Importance and capability of teaching leadership as perceived by beginning agricultural education teachers

Importance and Capability of Teaching Leadership as Perceived by Beginning Agricultural Education Teachers DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degre

Importance and Capability of Teaching Leadership as Perceived by Beginning

Agricultural Education Teachers

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy

in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By Jon Christian Simonsen Graduate Program in Agricultural and Extension Education

The Ohio State University

2010

Dissertation Committee:

Robert J Birkenholz, Advisor Joseph A Gliem Jeffrey E King

Copyright by Jon Christian Simonsen

2010

Abstract

We are surrounded by leadership influences that impact our daily lives and the future will require numerous leaders possessing leadership knowledge, skills, and

dispositions The teaching of leadership has an extensive tradition in secondary

agricultural education programs that can be traced back almost a century Much of the success in teaching leadership rests upon the secondary agricultural education teacher providing the learning experience The primary goal of agricultural education teacher preparation programs is to develop highly qualified teachers in the subjects they are expected to teach Leadership topics are being taught in the formal instruction component

of secondary agricultural education programs Thus, it is essential for agricultural

education teacher preparation programs to better understand the importance of teaching leadership and the capability of agricultural education teachers to teach the leadership topics This information can then be used by administrators and faculty as they make decisions about the design, implementation, and effectiveness of agricultural education teacher preparation programs

This descriptive research explored the importance of teaching leadership in secondary agricultural education programs and the self-perceived capability of beginning secondary agriculture teachers to teach leadership First through third year agricultural education teachers in Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Missouri, and Ohio were surveyed The researcher-developed data collection instrument was based on the National FFA

Organization LifeKnowledge ®resource materials Respondents rated the importance and self-perceived capability to teach 60 leadership topics Data collected were used to: describe the importance of teaching leadership topics, describe the capability to teach leadership, calculate discrepancy scores, and to prioritize leadership topics

Based on the data collected, it was determined that a majority of beginning

agricultural education teacher respondents had taken leadership coursework during their post-secondary education and nearly one of five had taken more than three leadership courses Respondents reported that leadership topics were important to teach in secondary agricultural education programs Furthermore, the respondents perceived they were capable of teaching leadership topics

Agricultural education teacher preparation programs are encouraged to consider leadership coursework in program requirements This research revealed an extensive list

of important leadership topics that may overwhelm agricultural education teachers Therefore, it is recommended that efforts should be made to identify core leadership knowledge, skills, and dispositions that should be taught in all secondary agricultural education programs Assessment of teacher capability to teach leadership topics should

be conducted periodically with teacher candidates and practicing agriculture teachers Based on assessment results, modifications to teacher preparation programs and

professional learning opportunities should be considered As the teaching of leadership continues to evolve, care should be taken to ensure that leadership development and leadership education efforts are harmonious and build upon each other to provide the knowledge, skills, and dispositions desired in future generations of leaders

Dedication

To Leon and Marcella Simonsen – my parents and true teachers – I Love You

Thank you to Dr Robert J Birkenholz for his patience and guidance throughout this process He has helped me to not only develop the knowledge and skills necessary to be a part of post-secondary education but demonstrated the dispositions of a true educator in all facets of life Thank you to Dr Jeffrey E King and Dr Joseph A Gliem for being integral parts of my educational journey, aiding in further developing my leadership education understanding and honing my research abilities Thank you to all the

professional faculty and staff that have supported and helped mentor me during this educational journey Thank you to the graduate student colleagues that I have

encountered over the years There were times of frustration, doubt, and disagreement but most of all there was celebration I know our paths will continue to cross

Dear Lord, thank you for allowing me and my family to embark upon this journey There were many questions along the way, but we know the answer in our hearts why we were

to take this journey We are eternally grateful and ask for Your continued guiding hand in our lives as we continue to serve You

Vita

December 24, 1972 Born, Superior, Nebraska

1996 B.S Agricultural Education

and Agricultural Economics

University of Nebraska – Lincoln

1997 - 2007 Agricultural Education Instructor

Holdrege Public Schools

Holdrege, Nebraska

2008 M.S Agricultural and Extension Education The Ohio State University

2007 to present Graduate Teaching Associate

The Ohio State University

Publications

Simonsen, J C., & Birkenholz, R J (In press) Leadership courses required in

agricultural teacher education programs Journal of Agricultural Education

Velez, J J., Simonsen, J C., Cano, J., & Connors, J J (In press) Teacher partnerships:

