In contemporary China, some government officials, who enjoyed admirable career prospects, have given up their official positions and turned to the business sector.. This practice is call
Trang 1In contemporary China, some government officials, who enjoyed admirable career prospects, have given up their official positions and turned to the business sector.
This practice is called xiahai.1 According to a government report, there has been a
substantial increase in the number of xiahai officials since 2000.2 Xiahai involves
not only lowerranking officials, but also officials in higher positions, such as the SecretaryGeneral or President of Chinese People’s Political Consultative Committee (CPPCC), and even influential people such as the Mayor.3 This phenomenon is widespread in China, especially in the six provinces of Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Hainan, and Liaoning.4 Having aroused much attention from the media, the government, and the public, this phenomenon raises
Trang 2We can observe three waves of xiahai which surged or resurged in 1980s, 1990s
and 2000s respectively.5 There is a significant difference between the third wave and the first two waves. The third wave is prominent in terms of the number, the rank level, the region and influence.6 This study focuses on the third wave of
xiahai.
The first case of xiahai in the third wave reported by the media was Xu Gang, 7 who was both the former chief accountant of the Local Tax Bureau and a member
of the Finance Bureau in Zhejiang Province. He was regarded as one of the highestranking officials at the Department level of the province. However, beyond the expectations of both the public and the authorities, he gave up his official
position in March 2002 and became the Chief Executive Officer of Geely Holding Group.8 Since then, xiahai has become a hot news topic for the mass media, more
and more stories about officials’ resignations have been reported. In response, the central government, realizing the seriousness of the situation, formed teams to investigate this phenomenon. At the end of 2003, the investigation results from six
5 Xiaoteng, "Cong Ciguan Xiahai Shuokaiqu: Jianlun Gaoguan Luoma Yu Boshi Kaoguan(from 'Officials' Xiahai' to 'Doctors Pursue Official Career')."
6 Ibid.
7 In this thesis, the Chinese names are rendered surname first, in accordance with the Chinese customs.
8 Zou Yao Yang Aixiang, "Di San Lun Xiahai Guanyuan Shengcun Zhuangtai (the Status of Xiahai
Officials in the Third Wave)," 21th Centrury Economic News, 16Nov 2003.
Trang 3Statistics show that there were 125 government officials at the Directorlevel or above left the government from 2002 to 2003 in Zhejiang province.9 With so many
officials leaving the government for the market, xiahai is by no means accidental.
In fact, the characteristics of this phenomenon are so prominent in some regions at
the official ranklevel that some patterns of xiahai can be discerned.
Firstly, this study analyzes these patterns of xiahai in six prominent provinces.
These are Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Hubei, Guangdong, Hainan and Liaoning In Zhejiang province, apart from the previous example of Xu Gang, there was a noteworthy event called “the Wenzhou Phenomenon.”10 In May 2003, after the reelection in Wenzhou, Wu Minyi gave up his position as the Vicemayor of
Wenzhou city and became the president of Hui Lima Commercial Chain in
Shanghai.11 Along with him, another three officials in Wenzhou also resigned from their positions and decided to take up jobs in private enterprises. They were Lin
government; at last, however, he went to Ao Kang Group in May 2003.
Trang 4because two Vicemayors and two Secretarygenerals in the same city resigned from their positions almost at the same time They might become the Vicepresident of Local People’s Congress or the Secretarygeneral of CPPCC in Wenzhou City if they had not given up their positions
In Jiangsu Province, the most notable event is “the Jianhu Phenomenon.”13 Five core officials in Yancheng city resigned from their positions at the same time. The family home of these five people is Jianhu, so this was called “Jianhu phenomenon.”14 Among them, the case of Wang Xiaoping aroused the most heated debate in society. Wang Xiaoping, 48 years old, was the Mayor of Dongtai city in
January 2001. He left the government and became the general manager of Yong Lin Axunge & Chemistry Ltd in Jianhu in December 2002. He had been the Mayor
of Dongtai city for less than two years, and Dongtai is the most prosperous area in Yancheng City.15 Besides, Zhu Aiqun, once Taizhou’s Secretary, became the
15 Shengke, "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is 'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and Zhejiang Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)."
