

 When we ask for permission in a more “tentative” way, especially if the speaker does not want to bother the listener

e.g Would you mind if I switch off the ceiling fan? - No, go right ahead

Would it bother you if I switch off the ceiling fan? – No, go right ahead Would it be O.K if I switch off the ceiling fan? – Sure, go right ahead

What is the difference among the three above examples? According to Bland (1996: 348), in the two first ones, the speaker is actually wondering whether the request bothers the listener or not, so the affirmative answer to the questions is

“No, (I never mind or it doesn’t bother me).”

As well as conditional sentences giving advice, conditional type 2 used to ask

permission is softer and more polite than using sentences with modals “may”,

“could” and “can”

e.g Would you mind if I use your computer? (Indirect)

Could I use your computer? (Direct)

Occasionally and confusingly, conditional type 2 can be an alternative of conditional type 1 to describe something that is reasonably possible (Alexander, 1988: 277)

e.g Will Mary be in time if she comes here by bus?

- No, but she will be in time if she comes here by plane

- No, but she’d be in time if she came here by plane

As discussed above, the two answers are acceptable However, like “would you” and “will you”, the second answer is fairly less direct than the first one But

students do not need to pay much attention to this case

1.2.3.3.4 Variations

1.2.3.3.4.1 Changes in the use of “would” and other modals

Despite slight change in the meaning of the conditional sentence, it is possible to

replace “would” in the main clause by other modals The changes mostly depend

on the attitude of the speaker (Alexander, 1988: 278)

e.g If you tried again, you would succeed (Certain result)

If you tried again, you could succeed (Ability)

If you tried again, you might succeed (Possibility)

The use of modal “would” in the second conditional is very noticeable Apart from in the main clause, we can use it in the if-clause for certain meanings such

as making polite request or expressing willingness or refusal For example:

I would be very grateful if you would make arrangement for me

(Thomson, et al 1960)

In the case that a polite request is normally made and the listener is assumed to

comply with it, “would” plus bare infinitive can be used alone Let us consider

the examples:

If you’d fill this form, please

If you’d just sign the register, please

On the other hand, in spoken American English, “would” is used rather

informally in both clauses

E.g How would we feel if this would happen to our family? (Swan, 2005: 240)

1.2.3.3.4.2 Some notes on the use of “were”, “was”

In conditional type 2, the past form of “to be” “were” is used for all persons including the first person and the third person singular in stead of “was” This case is called subjunctive Although “was” tend to be more acceptable in modern English, “were” is much preferred since it seems to be more formal and correct

“Were” is often used in conditionals giving advice

e.g If I were you, I would apologize her

In addition, the structure “if…was/were to + bare infinitive” can be an alternative

of “if… past simple tense verb” to talk about hypothetical conditions in the future

and make them even more uncertain

e.g What would happen if ice on the Earth was to melt up?

It is also designed to make a suggestion more indirect

e.g If we were to share the work, we could finish much earlier

Notice that such verbs that describe a state like “be”, “know”, “understand”,

“like”, “remember” in if-clause can not be accompanied by “were/was to”

e.g If I were in her situation, I couldn’t be as calm as her

(Not If I were to be…)

Besides, we can use the structure “if it was/were not for” to express the unique

significance of something or someone

e.g If it was not for your help, I could not survive

Without your help, I could not survive

1.2.3.3.4.3 Changes in verb tenses

Other past tenses can be used in both clauses, especially continuous forms

e.g If my car was working, I could drive you to the station

If she lived here now, she could be working in the bank

1.2.3.4 Conditional type 3

1.2.3.4.1 Definition

Conditional type 3 or the third conditional is used to talk about something that might have happened in the past, but in fact did not happen The condition, in this case, is considered counterfactual and the sentence is known as the past or impossible conditional (Foley, et al 2003: 123)

e.g If my parents hadn’t gotten married to each other, I wouldn’t have been born

I would have gone home last weekend if there hadn’t been an extra class

2.3.4.2 Form

Like other types of conditionals, conditional type 3 consists of two clauses The

if-clause or condition clause is in the past perfect tense to indicate the unreality of the situation in the past The structure “would have” plus past participle is used in

the other part of the sentence, considering the imagined outcomes

Past perfect tense Would have + past participle

e.g If I had brought the umbrella, I wouldn’t have gotten wet because of the rain yesterday

Contracted form “’d” of “would” and “had” is common in both spoken and

written informal language

e.g If I’d known he was in hospital, I’d have come to visit him

Moreover, “would have” can be contracted into “would’ve” in conversation

1.2.3.4.3 Use

According to Yule (1998: 129), the third conditional is used to express the opposite of what had happened

e.g If I had studied the poet, I could have passed the exam

(But I didn’t study the poet…)

It can be formed to suppose alternative scenarios when we review historical events Those scenarios commonly create emphasis on the real past events that are being discussed

e.g If our primitive ancestors hadn’t decided to stand upright, we wouldn’t

have developed speech as we know it (In fact, they decided to stand upright.)