The use of peer facilitators in the college classroom Journal of Agricultural Education

Fields of Study

Major Field: Agricultural and Extension Education

Table of Contents

Abstract ii

Dedication iv

Acknowledgments v

Vita vii

List of Tables xiii

List of Figures xiv

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Problem Statement 6

Purpose of the Study 8

Objectives 9

Definition of Terms 10

Limitations of the Study 12

Basic Assumptions 14

Chapter 2: Review of Literature 15

Theoretical Foundation 15

Leadership Theory 16

Leadership Education 23

Post-Secondary Agricultural Leadership Education 27

Secondary Agricultural Leadership Education 30

Agriculture Teacher Preparation 33

Teacher Self-Efficacy 36

Conceptual Framework 40

Chapter 3: Procedures 41

Research Design 41

Conceptual Model 42

Research Objectives 43

Population and Sampling 44

Instrumentation 45

Data Collection 47

Data Analysis 49

Chapter 4: Results 53

Data Collection 54

Findings for Research Objective 1 57

Findings for Research Objective 2 61

Findings for Research Objective 3 71

Findings for Research Objective 4 82

Findings for Research Objective 5 88

Major Findings 92

Summary 92

Chapter 5: Discussion 94

Overview 94

Major Findings 96

Discussion 97

Conclusions 103

Implications 107

Recommendations 108

Suggestions for Further Research 111

Summary 112

References 114

APPENDIX A – Panel of Experts 123

APPENDIX B – Pre-Notification Letter 125

APPENDIX C – Cover Letter 127

APPENDIX D – Data Collection Instrument 130

APPENDIX E – First Email Reminder 139

APPENDIX F – Second Email Reminder 141APPENDIX G – Final Email Reminder 143

List of Tables

Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Beginning Agricultural Education Teachers 59

Table 2 States in Which Teachers Taught 60

Table 3 Leadership Courses Taken During Teacher Preparation Program 61

Table 4 Perceived Level of Importance of Leadership Topics 63

Table 5 Perceived Level of Capability to Teach Leadership Topics 73

Table 6 Mean Weighted Discrepancy Scores for Individual Leadership Topics 83

List of Figures

Figure 1 Diagram of the Integrated Three-Component Agricultural Education Model 6Figure 2 Conceptual Model of a Teacher’s Ability to Teach Leadership 40Figure 3 Conceptual Model of a Teacher’s Ability to Teach Leadership 43 Figure 4 Modified Johari Window Classifying Leadership Topics by Importance and Teacher Capability 51Figure 5 Modified Johari Window Classifying Leadership Topics by Importance and Teacher Capability 88Figure 6 Leadership Topics Placed within a Modified Johari Window 89 Figure 7 Leadership Topics Identified within the Important and Capable Quadrant of a Modified Johari Window 90

Chapter 1: Introduction

Leadership exhibited by individuals now and in the future will determine the path

of society Leadership is valued by individuals, corporations, academic institutions, and society to address issues (Northouse, 2010) “We are faced with immensely threatening problems – terrorism, AIDS, drugs, depletion of the ozone layer, the threat of nuclear conflict, toxic waste, the real possibility of economic disaster” (Gardner, 1995, p 4) Kouzes and Posner (1995) declared that now, more than ever, there is a need for

leadership to lead us to greatness Astin, Astin, & Associates (2000) echoed similar thoughts five years later when they wrote:

The list of problems is a long one: shaky race relations, growing economic disparities and inequities, excessive materialism, decaying inner cities, a

deteriorating infrastructure, a weakening public school system, an

irresponsible mass media, declining civic engagement, and the increasing

ineffectiveness of government, to name just a few (p 2)

Many of these same concerns and sentiments can be seen and heard today Thus,

continuing a critical need and desire for leaders with new approaches to leadership in a rapidly changing world (Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2007)

“Leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth” (Burns, 1995, p 9) Experts have defined leadership in a number of ways

“Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what

needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives” (Yukl, 2006, p 8) Northouse (2010) suggests the essential elements to leadership include that leadership is a process, involves

influence, occurs within a group context, and involves goal attainment Leadership is “

the capacity to influence others by unleashing their power and potential to impact the greater good [italics in original text]” (Blanchard, 2007, p xix) “To an extent, leadership

is like beauty: it’s hard to define, but you know it when you see it” (Bennis, 1989, p 1) Author John C Maxwell (1993) concluded that leadership is influence