Trang 5In Hainan province, Wang Wenjin became the general manager of Physical Training Ltd in June 2003. Before that, he had been the Vicemayor of Qionghai
city for two terms and in charge of the Travel Industry for ten years. Moreover, he
had participated in the entire process of Bo Ao Project on behalf of the
government.16 In Guangdong province, Liu Zhixing, the former Vicewarden in Foshan city, left the government in August 2003 and became the Vicepresident of
Meidi Group He had 28 years’ working experience and was an expert in
administration, assetregrouping and capital management.17 In Hubei Province, Cai Deshan, once the Vicepartysecretary of the district, resigned from his position in
September 2003 and became the board Chairman of Wanjiale Stock Company. He
was only 40 years old, a Masters degree holder and economic consultant.18
In Liaoning Province, Lulu, a fiftyyear old female economic consultant, was the former Directorgeneral of the Domestic Trade Bureau in Shenyang city In
Trang 6and acted both as its CEO and President.21 Men Xinguo, the head of Kenli County
in Shandong province, was invited to be the StandingViceManager of Shandong Huanghe Group 22
These are some representative examples. In fact, each province has a significant number of officials leaving the government. For instance, in Fujian province, there were 238 officials who left the government by the end of September 2003, and 9
of them were Departmentlevel officials. 23
Secondly, let us look at the rank of those officials who engaged in business. There are not only DirectorGenerals (such as Lulu and Wang Zhimin, former DirectorGenerals in Domestic Trade Bureau), but also SecretaryGenerals in municipal government (such as He Baogen and Wang Yunzheng, former SecretaryGeneral in Wenzhou Municipal Government), ViceMayors (such as Wang Wenjin, Wu Minyi and Lin Peiyun), and a Mayor (such as Wang Xiaoping, former Mayor of Dongtai City)
Finally, it is important to examine the age of those who moved to the private sector. They are generally in their forties, energetic and sagacious. For instance,
Trang 7puzzling aspect of xiahai, because officials in this age group generally have
positive career prospects in the government
What I wish to emphasize here is that the third wave, as mentioned previously, is significantly different from the former two waves. During the first wave in the mid 1980s, most officials only changed to the sectors or enterprises which were subordinate to their original working department. This practice is called “semi
xiahai.”24 Most officials became engaged in business because they were not satisfied with their jobs. Usually, they were misunderstood by people. Some of them failed to perform well in the market due to a lack of experience. But there were some fortunate ones, the most famous one was Ye Kangsong, who was called
“the first xiahai official.”25 He was formerly the Party Secretary of Guan Zhen in Yongjia County of Wenzhou city and is now the Board Chairman and the
Trang 8in the early 1990s. Five years later, he reoccupied the position of the ViceDirector and ViceSecretaryGeneral in the Wenzhou municipal government At last,
however, he went to Ao Kang Group in May 2003.26
Compared with the former two waves, xiahai is riskier in the third wave because of
the institutional constraints. 27 For example, the officials are not allowed to hold a position in the private sector concurrently.28 Before the officials leave government, they should be audited by commissioners of audit before they leave government.29 After leaving the government, the officials are not allowed to engage in the business that were regulated by government agency he previously worked for, and they are not allowed to take positions in the organizations that were under jurisdiction of he previously working place.30 Given this policy restriction, once the officials want to join the private enterprises, they must risk giving up their
Trang 9their government positions.31
This phenomenon raised an intriguing question that this study wants to explore: why did those officials give up their official positions for which they had struggled
to attain for years? How can they pursue a career in the market?
WHY IS XIAHAI PUZZLING?
In China, this phenomenon is puzzling because a government career is considered
to be advantageous and beneficial in terms of social values and realistic situations. First of all, resulting from China’s long history of despotism and a rigid bureaucracy, the notion of “Advancement in Officialdom” has sunk into most people’s minds for generations and has influenced their behavior to a large extent.
32 Schuman, Henry. Americans and Chinese: Two Ways of Life. New York: H.Wolff, 1953.
Trang 10Secondly, a government career is still an optimal pursuit for the majority of the people. In nowadays, being an official might be the best choice when comparing the benefits and costs.34 In everyday life, it is easy to find that the treatment in
politics and economics is greatly influenced by Officials’ Supremacism (Guan Ben Wei) in China. As Xiaobo Lu noticed:
“The qualification to participate in a meeting, the sequence of seat, the
level of special car, the amount of income, the length of lament, and appearance in the newspaper, all are decided by the official position.”35
For example, in a feast, one can easily tell whose position is higher from observing
the order of toasting. Usually, if there is an official in a feast, people would first toast the official; if there are many officials, people would toast them according to their rank.
35 Xiaobo Lu, "From RankSeeking to RentSeeking: Changing Administrative Ethos and Corruption in
Reform China," Crime, Law & Social Change 32 (1999).
Trang 11possible The puzzle is why these officials gave up the supposedly attractive positions.
THEORETICAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This research is important because it will improve our understanding of elite transformation in transitional China. The existing literature about market transition suggests that market transition is usually accompanied by the transformation of elites. As Victor Nee argues, “the partial reform creates new patterns of interaction between redistributive and market power that give rise to a hybrid elite of cadreentrepreneurs.” But the question of how elites are transformed in the market system has not been adequately explored. This study argues that the transitional context may provide elites both incentives and opportunities to seek an alternative approach to maintain their elite status. It suggests that the elites may utilize the power capital they accumulated in the redistributive system to capture new opportunities generated by the market. By uncovering the micro mechanism of elite transformation in a transitional context, this study tries to make a theoretical contribution to Market Transition Theory (MTT)
RELEVANT LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The systematic study of xiahai phenomenon remains inadequate thus far. In this study, xiahai is conceptualized as an issue of elite transformation In the
Trang 12redistributive system, government officials who were in control of redistributive power were able to engage in rentseeking activities to maximize their interests. But in the transitional context, rentseeking becomes increasingly costly as the state initiated administrative and judicial reform to enhance government accountability. Responding to this change, officials chose to work as brokers to bridging entrepreneurs with the powerholders. As a result, elites are transformed from rentseekers to powerbrokers. To construct a theory to explain this elite transformation, one must illuminate the incentives, contextual opportunities as well as strategies that made the transformation possible, because the existing literature on Public Service Motivation (PSM), Market Transition Theory (MTT), and Social Network Theory (SNT) have proved that these factors are related to the elite transformation in significant ways.
Does PSM Matter?
One tentative explanation for xiahai can be found in the PSM theory. The main
theme of this theory explains how PSM affects government employees’ performance and their consideration about leaving the government PSM is defined as “an individual’s predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions” (Perry, 1996).36 Perry developed a
36 James L. Perry, "Measuring Public Service Motivation: An Assessment of Construct Reliability and
Validity," Journal of Public Administration and Research 6, no. 1 (1996).
Trang 13In other words, PSM can be characterized as a reliance on intrinsic rewards over extrinsic rewards (Crewson, 1997) Intrinsic rewards are derived from the satisfaction an individual receives from performing a task, such as a sense of accomplishment and a feeling of selfworth; extrinsic rewards are those offered to
an employee by someone else, such as a pay rise, a promotion, job security, and status and prestige.38
Naff and Crum used PSM as an independent variable in order to examine its impact on employees’ job satisfaction, performance and thoughts about leaving government. Their findings show that “PSM has a smaller, though statistically significant, effect on employees’ thoughts about leaving government, meaning that those with higher PSM are less likely to consider seeking private sector employment.”39 However, the difference is not large. 40
37 David J. Houston, "PublicService Motivation: A Multivariate Test," Journal of.Public Administration
Research & Theory 10, no. 4 (2000).
38 Ibid.
39 Crum, John and Naff, Katherine C. "Working for America: Does Public Service Motivation Make a Difference?" Review of Public Personnel Administration 16, no. 4 (19992000): 516
40 In his survey, he measured the PSM by six statements; respondents were required to scale the extent of agreement or disagreement. However, using this survey as the data source, the research was forced to rely
on selfreported ratings on the employees’ ethnic values towards working in public sector, there might exist some bias.
Trang 14to private employees? Houston found that “public employees are more likely to place a higher priority on intrinsic rewards, whereas private employees value extrinsic rewards more highly.”41
Can we argue that those officials who entered the private sector had a low level of PSM while those who did not had a high level of PSM? It may not be true. Previous research was based on western countries where civil service systems were more developed than China. PSM has matured in western countries while it is still in infancy in China. Even in the United States, public choice theory focuses on the behavior of public sector bureaucrats who are supposed to work in the public interest and put into practice the policies of government as efficiently and effectively as possible, but in fact they are self interested utilitymaximizers, motivated by such factors as salary, prerequisites of the office, public reputation, power, patronage and the ease of managing the bureau. For Niskanen, self interest
is the sole motivator for officials. 42 For Downs, broader motivations such as pride
in performance, loyalty to a program, department or government, and a wish to best serve their fellow citizens may also affect a bureaucrat's behavior. However, Downs admits that an official at any level, be they in the public or private sector,
41 Houston, "PublicService Motivation: A Multivariate Test."
42 W.A Niskanen, Bureaucracy: Servant or Master? (London: Institute of Economic Affairs, 1973).
Trang 15In the context of China, the theory of PSM cannot explain the behavior of Chinese officials, who favor taking up “rent seeking” activities. Even in a democratic country, the officials are selfinterested.44 It is somewhat risky to explain this phenomenon from the perspective of the intrinsic rewards that the officials receive, and undoubtedly, the extrinsic rewards should be adequately addressed.
