CELL-BASED SCREENING ASSAY FOR INHIBITORS OF PORCINE CIRCOVIRUS TYPE 2 PCV2 REPLICATION CARLA BIANCA LUENA VICTORIO YONG LOO LIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE &
Trang 1CELL-BASED SCREENING ASSAY FOR INHIBITORS OF PORCINE CIRCOVIRUS TYPE 2 (PCV2) REPLICATION
CARLA BIANCA LUENA VICTORIO
YONG LOO LIN SCHOOL OF MEDICINE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
&
SWISS TROPICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH INSTITUTE
UNIVERSITY OF BASEL
2010
Trang 2PORCINE CIRCOVIRUS TYPE 2 (PCV2) REPLICATION
CARLA BIANCA LUENA VICTORIO
(BSc. Molecular Biology and Biotechnology) University of the Philippines Diliman
&
SWISS TROPICAL AND PUBLIC HEALTH INSTITUTE
UNIVERSITY OF BASEL
2010
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This research project wouldn’t have been possible without the support and funding from
Temasek Life Science Laboratories (TLL) and the expertise of the researchers at the Animal Health
Biotechnology Group headed by Prof. Jimmy Kwang. My special thanks to my supervisor, Prof. Kwang, co‐
supervisor, Prof. Justin Chu, and mentor Mr. Anbu Karuppannan for giving me guidance and direction in
this research endeavor.
This Joint Msc program had been a wonderful, albeit stressful, experience and I am grateful for
this opportunity bestowed to me by Novartis Institute of Tropical Diseases (NITD), Swiss Tropical and
Public Health Institute (STPH), and National University of Singapore (NUS). My special thanks to Ms.
Christine Mensch for all the much‐needed assistance during my stay in Basel, and to Ms. Susie Soh for the
constant gentle reminders in Singapore. I would like to acknowledge the program lecturers, most
especially Prof. Reto Brun, for providing the inspiration to delve into the field of drug discovery. To the
JIBES, thank you for making life outside the lab and lecture memorable. To Patricia, who has been my life
raft these past 2 years; to Casey, Mad, Ed, Sukriti, Hanwern, Neisha, and Ashley, thank you for all the fond
memories.
I wish to express my heartfelt thanks to the people of TLL who showed me how to make stress a
bearable part of daily life. To Shaz, Peypey, Lu ting, Keiko, Adi, Ivan, and Ranjay, thanks for all your
support; and to Vin, who has been my source of respite during the crucial moments, thank you for the
Trang 4Summary . . . 5
List of Tables and Figures . . . 6
List of Abbreviations. . . 8
1. Introduction 1.1. Porcine Circoviruses (PCV) . . . 12
1.1.1. PCV Taxonomy, Morphology and Genetics . . . 12
1.1.2. Pathogenesis and Replication Cycle of PCV2 . . . 14
1.2. PCV2‐Associated Diseases (PCVAD) . . . 16
1.2.1. Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS) . . . 17
1.2.2. PDNS and other PCVAD . . . 18
1.2.3. Treatment of PCVAD . . . 19
1.3. Assay Development and Screening . . . 20
1.3.1. Cell‐based and Cell‐free Assays . . . 21
1.3.2. Signal Detection Systems . . . 22
1.3.3. Assay Development for HTS . . . 23
1.4. Objectives of the Study . . . 25
2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Maintenance of cell lines
2.1.1. Culturing PK15‐C1 Cells . . . 27
2.1.2. Culturing 3D4/31 Cells . . . 27
2.1.3. Culturing #4 Clone Hybridoma Cells . . . 28
2.1.4. Cryopreservation of Cells . . . 28
2.1.5. Establishment of Cell Growth Curve . . . 28
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2.2. Production of High Titer PCV2 Stock
2.2.1. Infecting Cells and Harvesting Virus . . . 29
2.2.2. Increasing PCV2 Titer . . . 30
2.2.3. Detection of Infection by Western Blot . . . 31
2.2.4. Detection of Infection by PCR . . . 31
2.2.5. Virus titration by IFA . . . 32
2.3. Cell‐Based Screening Assay Optimization
2.3.1. Downscaling IFA to 384‐well Plate Format . . . 33
2.3.2. Cell‐Based ELISA . . . 33
2.4. Testing Efficacy of Reference Drugs Against PCV2 Replication 2.4.1. Establishment of Standard Curve for FI at Various . . . 34
Seeding Densities 2.4.2. Evaluating Drug Cytotoxicity . . . 34
2.4.3. Inhibition of PCV2 Replication with Reference Drugs . . . 35
2.5. Generation of Graphs and Statistical Analyses . . . 35
3. Results 3.1. Preparation of materials needed for the screening . . . 37
3.1.1. Finding the best cell line for the screening assay . . 37
3.1.2. Growth dynamics of PK15‐C1 cells . . . 39
3.1.3. Generation of high titer PCV2 stock . . . 39