The saying that ‘leaders are born and not made’ has been heard for many years Much of this thought was based upon a belief that leaders possessed special genetic traits that were the origin of their leadership ability (Komives et al., 2007) This early view of trait leadership has given way to behavioral and contingency theories (Chemers, 1995) More recently, perspectives such as transformational, servant, authentic, and relational leadership have surfaced in the leadership literature (Komives et al., 2007) Over that time, a paradigm shift occurred in which it was believed that leadership knowledge and skills were not simply inherent, but could be learned (Eich, 2008; Dubrin, 2001; Komives

et al., 2007; Wren, 1995; Yukl, 2006)

Leadership is not a gene, and it is not a secret code that cannot [sic] be

deciphered by ordinary people The truth is that leadership is an

observable set of skills and abilities that are useful whether one is seated

in the executive suite or standing on the front line on Wall Street, Main

Street, or College Avenue (Posner, 2009, p 1-2)

The potential for leadership exists in every student and can be developed through focused educational programs (Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001; Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999) Participation in leadership programs has been shown to have a positive impact on personal development, civic responsibility, multicultural awareness, understanding values, and other outcomes connected to leadership development (Cress et al., 2001)

We are surrounded by leadership influences that impact our daily lives and the future will require numerous leaders Gardner (1995) discussed this need by stating,

“When one considers all the towns and city councils, corporations, government agencies, unions, schools and colleges, churches, professions, and so on, the number must be high” (p 7) The call to leadership is for everyone Teaching and learning about leadership at all educational levels is vital to the future of society Thus, it is important that teachers who are called upon to teach leadership are prepared and capable of fulfilling this

important responsibility Since leadership is taught in secondary agricultural education programs (Morgan & Rudd, 2006), it is important that agriculture teachers possess the knowledge and skills needed to fulfill that professional role and responsibility

The teaching of agriculture in North America can be traced back to Native

Americans who transferred the practice of agriculture from generation to generation (Simonsen, 2008) Thomas Jefferson envisioned the United States of America as a nation that would gain worldwide respect, power, and prosperity based upon agricultural wealth and wrote about potential courses of agricultural study and agrarian culture (Grant, Field, Green, & Rollin, 2000)

Structured teaching of agricultural subjects at the secondary level began in the 1800’s to instill an understanding of the science of agriculture in students and to prepare those students for employment in agriculture During that era, the Land Grant Acts of

1862 and 1890, often referred to as the Morrill Acts, established higher education

throughout the United States in the form of a land grant system The mission of the land grant system was to provide higher education in the areas of agriculture and mechanical arts for the common individual (Zimdahl, 2003)

Legislation enacted in 1917 titled the National Vocational Education Act, more commonly referred to as the Smith-Hughes Act, provided federal funds to officially implement formal agricultural education instruction across the nation The legislation provided monies to support secondary programs, teacher preparation, and teacher

educators (Camp & Crunkilton, 1985)

Agricultural teacher preparation programs across the nation have been faced with the task of preparing teachers for secondary agricultural education since the early 1900s, even before the Smith-Hughes Act Teacher preparation programs are responsible for producing knowledgeable and highly qualified candidates for state licensure, leading to success in the teaching profession (Simonsen, 2008) The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) legislation defined “highly qualified” teachers as individuals who meet three criteria: (1) achieve a bachelor degree or higher in the subject taught; (2) acquire state teacher

certification; and (3) exhibit knowledge in the subjects taught (United States Department

of Education, 2006)

Secondary agricultural education programs encompass a diverse array of subject and content areas within agriculture Subjects may include, but are not limited to, areas such as agricultural mechanics, agricultural production, animal science, biotechnology, and horticulture (Talbert, Vaughn, & Croom, 2006) These subject areas are presented not only through didactic instruction in traditional classroom settings, but also throughout an integrated three-component agricultural education model: classroom and laboratory instruction, supervised agricultural experience, and agricultural youth organization

participation (Phipps & Osborne, 1988) Figure 1 provides a graphical illustration of the

model where classroom and laboratory instruction is titled Formal Instruction, supervised agricultural experience titled Supervised Experience, and agricultural youth organization participation titled FFA (Croom, 2008) Preparing highly qualified, effective teachers to

deliver the diverse array of subject matter content and apply the integrated

three-component model has been a major focus of agricultural education teacher preparation programs

Since its inception, student participation in the FFA has been the primary context for secondary agricultural education students to develop leadership skills (Simonsen,