My fieldwork shows that the extrinsic rewards, such as economic benefits, were top concerns for the officials to leave for the business sector. Of course, the intrinsic rewards, such as career satisfaction, were also critical for the officials to make the choice. Evidence shows that some officials left the government because they could not get the achievability from their official positions, and then they turned to the business sector to actualize their talents. In all, it is reasonable to assume that the officials are rational actors who take strategies responding to the changing context
43 Downs, Anthony Inside Bureaucracy Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1967.
44 This point is advocated by Public Choice Theory.
Trang 16Another alternative explanation can be found in the MTT,45 because it seems to
provide a macrolevel context in which xiahai emerges Victor Nee, who has
referred to the changing value of power capital, may provide some valuable
insights to the phenomenon of xiahai He argues that the state socialist
redistribution economies are characterized by the allocation and distribution of goods through central planning. He asserts that “in reforming socialist economies, the transition from redistribution to market coordination shifts sources of power and privilege to favor direct producers relative to redistributors.” The shift improves incentives for direct producers, stimulates the growth of private markets, and provides to entrepreneurs an alternative path for socioeconomic mobility.” He pointed out that “the transition to a market like economy should result in higher returns to human capital characteristics.” 46
Victor Nee makes two basic claims. One is that the value of human capital is increasing, especially for the entrepreneurs; the other is that the value of power capital is declining, especially in relation to the officials. The MTT indicates the central processes in the shift from hierarchies to markets that involve fundamental
Trang 17changes in the sources of power and in the structures of incentives and opportunities.47 He concludes that “the more market exchange replaces the redistributive mechanism in state socialism, the less the value of power capital relative to market capital.” He modified his theory in 1996 by indicating that officials have a higher mean household income before and after market reform, but the increase in household income of officials is substantially lower than that of peasant entrepreneurs.48
The rising market opens up alternative avenues for socioeconomic mobility, and thus changes the structure of opportunities and gives rise to entrepreneurship as an alternative to bureaucratic advancement in state socialism.49 The MTT maintains that redistributors in sectors of the socialist economy that have experienced market reform are unable to keep up by drawing on their power capital alone, because fundamentally, the shift from redistribution to markets involves a change in the sources of power and privilege.50
But the MTT is problematic in terms of data collection, which weakens the validity of this theory. Let us look at it in detail. This theory was built on a survey conducted during the summer of 1985 in Fujian province. Victor Nee randomly
Trang 18selected a sample of 725 households from 30 villages, resulting in 624 completed interviews. The dependent variable, household income, was based on retrospective reporting of all resources of household cash income.51 Interviewers carefully explained to respondents the importance of accurate estimates of household income for the success of the study, but we must admit that it is very difficult to get reliable information about the income of officials.
Firstly, income is a sensitive issue, and usually officials are reluctant to speak about their income, and they have the right to do so. Secondly, the components of officials' total income are complex There are two kinds of income in form (currency and noncurrency) and there are two components in content (normal income and “grey income”). It is well known that “grey income” composes part of officials’ income, but it was not reported in the data collection, so the survey data cannot reflect reality.
Grey income is a serious problem in China. Yang Fan has pointed out that “grey income”, including direct and indirect ways of collection, reached thirty thousand billion RMB from 1978 to 1998, almost the six times of China’s annual GNP.52 Several years have passed, none of the economists was against Yang Fan’s
51 Ibid.
52 "Zhongguo Jingji Mianlin De Weiji Yu Duice (the Crisis Confronted with China's Economy and Relative
Countermeasure)," Zhanlue Yu Guanli (Strategy and Management), no. 4 (1998).
Trang 19The MTT deserves great attention and raises broad debate among scholars. Bian Yanjie argues that the unrecorded income may be a source of systematic error, because if a given group did report only part of their total income by concealing their “grey income”, the results of mean and standard would be affected, and then, the entire study would be problematic.53 He argues that because China is transiting from a redistributive economy to a market economy, the two mechanisms work simultaneously in this particular period. No one can jump to the conclusion that the value of power capital will decline. Then, he proposed the Continued Power theory. In this theory, he pointed out that the market has been influenced by the political power from the beginning; it still plays a critical role in the transitional period. Those who have access to power can gain more benefits in the market.