3.1.4. Large‐scale production of monoclonal antibodies . . . 40
(clone #4) 3.2. Scaling down of Assay to 384‐well plates . . . 42
3.2.1. Comparison of infection rates between glucosamine‐treated . . . 42
and untreated cells 3.2.2. Determining optimum cell seeding density, MOI, and . . . 42
duration of infection
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3.2.4. Comparison of FITC with Alexa Fluor 546 . . . 49
3.3. Testing efficacy of reference drugs against PCV2 replication . . . .50
3.3.1. Standardizing the alamar blue cytotoxicity assay. . . 50
3.3.2. Determining cell tolerance for CAPE . . . 51
3.3.3. Efficacy of CAPE against PCV2 replication . . . 52
3.3.4. Development of screening assay using cell‐ELISA . . . 53
4 Discussion . . . 58
5 References . . . 73
6 Appendix . . . 79
6.1. Effect of glucosamine treatment on infection rates at . . . 79
various seeding densities
6.2. Standard curves for FI and absorbance with alamar blue . . . 82
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PVC2 is a small non‐enveloped virus that causes a wide array of porcine diseases
categorized under the umbrella term PCV‐Associated Diseases (PCVAD). To date, the only
available antiviral strategy, albeit ineffective against diseased pigs, is prevention via vaccination.
Thus, treatment of affected pigs requires discovery of drugs that inhibit viral replication. The
focus of this MSc project was to develop a suitable primary screening assay for inhibitors of
due to low infection rates (< 5%) resulting from stringent blocking and washing, which were
necessary to reduce background signals in ELISA. Thus, significantly improving infection rates
above 50% is necessary to optimize these cell‐based screening assays for inhibitors of PCV2
replication.
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Tables
1 Introduction
Table 1.1 Common equations for determining assay performance . . . 24
and sensitivity Figures 1 Introduction Figure 1.1 PCV Ultrastructure and Genome Morphology . . . 12
Figure 1.2 Genome Organization of Porcine Circoviruses . . . 14
Figure 1.3 Map of Worldwide Occurrence of PWMS . . . 18
Figure 1.4 Flow of a Typical Drug Discovery Process . . . 21
2 Materials and Methods 3 Results Figure 3.1 Detection of PCV2 from PK15‐C1 and 3D4/31 Cultures . . . 38
by PCR and Western Blot Figure 3.2 PCV2 Rep Expression in PK15‐C1 and 3D4/31 Cells . . . 38
Figure 3.3 Growth Curve for PK15‐C1 . . . 39
Figure 3.4 Titration of PCV2 BJW . . . 40
Figure 3.5 Titration of Concentrated PCV2 BJW . . . 41
Figure 3.6 Effect of Glucosamine Treatment on Infection Rates . . . 43
in 384‐well Plates 48 HPI Figure 3.7 Effect of Glucosamine Treatment on Infection Rates . . . 43
in 384‐well Plates 60 HPI Figure 3.8 72 HPI Rates at Different Cell Seeding Densities and MOI . . . 44
Figure 3.9 48 HPI Rates at Different Cell Seeding Densities and MOI . . . 45
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1.1.1 PCV Taxonomy, Morphology and Genetics
Porcine circoviruses (PCV) are small non‐enveloped viruses with a circular single‐
stranded DNA genome (1,700 nucleotides). The genome is packaged in an icosahedral capsid of
17 nm in diameter (Figure 1.1) and is considered the smallest virus infecting mammalian cells
(Tischer et al., 1982; Nawagitgul et al., 2000). PCV was serendipitously identified as a benign
picornavirus‐like contaminant persisting in a porcine kidney (PK‐15) cell line without causing
PCV was recently divided into two genotypes (PCV1 and PCV2) based on the
identification of PCV‐like entities in lesions derived from pigs affected with Post‐Weaning
Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS), but displaying distinct antigenic properties from
Trang 15currently known PCV1 (Allan et al., 1998; Ellis et al., 1998). PCV1 and PCV2 have the same
ambisense genomic organization, which is the main strategy employed by PCV2 to encode six
bacteriophages that replicate by the same manner (Finsterbusch and Mankertz, 2009). The
origin of PCV2 replication is located in the intergenic region between the transcriptional start
sites of ORF 1 and ORF 2. The loop has an AxTAxTAC sequence where replication is initiated,
while the stem has a 10‐nucleotide palindrome that serves as binding site for the Rep complex.