Formal Instruction

FFA

Supervised Experience

2008) However, not all secondary agriculture students have participated in the

educational experiences available through the FFA; thus failing to realize the potential benefits of leadership knowledge and skill development (Morgan & Rudd, 2006) To meet this challenge, some secondary agricultural education programs have incorporated the teaching of leadership topics into the instructional program Leadership topics have been integrated within technical agriculture courses in some programs, whereas other programs have offered separate leadership courses with the goal of educating all students

in the subject area of leadership (Simonsen, 2008) Such programmatic adaptations have been based upon the belief that many students in the future will be presented with

opportunities to fill leadership positions as productive citizens within their communities Students with an understanding of leadership through education and training will be better equipped to fulfill those leadership roles and responsibilities (Ricketts & Rudd, 2002)

Leadership topics are being taught in the formal classroom instruction component

of secondary agricultural education programs (Morgan & Rudd, 2006) Teacher

preparation programs therefore need to include leadership coursework to prepare future teachers in the subject matter content they will be expected to teach Previous research has found that content area coursework comprises slightly over 40% of the average teacher licensure program in agricultural education (Boone, 2002) Yet, less than half of the post-secondary agricultural teacher preparation programs require coursework in leadership (Simonsen, 2008) Furthermore, using a leadership knowledge assessment

based on the National FFA LifeKnowledge ®precepts, secondary agricultural education

instructors’ possess only a moderate amount of leadership knowledge (Morgan & Rudd, 2006) Additional research was recommended to determine if secondary agricultural education teachers were prepared to teach the content area of leadership (Simonsen, 2008) and to determine the common base of leadership content knowledge that secondary agricultural education teachers possessed (Morgan, 2004)

The goal of teacher preparation programs is to develop highly qualified and effective teachers in the subjects and content areas they are expected to teach Previous research in agricultural education (Morgan, 2004) identified leadership topics taught within the formal classroom setting in agricultural education However, teacher educators need to know the leadership topics that are important to be taught in secondary

agricultural education programs In addition, there was a need to determine the perceived capability of agricultural education teachers to teach the important leadership topics Knowing more about the importance of leadership topics and the capability of

agricultural education teachers to teach those leadership topics will provide information that can be used by administrators and faculty to make decisions about the design,

implementation, and effectiveness of agricultural education teacher preparation programs

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study was to describe the perceptions of beginning

agricultural education teachers regarding the importance of teaching leadership topics in secondary agricultural education programs This study also was conducted to describe beginning agricultural education teachers’ perceptions regarding their capability to teach

leadership topics Findings from this study provide a basis for curriculum development and program planning decisions pertaining to effectively preparing secondary agricultural education teachers to teach leadership Teachers should know, understand, and be able to demonstrate the content area that they teach (American Association for Agricultural Education, 2001; Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium, 2008; National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, 2008; Ohio Department of Education, 2007; Teacher Education Accreditation Council, 2006) This study provides information which can be used by university administrators and faculty to determine the perceived level of importance of teaching leadership topics within secondary agricultural education programs and if beginning agricultural education teachers perceive they are capable of teaching leadership Information from this study can then be utilized by

university administrators and faculty to modify agriculture teacher preparation programs and courses accordingly

Objectives

Although leadership education and leadership development are incorporated throughout the Agricultural Education Model (see Figure 1); this study focused on the formal instruction component in secondary agricultural education programs The

following research objectives were developed to guide this study:

1 Describe the demographic characteristics of beginning agricultural

education teachers

2 Describe the importance of leadership topics as perceived by beginning agricultural education teachers

3 Describe the perceived capability of beginning agricultural education teachers to teach leadership topics

4 Determine the discrepancy between leadership topic importance and the capability to teach leadership topics as perceived by beginning agricultural teachers

5 Prioritize leadership topics by importance and teacher capability based on beginning agricultural education teachers’ perceptions

Definition of Terms Agricultural Teacher Education Program – post-secondary program that prepares

candidates to meet licensure requirements for secondary agricultural education teaching

Beginning Agricultural Education Teacher – a secondary agricultural education

instructor with one to three years of teaching experience

Leadership - a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve

a common goal (Northouse, 2010)

LifeKnowledge ®- instructional resource materials that offer a unique approach to

leadership education that is designed to help every student in every class develop 16 precepts necessary for premier leadership, personal growth, and career success (National FFA, 2008)

NAAE Region IV – a regional designation of agricultural education programs and teachers

including the states of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, and Kentucky