The MTT and relevant debates reflect the macrolevel contexts of xiahai. It could
provide some useful insights into the contextual constraints and opportunities for
xiahai officials For one thing, the rising market economy has opened up an
alternative arena for government officials to actualize their talents. For another, there still exist various uncertainties for the development of a market economy because the old redistributive mechanism did not completely diminish. This means
53 Bian Yanjie, Market Transition and Stratification, Social Change in China's Reform Era (Oxford
University Press 1999). pp.109
Trang 20xiahai is a distinctive phenomenon in China’s market transition period, in which
the market mechanism and redistributive mechanism simultaneously play
important roles. The scenario of xiahai is a good example to show how rational
actors maximize their interests by utilizing the special features of the transitional period
Social Network Theory
However, macrolevel constraints and opportunities alone cannot account for the
microlevel strategies in xiahai. For instance, how can the xiahai officials utilize
their power capital after they leave government? The existing study of SNT may provide plausible answers to this question.
According to this theory, the resources in one’s social network are embedded in a social structure, which will not change because of one’s job mobility.54 So the
xiahai officials are tied to the powerholder by their social network built up in the past. Also, this theory could shed light on the behavioral variance in xiahai.
Because it finds that one individual needs to access and/or mobilize his/her social network in purposive actions and “given the same level of accessible embedded
54 Lin Nan, "Building a Network Theory of Social Capital," Connections 22, no. 1 (1999).
Trang 21xiahai.
This study incorporates the reasonable elements of the above literature into a theoretical framework, I will call a “broker” theory This theory argues that officials leave the government because they want to become brokers between the government and the market. The transitional context, full of uncertainties and constraints in the private market, provides them opportunities to seek interests as brokers between the market and government. In this way, they can also minimize the costs derived from government reforms and anticorruption movement. This theory emphasizes rational assumption, contextual constraints and opportunities as well as microlevel strategies
METHODOLOGY AND SOURCES OF DATA
This study is designed as a comparative case study with relatively small samples. The unit of analysis is the individual official. The sources of data come from newspaper and journal articles, official archives, statistics, and website information for the period of 19782005, plus my fieldwork findings which was conducted in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces in 2004. During the fieldwork, I had completed
55 Ibid.
Trang 22of them were still reluctant to receive the interview. Before talking with them, I informed them that the information they provide would be used exclusively for research purposes and their real names would not appear in the study. At last,
fifteen xiahai officials accepted my indepth interviews For confidentiality
reasons, the names used in this thesis are not their real names
My fieldwork was mainly conducted in Jiangsu, Zhejiang provinces This is because it was convenient for me to collect data within limited time and research fund The interview cases that were from specific regions may have limited representatives. This is a limitation of this study, future study may do some crossregional comparisons
Trang 23In this thesis, to better understand xiahai, I have addressed the incentives,
contextual opportunities and microlevel strategies In the part of microlevel strategies, my findings are mainly based on interview data. Therefore, it may suffer from selection bias Nonetheless, this study is an original and preliminary
research on the study of xiahai. With the available data, it has suggested some patterns of xiahai. Whether these patterns can be generalized is a matter of future study Moreover, it has provided important theoretical implications in an understanding of xiahai.
ORGANIZATION OF CHAPTERS
Chapter one gives a brief introduction to this study It includes the research question, the significance of the study, relevant literature, theoretical framework and methodology
Trang 24before. Most important, the private entrepreneurs would like to recruit the xiahai
officials based on the expectation that they could solve the problem of uncertainties
Chapter four explains the variations in xiahai. Drawing on the Social Network Theory, this chapter examines the role of “strong tie” and “face” in xiahai. It
argues that those who had established strong ties with entrepreneurs enjoyed higher possibility to obtain jobs than those who had not, and those who had built
up greater “face” were more likely to stabilize their attained positions in business enterprises than others.
Chapter five summarizes this study of xiahai, discusses the theoretical
implications of this study to Market Transition Theory and Social Network Theory, and provides suggestions for future research
Trang 25To understand the phenomenon of xiahai, one must recognize two factors: one is
the incentives that motivate officials to leave government; and the other is the opportunities that make it possible for resigned officials to attain new positions in the nongovernment sphere As mentioned in the first chapter, the Chinese officials usually enjoy extensive privileges, which they are less likely to give up. Therefore, it is necessary to elaborate here what incentives motivate officials and why these incentives have emerged in this particular period of time.