Downstream of the stem‐loop is a series of four hexanucleotide repeats (H1, H2, H3, and H4),
Trang 162009; Mankertz et al., 2004), and it either participates in another round of replication or
packaged into the capsid. The exact mechanism of the lagging strand synthesis is currently
Figure 1.2 | Genome Organization of Porcine Circoviruses. ORF 1 (Rep) is encoded on the
positive (leading) strand, while ORF 2 (Cap) and ORF 3 are encoded on the negative (lagging)
strand of the PCV genome. ORF3‐encoded protein has a C‐terminal truncation compared with the PCV1 homolog. The stem‐loop structure represents the origin of replication located in the intergenic region between the 5’ ends of ORF 1 and ORF 2. The arrow indicates the nicking site from where replication is initiated. Boxed regions represent hexanucleotide repeats, which act
as binding sites for Rep proteins. Source: (Finsterbusch and Mankertz, 2009).
Trang 17PCV2 is capable of infecting various cell types from various species (Liu et al., 2005;
Chaiyakul et al., 2010). Based on infection studies in 3D4/31 cells, a porcine‐derived monocytic
cell line, PCV2 utilizes the surface glycosaminoglycans (GAG) heparin, heparan sulfate and
chondroitin sulfate‐B on the host cell for attachment (Misinzo et al., 2006). The virus is
afterwards internalized by clathrin‐mediated endocytosis and passes through the endosome
pathway, where uncoating requires an acidic environment (Misinzo et al., 2005). In PK15 cells, a
porcine‐derived kidney cell line, inhibition of endosome acidification led to increased PCV2
disassembly (Misinzo et al., 2008) suggesting that acidification is unnecessary for virus
uncoating. This disparity in findings was speculated to be due to distinct serine proteases
mitosis when nuclear material is being distributed to the daughter cells” (Tischer et al., 1987).
However, treatment with glucosamine enables the PCV DNA to “enter the nucleus directly”
through an unknown mechanism, hence circumventing the need for mitosis before replication
initiation (Tischer et al., 1987) and resulting to significantly higher infection rates.
Once the negative‐strand DNA has been produced, ORF 2 encoding the Cap protein is
expressed. The protein has a mass of 26 kilo Daltons (kDa) and is found to self‐assemble to form
the characteristic icosahedral structure of PCV2 capsid (Nawagitgul et al., 2000). The viral
genome is packaged into the capsid through still unknown mechanism, and the progeny virus
subsequently form paracrystalline arrays within inclusion bodies under the cell membrane of
infected cells, in preparation for release to the environment (Stevenson et al., 1999). At the end
Trang 18by ORF 3 protein (Liu et al., 2006; Liu et al., 2005), which was shown to interact with a porcine
homolog of human ubiquitin ligase E3 hPirH2 (human p53‐induced RING‐H2). ORF3 protein
binding destabilizes pPirH2 (porcine p53‐induced RING‐H2) and results to increased p53
expression and subsequent apoptosis (Liu et al., 2007; Karuppannan et al., 2010). Apoptosis
allows progeny virus to be disseminated into the environment and aids infection of neighboring
cells, resulting to increased viral load (Karuppannan and Kwang, 2010).
Although both PCV1 and PCV2 have been detected in and isolated from both healthy
and diseased pigs (Allan and Ellis, 2000; Chae, 2004; Harding, 2004) and despite the documented
high homology between the two virus genomes, only PCV2 had been associated with porcine
disease while PCV1 remained benign. Determinants hypothesized to cause the differential
pathogenic potential of these two closely related viruses are ORF2 and ORF3 proteins. ORF2
PCVAD is divided into “clinical syndromes and diseases that have pre‐or post‐natal
manifestations” (Grau‐Roma et al., 2010) and include Postweaning Multisystemic Wasting
Trang 19Disease Complex (PRDC), Reproductive Failure, etc. PCV2 is a ubiquitous virus and has been
reported from all continents (Grau‐Roma et al., 2010). It is believed to be horizontally
transmitted by direct contact among pigs through the oronasal route, although it can also be
shed in bodily secretions such feces, saliva, urine, milk, and semen (Larochelle et al., 2000;
nodes, diarrhea, pallor, and jaundice or yellowing of the skin (Harding, 2004; Chae, 2005).