(National Association of Agricultural Educators, 2009) The researcher for this study was unable to obtain a frame meeting the criteria used for this study for teachers in the state of Michigan Therefore, for the purposes of this study, Region IV includes the states of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky

Perception – way of understanding based on our own beliefs, knowledge, and ways of

organizing information (Ricketts, 2003)

Perception of Capability to Teach Leadership – the power or practical ability necessary

for doing something In this study, perception of capability to teach leadership was

measured using a researcher developed instrument based upon Units 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the

LifeKnowledge ®resource materials The perceived capability to teach the leadership topics was measured on a five point summated rating scale (identifying level of capability

from 1 = No Capability to 5 = A Great Deal of Capability) with 60 items

Perception of Importance to Teach Leadership – the value, relevance, or interest placed

on something In this study, perception of importance to teach leadership was measured using a researcher developed instrument based upon Units 2, 3, 4, and 5 of the

LifeKnowledge ®resource materials The perceived importance to teach leadership topics was measured on a five point summated rating scale (identifying level of importance

from 1 = Not Important to 5 = Very Important) with 60 items

Secondary Agricultural Education – an educational program that prepares 9th thru 12thgrade students for successful careers and a lifetime of informed choices in the global agriculture, food, fiber and natural resources systems (National Council for Agricultural Education, 2008)

Limitations of the Study

1 The population frame of the study was a census of beginning agricultural education teachers who were in their first, second, or third year of teaching secondary

agricultural education from NAAE Region IV, as described in the definition section (designated by the National Association of Agricultural Educators including the states

of Missouri, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, and Kentucky while not including the state of Michigan) The frame included all beginning agriculture teachers in the five states and was not based on teacher membership in NAAE Generalizability of the results is limited to the population Findings and results of the study cannot be generalized to other Region IV agricultural education teachers (i.e those with more than three years

of experience), to agricultural education teachers in states beyond Region IV, or to teachers in other disciplines beyond agricultural education

2 Respondents were asked to provide perceptions of their capability to teach important leadership topics These perceptions were determined at a specific moment in time and only represent the perception of the respondent at the time of response

3 Administration of the instrument was completed via the internet through a survey administration engine This may have been a limitation for some beginning secondary agricultural education teachers to respond depending upon their technological

resources and accessibility Instruments may have been considered spam by school technology infrastructures or instruments may have not been delivered to the correct electronic mailboxes resulting in instruments not reaching the intended subject Paper instruments were provided to teachers that the survey administration engine reported

as not receiving the instrument due to infrastructure blockage

4 The data collection instrument was administered electronically through an internet survey engine This process may have been a limitation because once the survey window was closed the subject could not go back and re-open the instrument

Subjects needed to be able to complete the instrument in one setting The inability to complete the instrument in one setting or unforeseen technical difficulties may have resulted in incomplete data being submitted In addition, some secondary agricultural education instructors may not have been willing to complete online instruments due

to potential security concerns about transmitting information online

5 The subjects in this study were beginning secondary agricultural education

instructors, operationally defined as having one to three years of teaching experience Teachers with more than three years of teaching experience were not utilized in the study This study explored the capability of beginning secondary agricultural

education instructors to teach leadership topics in the formal classroom setting of a secondary agricultural education program Therefore, subjects were asked to answer questions based on the teaching of important leadership topics in the formal

classroom setting and not as part of the FFA or Supervised Experience components of

a secondary agricultural education program

4 Beginning teacher respondents completed an agricultural teacher education program

in the state in which they were teaching

Chapter 2: Review of Literature

Chapter 1 explained the need for leaders in the future and the pivotal role of education in developing those leaders to meet societal needs The evolution of teaching leadership within agricultural education was outlined and the research problem was described The purpose of this study is to describe the perceived importance and

capability of beginning agricultural education teachers to teach leadership topics This chapter provides the theoretical foundation that is the underpinning for the research A review of leadership theory and leadership education is provided Literature of post-secondary agricultural leadership education, secondary agricultural leadership education, secondary agriculture teacher preparation, and teacher self-efficacy are summarized The chapter concludes by presenting a conceptual framework for the research

Theoretical Foundation

Scholars have defined leadership a number of ways “Leadership is the process of influencing others to understand and agree about what needs to be done and how to do it, and the process of facilitating individual and collective efforts to accomplish shared objectives” (Yukl, 2006, p 8) Essential components to leadership include that leadership

is a process, involves influence, occurs within a group context, and involves goal

attainment (Northouse, 2010) Leadership is defined as “the ability to preside, guide, or conduct others, activities, or events with responsibility for the final outcome” (Ricketts,