As a matter of fact, it is impossible and unnecessary to list all the personal reasons
for xiahai officials since concrete reasons for officials’ choice vary from individual
to individual. But it is still helpful to do some categorical analysis by constructing several “ideal type” incentives to show the fundamental patterns of this
phenomenon My interview data includes four types of incentives for xiahai:
comparative lower promotion prospect, risk avoidance, actualization of talent, and better economic gains. I will elaborate each category in the following section
COMPARATIVE LOWER PROMOTION PROSPECT
In this scenario, an official is ambitious to pursue a higher position and further his/her political development, but instead finds that promotion opportunities are
Trang 26the decision of xiahai. Xiahai may occur where the opportunity for promotion is
weak, or where due promotion is not realized. Some officials were in a melancholy mood about leaving government because they were dissatisfied with their current position.
One scholar has pointed out that “The higher the rank, the better the treatment and more privileges one got. This has made ranking in the official hierarchy very significant.”56 For officials, promotion opportunities are critical for career advancement. They are willing to do everything possible to get promoted. Many officials even pay large amounts of money to “buy” a position. This is captured in
a Chinese saying: “bupao busong, yuandi budong; zhipao busong, pingji diaodong”, which means that sometimes monetary benefits are needed to bribe the
Trang 27“Imagebuilding” project is another way for the officials to get promotion. Yongshun Cai has pointed out that:
“In Authoritarian regimes where free and fair elections are absent,
59 Southcn.com, 06 June 2005.
60 Cai Yongshun, "Irresponsible State: Local Cadres and Image Building in China," The Journal of
Communist Studies and Transition Politics 20, no. 4 (2004).
61 "An Overview on the ImageBuilding Projects by Wang Huaizhong," Xinmin Weekly, 31 Oct 2003.
Trang 28in this middlesized city, a big airport was not in need at all. Despite the strong counterviews of experts and the public, Wang persisted in putting it into practice.
At last, it cost 320,000,000 yuan to complete this big airport Each of the government employees, teachers and peasants were levied several hundred Yuan
for airport construction fees. Although this “imagebuilding” project was a huge waste of public resources, it brought substantial benefits for Wang's official career.
He was promoted to the Vicegovernor of Anhui province in 1999.62
As indicated above, officials try every means to get tenure and promotion, but it is quite competitive because of limited positions The consequence is a fierce competition for higher ranks in the official hierarchy among individual cadres. Because of the limited promotion opportunities, there is a gap between the officials’ expectation and their actual status. One of the interviewees, who is now working in the Jiangsu Committee of the Communist Party, stated: “there is a queue to get promoted, I am at the back of the queue and many people are in front
of me. If there are alternative ways for me to realize my ambition, I will consider leaving the government.”63
62 An overview on the Imagebuilding projects by Wang Huaizhong, Xinmin Weekly, 31 Oct 2003.
63 Personal interview, 15 August 2004.
Trang 29Also, most of the interviewees expressed their dissatisfaction with the unjust promotion system in the government Yang Yi, who is now working at the Propaganda Department of the Provincial Committee, commented: “in the government, the promotion system is not fair at all. Although the popular
assessment of performance is adopted, in fact, one’s promotion opportunity is determined by his superior officer.”64
My interviews show that most of the xiahai officials had lower prospects for
promotion before they decided to leave the government. For example, Du Dan, who once worked at the City Planning Bureau, said: “When I worked for the government, I maintained good relations with my colleagues except for my superior officer In that condition, I thought I may not get any chance for promotion. You know, whether one can be promoted is determined by the will of the leader. I was tired of dealing with the complex personal relations with my superiors, so I decided to leave At that time, my brother initiated his own business, and I joined it.”65
Trang 30of being prosecuted has prompted some corrupt officials to leave the government.
By so doing, they can minimize the risk involved, because they are no longer the target of anticorruption activities, which are mainly aimed at incumbent officials.
For example, Shen Jing, the former Chief of a Reception Office, said: “frankly speaking, I have received some money by illegal means. But I must say that corruption is not an uncommon phenomenon in the office. It is very popular to present valuable gifts to superiors. Later, an acquaintance was arrested for graft. After that, I was always alert to various signs of disturbance or troubles, and even could not sleep well because of the great pressures derived from the Anticorruption Movement. At last, I decided to leave the government and initiate my own business. Now I feel happy and secure though I earned less money compared
to before.”66
The anticorruption activities did act as a deterrent on the incumbent officials. As
a result, some officials who had taken bribes even sacrificed their official positions
to avoid facing the consequences. This is exemplified in the case of Li Dachang,67 the former Governor of Sichuan Province. In 2001, Li submitted an application to
66 Personal interview, 02 Sep 2004
67 Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
Trang 31he really cared for even at the cost of the official career. Li justified that his choice was the result of a strong interest in teaching. However, in 2004 the truth was
revealed when Li was arrested for appropriating 100 million yuan and the misuse
of authority
The anticorruption activities have been greatly improved in recent years in terms
of effectiveness and efficiency. This trend is evident from the reports made by the Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China in the annual People’s Congress Meeting from 2000 to 2004. 68 Compared to previous years, corruption was under control
in this period. In 1999, many cases of corruption were investigated to promote a clean Chinese government. The representative example is Hu Changqing, former Vicegovernor in Jiangxi Province. He was given the death penalty because of serious corruption In 2000, Cheng Kejie and Li Jizhou received the most attention.69 Responding to the fact that an increasing number of officials who were involved in corruption and absconded to foreign countries, the Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China and the Police Security Ministry jointly organized an
68 All the following statistics about the Anticorruption movement is seen in the website of the Supreme People’s Procuratorate of China: http://www.spp.gov.cn/gzdt/
69 Li Jizhou, the vice minister of public security, was involved in Xiamen Smuggle case. He received substantive bribe from Lai Changxing and misused his power to help Lai in smuggle activities.