Isolation of microscopic lymphoid lesions with PCV2 antigen detected either through in situ
hybridization (ISH) or immunohistochemistry (IHC) is also necessary to diagnose PMWS (Chae,
2004). Although PCV2 is necessary to cause PMWS, it is not sufficient and it only causes the
disease in the presence of either immunomodulatory agents or other swine pathogens. The
most commonly found pathogens in PCV2 co‐infections resulting to PMWS include porcine
parvovirus (PPV), porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV), swine influenza
virus (SIV), Streptococcus suis, and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. Noninfectious
immunomodulators leading to the disease include keyhole limpet hemocyanin in incomplete
Freund’s adjuvant (Kennedy et al., 2000; Tomás et al., 2008). One hypothesis put forward to
explain this phenomenon is that lymphoid depletion caused by PCV2 infection leads to an
immunocompromised state in pigs resulting to enhanced susceptibility to other swine
pathogens. This is supported by the observation of successful induction of PMWS in postweaned
Trang 20pigs once maternal antibodies have waned, and following immunosuppression caused by
along with the initial reports of PMWS. The disease has been reported from North and South
America, Europe, and Asia. Source: (Nawagitgul et al., 2000; Chae, 2004). PCV2 but not the disease has been reported from Australia and New Zealand (Raye et al., 2005; Muhling et al.,
2006).
Trang 21in PDNS‐affected pigs are localized in kidneys and not in lymphoid tissues.
PRDC is another health problem observed in pigs 16‐22 weeks of age. It is also caused by
co‐infections of PCV2 with PRRSV, SIV, M. hyopneumoniae, and other swine pathogens. PRDC is
diagnosed by meeting criteria, which includes presence of respiratory signs such as prolonged
dyspnea, pulmonary microscopic lesions with PCV2 antigens, and absence of lymphoid lesions
characteristic of PMWS (Ellis et al., 2004).
PCV2 is also associated with high rates of abortion, stillbirths and fetal mummification.
PCV2 has been isolated from specimens with reproductive failure at different stages of gestation
(Sanchez et al., 2001), although characteristic lesions were absent in recovered fetuses. Aside
from the diseases and syndromes mentioned, PCV2 has been associated with other infectious
porcine diseases including necrotizing lymphadenitis, congenital tremors, and other hepatic,
enteric and renal diseases (Ellis et al., 2004; Chae, 2005).
1.2.3 Treatment of PCVAD
Agents that inactivate PCV2 could potentially aid in the treatment of PCVAD. PCV2 is a
non‐enveloped virus and therefore resistant to lipid‐dissolving disinfectants commonly used in
farms such as alcohol, chlorhexidine, and phenol. Moreover, PCV2 is highly thermostable and
Trang 22a subunit vaccine containing purified Cap protein expressed from Baculovirus
(BoehringerIngelheimVetmedica, 2010); CircumventTM vaccine (Intervet Inc., Millsboro, Denver,
USA) is derived from killed baculovirus expressing purified PCV2 Cap antigen (Schering‐Plough,
2009) . Both CircoFLEXTM and Suvaxyn® are single‐dose vaccines, while CircumventTM is a 2‐dose
vaccine. All three vaccines are recommended to be given to healthy piglets prior to weaning and
had been tested in field conditions. Trial immunizations resulted to reduction of viremia in
unchallenged pigs (Kixmöller et al., 2008; Segalés et al., 2009) and development of long‐term
Since PCV2 causes a wide array of swine diseases and vaccination, which is the only
antiviral strategy currently available, confers only limited protection, there is urgent need for
developing drugs that can cure diseased pigs. No such drugs exist to date and they have to be
discovered. The drug discovery process is usually divided into two phases: 1) Research and 2)
Development. The research phase deals with the identification of an array of suitable
compounds with desired effect against a selected target, while the development phase deals
with (1) optimization of the compound for greater potency and efficacy, and (2) formulation into
Trang 23a marketable drug suitable for consumption. The research phase typically begins with
Generally, assays in drug discovery are classified as either cell‐based or target‐based
techniques. In the former, whole‐cell phenotypic responses are measured; while in the latter,
binding and kinetics of individual molecules (the target and candidate drug) are measured in cell‐
free systems. Cell‐based assays are further classified into three broad categories: (1) second
messenger assays, (2) reporter gene assays, and (3) cell proliferation assays. Second messenger
Figure 1.4 | Flow of a Typical Drug Discovery Process. Drug discovery is divided into two
phases: 1) Research and 2) Development. The research phase deals with identification of candidate compounds against a selected target, while the development phase deals with optimizing the compound for human consumption and formulating as a suitable marketable
drug. Source: (Novartis, 2010)
Trang 24assays involve measurement of signal transduction resulting from activation of cell‐surface