2003, p 550) Dubrin (2001) declared that “To be a leader, one has to make a difference

and facilitate positive changes” (p 3) Leadership is “the capacity to influence others by unleashing their power and potential to impact the greater good [italics in original text]”

(Blanchard, 2007, p xix) “To an extent, leadership is like beauty: it’s hard to define, but you know it when you see it” (Bennis, 1989, p 1) Author John C Maxwell (1993) summarized that leadership is influence The definition used in this study was purported

by Northouse (2010) and stated that, “Leadership is a process whereby an individual influences a group of individuals to achieve a common goal” (p 3)

Leadership Theory

The study of leadership has advanced over the years with multiple theories being purported as the evolution of newer theories develop on the horizon Burns (1995) stated that “Leadership is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on earth” (p 9) As scholars continue to strive to understand the phenomena of leadership, vast amounts of literature describe a wide range of leadership theories Selected leadership approaches and theories are briefly described in this section

One of the first areas of research in relation to leadership theory dealt with trait approaches to leadership The theories became known as the “great man” theories

because only the “great” would have these specific traits (Northouse, 2010) One

characteristic of the trait approach is that it focuses only on the leader and the traits the leader exhibits Potential for effective leadership was assumed to be determined by the set

of traits that a person possessed Much of the early research on trait approaches and

leaders’ characteristics were summarized by Stogdill (1948, 1974) Resurgence in the interest of trait approaches has been noticed, based on the growing interest in relation to emotional intelligence (Dubrin, 2001) Along with a greater interest in emotional

intelligence, personality assessments may be used within this approach as an attempt to match the right leader with the needs of a group (Northouse, 2010) Strengths of the trait approach include that the approach is intuitively appealing, has a history of research behind it, and provides benchmarks of characteristics present in leaders Criticisms of the trait approach are that after considerable research a definite list of traits cannot be

presented and the situation in which leadership occurs is not considered (Northouse, 2010)

Style approaches are leadership theories that began to be investigated in the mid

20th century Initial research in the style approach theories included work done by Lewin, Lippitt, and White (1939); The Ohio State University; and the University of Michigan Style approach theories focus on behaviors with respect to what leaders do and how they act (Northouse, 2010) Leadership is composed of two general types of behaviors

according to style theories Task behaviors assist goal accomplishment while relationship behaviors aid followers in feeling comfortable within their situation (Northouse, 2010) Style approach theories are used to explain how the two categories of behaviors influence followers in goal attainment and are sometimes grouped into styles such as authoritarian, democratic, and laissez-faire (Northouse, 2009) These approaches are not prescriptive but rather provide a framework to illustrate the leader’s behavior Credibility through research, a framework of leader behaviors, and assessment of behaviors are cited as

strengths of the style approach Criticisms of the style approach theories include the lack

of consideration of performance outcomes, lack of one universally effective style, and disagreement on a most preferred style (Northouse, 2010)

When discussing leadership, the term power may surface “Power is the capacity

or potential to influence” (Northouse, 2010, p 7) Power is derived based on the leader’s relationship to followers (Northouse, 2010) Two types of power between leaders and followers may be described as position and personal Position power influence results from the rank, office, or title held by a person Personal power influence results from support of followers Coercion is a type of power where manipulation is used to achieve the leader’s goals Types of power, such as coercion, often bring about negative

perceptions of power-influence approaches But power-influence theories can occur in relationships between leaders and followers toward the achievement of collective goals (Northouse, 2010)

The situational approach to leadership is one of the most widely recognized approaches in organizational training and development (Northouse, 2010) The model of situational leadership can be linked to scholars Ken Blanchard and Paul Hersey

(Blanchard, Zigarmi, & Nelson, 1993) Theories supporting this model are based upon the belief that different situations require different types of leadership To be effective, a leader must be able to analyze a situation and determine the best style for that situation A leader must establish where the followers are on a developmental continuum and match his or her leadership style to what is needed by the followers (Northouse, 2010)

Strengths of the situational approach include being practical, prescriptive, accepted in the

business world, and allows for leader flexibility Limited research about the approach, ambiguous conceptualization of development levels, and lack of accounting for

demographic characteristics that may influence preferences for leadership styles are cited

as criticisms of situational leadership theories (Northouse, 2010)