We can also use conditional type 3 for many other aims:

 To express excuse

e.g If I hadn’t let Rex (a dog) go out alone, he wouldn’t have got lost

(I’m very sorry for letting Rex go out alone.)

 To express regret

e.g I would have passed the oral exam if I had been more confident

(I regret that I was not confident enough in the oral exam.)

 To express blame

e.g If you hadn’t forgotten to send him the letter, he could have received it

1.2.3.4.4 Variations

1.2.3.4.4.1 “Would” and other modals

Like in other types of conditionals, “would” in the main clause of conditional type 3 can be replaced by other modals, in particular, “might”, “could”, “should”

when the results given seem to be less likely or when we refer to ability, possibility or duty (Alexander, 1988: 281)

e.g If I had gone to the airport, I could have said goodbye to him (Ability)

If I had gone to the airport, I might have said goodbye to him (Possibility)

If you had gone to the airport, you should have said goodbye to him (Duty)

In informal spoken English, both clauses of conditional type 3 can be constructed

with “’d have” However, the structure is often considered incorrect and should

be avoided in written language

e.g It‘d have been surprised if she‘d have recognized him

1.2.3.4.4.2 Changes in verb tenses

Past perfect tense is the most common used in the if-clause However, we can

also replace it with others, typically the continuous:

e.g If I had been talking to him when he said that, I would have punched him in the face

In the main clause, it is possible to combine the perfect continuous and modals

e.g If she had been in New York, she could have been working in the Wall Street

If he hadn't been evicted by his landlord, he wouldn't have been sleeping in the streets (Eastwood, 1994: 338)

1.2.3.5 Mixed conditionals

1.2.3.5.1 Definition

Mixed conditionals are formed by combining two types of conditional sentences

to express conditions In such type of conditionals, the time in the if-clause is not

the same as that in the main clause (result clause): one might refer to the present (or future) and one might refer to the past

e.g If she had accepted to engage him 2 years ago, she would be his wife now

1.2.3.5.2 Classification

Based on the semantic aspect, there are two most common types of mixed conditionals Because of the difference in time, two clauses of mixed conditional

are formed with different verb tenses, but frequently with verb tenses of the second and the third conditional

1.2.3.5.2.1 Mixed third-second conditional

1.2.3.5.2.1.1 Form

The conditional is structured by the past perfect tense in the clause, like

if-clause of the third conditional Another part is in form of a main if-clause of the

second conditional, typically with modal “would” plus bare infinitive

Here comes the structure of mixed third-second conditional:

Past perfect tense Would + bare infinitive e.g If I had accepted the job, I would be a millionaire now

You wouldn’t be hungry now if you had had breakfast

1.2.3.5.2.1.2 Use

The mixed third-second conditional is used to state “a hypothetical situation or event in the past” (Foley, et al 2003: 123), and its probable outcome in present (or in the future)

e.g If I had caught the train yesterday, I could be in Ho Chi Minh City tomorrow

(I didn’t catch the train, so I won’t be in Ho Chi Minh City tomorrow

He wouldn’t be in such a hurry this morning if he had washed his clothes last night

(He didn’t wash his clothes last night That’s the reason why he is in such a hurry this morning.)

1.2.3.5.2.2 Mixed second-third conditional

1.2.3.5.2.2.1 Form

Let us consider the structure of mixed second-third conditional:

Past simple tense Would have + past participle

The structure of the mixed second-third conditional is opposite to the one given

above, in which the form of if-clause in conditional type 2 and that of main clause

in conditional type 3 are applied

e.g If we didn’t trust him, we would have sacked him two months ago

(We didn’t sack him two months ago because we trust him.)

1.2.3.5.2.2.2 Use

The combination of two conditional patterns refers to unreal situations in the present and their probable (but unreal) result in the past It is used less commonly than the mixed third-second conditional

e.g If I was a good cook, I’d have invited them to lunch

(I’m not a good cook, so I didn’t invite them to lunch

If you didn’t love him, why would you have got married to him?

(Why did you get married to him when you don’t love him?)