Trang 32of Anticorruption activity was greatly improved, with 207103 cases investigated.
In 2003, the big cases represented 53.7% of total cases. The details of Anticorruption Action is shown in Table 2.1 70
70 I made this table by referring to the statistics provided by the website of the Supreme People’s
Procuratorate of China: http://www.spp.gov.cn/gzdt/
Trang 33the Jiangsu Provincial Committee, faced “shuanggui”71 and was sent to Beijing to receive scrutiny.72 The Political Consultation in Hei Longjiang Province removed Han Guizhi from the post of chairman; Zhang Zonghai, the Chief of Propagandistic Department in Chongqing city, was demoted by the Chongqing City Committee;73 and Ding Xinfa, the lawofficer of Jiangxi Province, was escorted from Nanchang to Beijing to undergo censorship by the Central Discipline Committee.74 All of these cases greatly frightened those officials who wanted to benefit from “rent seeking” activities.
ACTUALIZATION OF TALENT
Booming prosperity and vigorous management of private enterprises are attracting more and more people who want to make good use of their intelligence, including
xiahai officials. While their ages and positions may differ, they share the same
search for greater meaning in life through professional change Most of the interviewees said that they prefer working in the enterprises where the promotion system is fairer and interpersonal relations are simpler. Compared to the unjust promotion system in the government, the private entrepreneur evaluates the employees in terms of their performance in order to motivate them to serve the
Trang 34enterprises. Realizing the importance of talent for the development of enterprises, the private enterprises put a great value on attracting talented people and sees merit as the basis for promotion. As one interviewee, Ya Ning, said: “in the government, one’s obedience to his superior is most important, and since the performance is immeasurable, one’s personal relations with superiors and colleagues is regarded as an important factor. However, I was not good at dealing with relations. Therefore, I joined a private enterprise where one’s achievements can be measured.”75
The story of Zheng Keji76 can also shed some light on this point. Zheng had undertaken three open competitive examinations and received top grades, but failed to get promoted each time. At last, Zheng left the government and joined Guangsha Group. Zheng’s interest towards joining the Guangsha Group began in January 2001 when he went to a job fair for highlevel talents. He was curious about what kind of people are “highlevel” talents and wondered whether he was one among them. Guangsha Group was the first booth he saw after entering the job fair. As a Hangzhounese, Zheng had known a bit about this company, which developed from a small architectural company into a prestigious firm. Since it was inviting applications for the post of vicepresident, Zheng thought it was a good
75 Personal Interview, 06 Sep 2004.
76 The story of Zheng Keji can be seen in: Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren
Congzheng (the Power Change: From 'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
Trang 35He had no idea about how private enterprises operated and was reluctant to leave the government for business, but he was curious about the kind of tests held by the enterprise, although he had experienced many open examinations held by the government. On the examination day, he arrived punctually to find that the chief examiner was Lou Zhongfu, the CEO of Guangsha Group. The other examiners included the officials from the Provincial Ministry of Personnel and professors from Zhejiang University. The final result was released immediately after the examination and interview Lou Zhongfu informed Zheng that he would be approved as vicepresident Zheng was deeply moved by the efficiency of Guangsha Group and was impressed by their attitudes towards talented people. The next day, Zheng tendered a letter of resignation to the Organization Department of the Provincial Committee. His friends suggested that he should acquaint himself with the Guangsha Group first and put forward his resignation date. However, Zheng decided to give up his official position without hesitation. One year later, when asked to describe his feelings towards working in the enterprise, he said that when working in the government, what made him worry was not his ability but having no opportunities to show his skills. While in the field
of business, he was forced to familiarize himself with the latest information and knowledge, improve his ability and realize his potential to meet the needs of the
Trang 36enterprise. It was this distinction of working genre between the government and enterprise combined with the options provided by the economic reform, which makes those who are pursuing their professional success transit from the government to the private enterprises.