Contingency leadership theories are based upon matching leadership style to a situation A leader’s style must fit the context to be effective (Northouse, 2010) Based on extensive work, Fiedler (1995) purported a contingency leadership model where

instrumentation was used to aid in matching leaders with optimal situations The theory has been extensively researched and has been the foundation for numerous leadership development programs (Dubrin, 2001) The theory provides practical information that can be used in placement of leaders and does not expect them to be effective in all

situations However, criticisms of the contingency theory include the lack of fully

explaining why styles work in certain situations and can be cumbersome because of instrumentation that is used (Northouse, 2010)

Path-goal theory views the relationship between the leader’s style, characteristics

of followers, and the situation The theory is based upon the belief that followers are motivated if they think they are capable, believe their efforts will provide a desired

outcome, and believe the payoff is worthwhile (Northouse, 2010) Leaders guide

followers down a path to obtain a goal through selected styles that fit the situation

(Dubrin, 2001) Strengths of the path-goal theory include that the theory provides a theoretical framework that is practical and addresses follower motivation Criticisms of the path-goal theory purport that the theory does not fully explain the relationship

between leadership behavior and follower motivation and can be viewed as a one-way event from the leader to the follower (Northouse, 2010)

Recent research has been conducted in the area of transformational leadership theory The essence of the transformational leadership theory is a process that changes and transforms people (Northouse, 2010) Burns (1978) differentiated transformational leadership from transactional leadership based upon transformational leadership

increasing the level of motivation and morality in the follower and the leader rather than managerial exchange Connections between the leader and followers motivate the

followers to achieve more than would normally be expected Follower needs, values, and morals are taken into account and the leader attempts to develop these characteristics to a higher level As the characteristics are nurtured and the follower develops, the connection

to the leader increases, leading to increased motivation and effectiveness Research supports the effectiveness of transformational leadership in different situations but lacks conceptual clarity and there have been concerns expressed about measurement validity (Northouse, 2010)

Charismatic leadership and transformational leadership are considered

synonymous by some scholars while others distinguish between the two leadership theories (Yukl, 2006) Charisma is defined as a special gift possessed by individuals allowing them to do extraordinary things (Northouse, 2010) Charisma portrayed by a leader leads to unusually high levels of an outcome (House, 1976) Leader charisma affects followers in ways the followers trust, believe, accept, identify, and contribute to the common group goals (Dubrin, 2001) Followers’ self-concepts are tied into the

identity of the purpose by the leader to increase effectiveness (Northouse, 2010)

Charismatic leadership theory continues to evolve and Yukl (2006) recommends that continued research is needed to learn more about and further understand charismatic leadership theory

The psychodynamic approach is based on two foundational understandings A leader must understand one’s own psychological makeup and the psychological makeup

of their followers (Stech, 2010) To enhance this approach, a leader may work to aid followers in understanding their own psychological makeup so they can interact with others more effectively Strengths of the psychodynamic approach include the

relationship between the leader and the follower and the emphasis on continued growth

of the leader Challenges to the psychodynamic approach include subjectivity and potential for cultural biases (Stech, 2010)

Research in the area of team oriented leadership theories has grown and evolved from a focus on human relations to group dynamics, interdependency, and

implementation of organizational strategies To stay effective, groups are often faced with quickly changing conditions and must be able to adapt To meet these demands, team leadership theories are based on organizational design (Kogler Hill, 2010) Team leadership theories provide guiding principles to help leaders develop, maintain, and enhance team effectiveness Concerns are that some team theories and models are not completely supported and tested through research and are highly complex (Kogler Hill, 2010)

Servant leadership theory is grounded on the foundation that leaders serve others Greenleaf (1977) purported the focus of servant leadership is on others rather than on oneself and should not be motivated by self-interest but rather on meeting the needs of others Servant leaders put the needs of their followers first, and by serving, they become leaders (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002) Leaders portray a sense of social responsibility and moral obligation toward their followers Someone demonstrating servant leadership focuses on the service itself, rather than the results of the service (Stone, Russell, & Patterson, 2004) Being a steward within the context of leadership and development of all people involved are strengths of the theory Challenges to the theory include the limited amount of research and the inability to measure the effectiveness of servant leadership (Sendjaya & Sarros, 2002)

Research in the area of authentic leadership theory is emerging and in the early stages of development (Northouse, 2010) Defining authentic leadership can be complex and numerous definitions have been posited, but the root of authentic leadership theory focuses around the authenticity or realness of the leader The impetus for increased interest and research may be associated with societal and corporate distrust (Northouse, 2010) Scholars suggest that concentrated efforts should be placed on understanding the core of positive leadership which can be described through authentic leadership

development (Avolio & Gardner, 2005) “Authentic leadership describes leadership that

is transparent, morally grounded, and responsive to people’s needs and values”