Based on the situations, there are another more ways to combine types of conditionals, but it is not normally used In fact, we can combine a past condition with a present or future result and vice versa:

e.g If you saw the film, you know how it ends (Yule, 2006:188)

If he is as faithful as you think, he shouldn’t have had extramarital relations with his colleague

1.2.4 Implied conditionals

Conditions are not only expressed directly by the conditionals containing “if”, but

also are implied in the context, particularly in spoken English In these cases, the rules for the verb usage are still followed in the result clause (main clause)

Here are some ways in which conditions can be conveyed:

 Using prepositional clause

With luck, we’ll be there tomorrow (Alexander, 1988: 282)

(If we’re lucky, we’ll be there tomorrow.)

Without his help, I couldn’t have finished my work on time

(If he hadn’t helped, I couldn’t have finished my homework on time.)

 Using conjunctions

He was invited; otherwise he wouldn’t have been at the party last night

(If he hadn’t been invited, he wouldn’t have been at the party last night.)

I could buy this shirt, but I don’t have enough money

(I could buy this shirt if I had enough money.)

Go away, or I’ll call 911

(If you don’t go away, I’ll call 911.)

Keep watching T.V., and you’ll have nothing to eat

(If you keep watching T.V., you’ll have nothing to eat.)

 Using reduced adjective clauses

To take the course, your English will be improved

(If you take the course, your English will be improved.)

Given presents, the children will be very happy

(If the children are given presents, they will be very happy.)

1.2.5 Other conjunctions having the similar meanings to “if”

Apart from several ways mentioned above, there is a variety of conjunctions that

can replace “if” to emphasize the conditions surrounding the action However, the

meaning of the sentences and the usages of these conjunctions are not the same as

those conveyed in the if-conditional

1.2.5.1 “Unless”, “but for” and negative conditions

 Unless

“Unless” is sometimes used instead of “if…not” in the sense of “except if” to

express a negative condition

e.g I won’t go anywhere unless you let me know where it is

(I won’t go anywhere if you don’t let me know where it is.)

We often use “unless” to highlight “the excluded position option”, so clause with

“unless” is normally in assertive forms (Quirk, et al 1973: 325)

e.g He never gets up before 8 a.m unless his mother wakes him up

(He never gets up before 8 a.m if his mother doesn’t wake him up.)

Therefore, unless-clauses do not usually express unreal conditions

e.g If I hadn’t listened to her, I would have failed

(Unless I listened to her, …)

“Unless” is rarely used in interrogative forms:

e.g What will you do if he doesn’t come?

(What will you do unless he comes?)

We can use “not unless” as the meaning of “only if” Unless-clause can stand

alone

e.g Are you going to join with us? – Not unless you apologize first

(Eastwood, 1994: 340)

Single unless - clause can be used to express an afterthought, but not negative

if - clause (if…not) The clause is often separated from the rest of sentence by a

e.g But for you help, we couldn’t find out him

(If it weren’t for your help, …)

Or: (If you didn’t help, ….)

But for your encouragement, I wouldn’t have been confident enough to continue

(If hadn’t been for your encouragement, …)

Or: If you hadn’t helped, …)

1.2.5.2 “Even if”, “even though” and “whether … or not”

 Even if

“Even if”/ “even though” is used to talk about a situation that does not affect

another

e.g Even if I know he is not able to pay any debt, I’ll lend him the money

You should try it, even though it’s so difficult

 Whether … or not

“Whether… or not” mentions neither this situation nor that situation matters, the

result will not change

e.g You have to hand in your exam paper whether you’ve finished it or not

Or: You have to hand in your exam paper whether or not you’ve finished it

1.2.5.3 Only if

“Only if” is used to express the necessary and sufficient condition that causes one

particular result

e.g I’ll give you the box only if you tell me what is inside?

Or: I’ll only give you the box if you tell me what is inside?

When the sentence begins with “only if”, the subject and the verb in the main

clause are inversed, and there is no comma between the two clauses

e.g Only if he comes to pick me up will I go out

1.2.5.4 “In case” and “in the event that”

These conjunctions mean “if by chance it should happen” (Azar, 2002: 367) We

use them to mention situations that are unlikely, but might happen “In the event that” seems to be more formal than another

e.g I’m taking a raincoat with me in case it rains

In the event that you (should) need to sell the house, I’d call my solicitor

“Should” here is usually used for uncertainty

1.2.5.5 Suppose/ Supposing (that) and What if/ Say

These conjunctions are preferred in interrogatives “What if/ Say” can be used in

the sense of “Let us suppose” (Alexander, 1988: 282)

e.g Supposing (that) you couldn’t find a job in the city, what would you do?

What if/ Say you could go abroad, which country would you want to come?

However, there is often no main clause in these expressions

e.g What if/ Say snow was falling in summer here?