Besides, the private enterprises have been enjoying a higher social status in recent years. Gao Jie, one of the interviewees, is the chief Executive Officer of one company He said: “An entrepreneur is now an admirable career Sometimes people envied me when they knew I was an owner of an enterprise. Also, I can enjoy some political rights because I am the Deputy of the Local People’s Congress.”77
With the prosperity of private enterprises and their favorable developmental environment, the arena of the private economy provides opportunities for people to choose their profession based on their own preferences. Therefore, an official career is no longer the only path to success
GETTING BETTER ECONOMIC GAINS
Last but not least, the economic benefit, for some officials, is taken into consideration as the deciding factor. Nowadays, being a rentseeker is not as easy
77 Personal interview, 18Aug, 2004.
Trang 37as before because of the anticorruption activities; the enterprises provide opportunities for officials to earn more money than in the government. Four out of
fifteen interviewed xiahai officials admitted that getting more economic gains is the decisive factor for them to xiahai.
For example, Wang Xin, one of the interviewees, resigned from his position as Deputy Director to join H Group in 2000.78 After that, he had worked as the Vicemanager of H Group for three years, and now is the Generalmanager. When he was invited by H Group in 2000, he was the Deputy Director of one Economic Development Zone of Zhejiang province. At first, he was reluctant to give up an official career for which he had struggled for years, but from the angle of economic benefits, joining the H Group could guarantee him a salary much higher than the government. As a matter of fact, he has two daughters, who require a considerable amount to raise. Furthermore, he and his wife were willing to provide the best schooling for them and send them to overseas universities. However, the low salaries in the government could not make it possible He discussed the situation with his wife for a whole night on whether to join the H Group, and at last, he decided to leave the government Before I interviewed him, he was conducting the welcome meeting for new employees. He said that four years’ experience in the private enterprise greatly enhanced his ability and confidence.
78 Personal interview, 19July, 2004.
Trang 38a prestigious university for his daughters
Another interviewee Wei Min, a Directorlevel official in Guiyang City, told me that he was considering a job shift to one business enterprise.79 He said: “The salary in the government cannot fulfill the growing economic needs of my family. I must pay for the high tuition fees for my son. Also, a new apartment is needed to improve the living conditions of my family. As you may know, the current house price is strikingly high for an ordinary official like me. So I am thinking of seeking
of a County Secretary. Even the income tax he paid is higher than his previous income as a Mayor.80 Liu Zhixing, the former vicewarden in Foshan city, became
the vicepresident of Meidi Group. He had 28 years working experience and was
79 Personal Interview, 29July, 2004.
80 Wang Shengke, "Jiangzhe Guanyuan Xiahaichao Shibushi Jinbu Xianxiang? (Is 'Xiahai' in Jiangsu and
Zhejiang Provinces Progressive Phenomenon?)," 21th Century Ecomonic News, 26June 2003.
Trang 39an expert in administration, assetrestructuring and capital management Meidi Group paid him an annual salary of million yuan.81 Men Xinguo, the head of Kenli County in Shandong province, was invited to be the standingvicemanager
of Shandong Huanghe Group. He was given an annual salary of 200,000 yuan.82
Growing economic needs reveal that in a market economy people care more about economic benefits This is because, one’s economic status, to a large extent, decides one's social status. On the other hand, we need to notice that the rising private market has opened up an alternative arena for people to get better economic returns
SUMMARY
To sum up, this study postulates that officials are rational actors, who try to maximize their interests or minimize costs. “Risk avoidance” and “comparative lower prospect” indicate their incentive to minimize costs, while “actualization of talents” and “getting better economic gains” reflects their incentive to maximize
interests. These incentives for xiahai are the consequence of the officials’ response
to the changing context. For one thing, the government's administrative reforms, especially the ongoing anticorruption activities, make it difficult for officials to be
81 Southern Daily 27Aug 2003.
82 Jingping, Quan Bian: Cong Guanyuan Xiahai Dao Shangren Congzheng (the Power Change: From
'Official's Xiahai' to 'Entrepreneurs Participation in Politics').
Trang 40arena for xiahai officials to actualize their talents and achieve better economic
gains. Besides, the market reform is a partial one; it still depends on government power to develop. Put simply, the government's administrative reforms create the
push for xiahai while the partial market reform is the pull for xiahai.