(Northouse, 2010, p 237) Authentic leadership theory is appealing to society because it provides trustworthy leaders, contains a moral dimension, and can be developed over

time by individuals Concerns are that clear definitions have not been presented for the theory and the moral dimension along with the limited evidence toward positive

outcomes (Northouse, 2010)

Research in the area of ethical leadership is also emerging and in the early stages

of developing constructs and potential theories There is an ethical responsibility that comes with influencing others through leadership (Northouse, 2009) The responsibility

of ethical leadership closely relates to leadership theories such as transformational

leadership, servant leadership, spiritual leadership, and authentic leadership (Brown & Trevino, 2006; Johnson, 2005; Northouse, 2010) At the foundation of ethical leadership

is an adherence of normatively appropriate societal conduct by the leader and promoting that conduct among followers (Brown, Trevino, & Harrison, 2005) The foundation can

be separated into the domains of conduct and character A leader demonstrating ethical leadership would respect others, be concerned about fairness, demonstrate honesty, and build community (Northouse, 2010) Ethical leadership potentially provides a path to moral leadership and the demonstration of timeless virtues Concern in the development

of ethical leadership theories is the limited traditional empirical support

Leadership Education

“Leaders are born and not made” was a common statement made about leadership for many years This thought was based upon the belief that leaders possessed special genetic traits that were the origin of their leadership ability (Komives et al., 2007) The belief that leadership was solely based in traits has given way to behavioral and

contingency theories (Chemers, 1995) Numerous perspectives such as transformational, servant, authentic, and relational leadership have surfaced in the leadership literature (Komives et al., 2007) Researchers have studied leadership utilizing different methods and reporting different grouping strategies to classify leadership theories Most leadership theories can be classified as trait approach, behavior approach, power-influence

approach, or situational approach (Yukl, 2006) Over a period of time, a paradigm shift occurred in the belief that leadership knowledge and skills are not simply inherent, but rather can be learned (Eich, 2008; Dubrin, 2001; Komives et al., 2007; Wren, 1995; Yukl, 2006)

Interest in the teaching of leadership on college and university campuses has increased over the years (Fritz et al., 2003; Riggio, Ciulla, & Sorenson, 2003; Schwartz, Axtman, & Freeman, 1998) There are nearly 1000 institutions in the United States offering leadership education programs with over 70 institutions offering a leadership major (Bumgardt, Greenleaf, Brungardt, & Arensdorf, 2006) These leadership education programs are housed within various academic departments, student affairs offices, and residential life programs Bumgardt et al (2006) found that most leadership education programs begin with a foundational course, followed by courses in skill, context, and issues, and finish with a practicum Conversely, Bumgardt et al (2006) conceded that each leadership education program was as unique as the institution where it was housed and the students engaged in the program

Leadership education programs may not all look alike, but there is a shared belief

by many scholars in the area of leadership education This is a belief that leadership

education programs should be designed with a theoretical foundation grounded in

research (S M Fritz, personal communication, October 22, 2007; Riggio et al., 2003) These foundations should include theory of student development and theory of

leadership

Leadership education models have emerged that are based on research The leadership identity development (LID) theory posited by Komives, Owen, Longerbeam, Mainella, and Osteen, (2005) was derived from rigorous grounded theory methodology and was informed by four families of student development theory (Komives,

Longerbeam, Mainella, Osteen, & Owen, 2009) Those student development theories include psychosocial theory, cognitive theory, developmental synthesis theory, and social identity theory Psychosocial theory contains developmental vectors with the core

developmental task for college students being the establishment of identity “Identity establishment is characterized by a clear, comfortable, and secure sense of self, such as that achieved in advanced stages of leadership development” (Komives et al., 2009, p 22) Cognitive theory, as described by Komives et al (2009), encompasses intellectual and moral development Cognitive theory is further defined by the authors as a

comprehensive, holistic, transformative activity that integrates learning and development Developmental synthesis theory is a process of making meaning by differentiating

ourselves so we can look objectively at an event Often this occurs when a developmental crisis or internal conflict takes place (Komives et al 2009) The fourth group of theory in concert with LID is social identity theory Social identity theory is described as one’s membership or felt belonging in groups (Komives et al., 2009) The integration of these