receptors, such as in the discovery of ion channel activators and inhibitors (Gonzales et al.,
1999). Reporter gene assays monitor responses at the transcriptional and translational levels of
cells transfected with reporter genes depending on the expression of the reporter upon
activation of the target gene (Mankertz et al., 2003). These offer advantages such as availability
of multiple instrumentation platforms, relative low cost of reagents, and high amenability for
HTS (Johnston, 2002). Lastly, cell proliferation assays monitor the activated or stunted cell
less complicated due to the absence of whole biological systems, hits obtained are often
confounded by nonspecific binding and background signals from the compounds being tested
SPA microbeads or FlashPlateTM surfaces containing scintillant and coated with the target of
interest. Binding of a radiolabeled molecule to the target brings the radioisotope in close
proximity to the solid support, leading to energy transfer between the emitted beta particle and
the scintillant and subsequent release of photons. However, radiometric assays were slowly
Trang 25phased out due to safety issues, limited reagent stability, and relatively long read times
Another method to circumvent problems resulting from high background signal is
through luminescent detection systems (Inglese et al., 2007). Luminescence generates light
through catalytic reactions on a substrate, either through an enzyme (Bioluminescence) or
through decay of an unstable chemical intermediate (Chemiluminescence) (Schweitzer and
Once the format and detection system have been chosen, the assay is developed as a
bench top method with low throughput, and later miniaturized to smaller‐volume formats
(typically using microtiter plates) amenable to high‐throughput screening (HTS). Factors to
consider when developing an assay include: (1) defined response to be measured, (2) clear
parameter‐response dependence, and (3) lag time between stimulation with the compounds
Trang 26and response readout (Inglese et al., 2007). An orthogonal assay, which can be done either in
parallel with the primary screen or as a secondary screen, is beneficial for confirmatory test and
precluding false‐positive hits from the panel of candidate molecules.
HTS is the main driving force in the drug discovery process implemented in
pharmaceutical industries (Fox et al., 2006). Before miniaturizing the assay for HTS, however,
several factors must be optimized. These include (1) reasonable sensitivity, (2) result
reproducibility and stability, (3) accuracy of positive and negative controls, and (4) economic
mechanization and automation; throughput reaching 100,000 compounds per day is possible
with ultra high‐throughput screening (uHTS) (Sundberg, 2000). Although the concept remains
the same when adapting the assay for HTS, several modifications have to be done from normal
bench top formats; HTS assays require fewer steps, often as a “mix‐and‐measure” technique,
precluding washing and other intermediate steps that may be time‐consuming and difficult to
automate. Assay volume is in the microliter and sometimes nanoliter range due to
miniaturization with 384‐well and even 96,000‐well plates (Hertzberg and Pope, 2000). Lastly,
readout from individual wells is analyzed with defined statistical parameters instead of
Trang 27population‐averaged data. This is currently done with the aid of computers equipped with
PCV2 is a widespread virus that causes an array of diseases and syndromes in pigs
(PCVAD) worldwide but currently the only antiviral strategy is prevention by vaccination of
Trang 28Trang 29
1 mM sodium pyruvate (SIGMA), 2.2 g/L sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3, SIGMA), 5% heat‐
inactivated FBS and antibiotics, incubated at 37o C and 5% CO2 in a humidified chamber. Upon
confluence, cells were split in 1:4 ratio; cells were washed four times in 1x PBS (pH 7.4) and
twice in Trypsin (0.25% trypsin, 1 mM EDTA). Afterwards cells were incubated for 3 minutes at
37o C in trypsin and the dislodged cells were washed in pre‐warmed 5% MEM. Trypsin was
removed by centrifugation of cells at 200 RCF for 5 minutes in RT, and the cell pellet was
resuspended in fresh 5% MEM, stained with trypan blue, and viable cells were counted with a
hemacytometer prior to seeding in culture vessels.
2.1.2 Culturing 3D4/31 Cells
The transformed monocytic cell line 3D4/31 (ATCC No. CRL‐2844) was also used to
propagate PCV2. Cells were maintained in filter‐sterilized RPMI 1640 (GibcoTM) medium
supplemented with 2mM L‐glutamine, 1.5 g/l NaHCO3, 4.5 g/L glucose, 10 mM HEPES buffer, 1
mM sodium pyruvate, 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids, and 10% FBS incubated at 37o C, 5%
CO2 . Cells were split at 1:5 ratio by washing 5 times in PBS and twice in 0.25% trypsin solution
before incubation in trypsin for 5 minutes at 37o C. Dislodged cells were washed in pre‐warmed
medium, and trypsin was removed by centrifugation at 200 RCF for 5 minutes in RT. The cell
pellet was resuspended in fresh medium and viable cells were counted prior to seeding onto
new flasks.