Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper mekong deltas deep flooding area

Future Projection of Hydrology Change and Adaptation of Land Use and Houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area .... Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delt

ADAPTATION OF LAND USE AND HOUSES IN THE UPPER MEKONG DELTA’S DEEP FLOODING AREA

NGUYEN KHANH VAN

(B.Arch)

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS

(ARCHITECTURE) DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2012

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Acknowledgements

It would not have been possible to fulfil this thesis without the help and

support of kind people around me

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my Supervisors, Prof Joseph Lim Ee Man and Prof Nirmal Tulsidas Kishnani, for their guidance, support and patience

For inspirations, discussions and academic input, I would like to thank Prof Giang Ngoc Huan, Prof Le Anh Tuan, Nguyen Nghia Hung, Dau Van Huan, Yenny Rahmayati, Hannah K Griffiths, Adi Santosa, Tran Thanh Duong, and Huynh Le Hai Chau

My sincere gratitude goes to organizations and people supporting me in my fieldtrips, especially owners of roughly fifty studied houses, for their enthusiasm and kindness

I would like to thank my fellow graduate students in CASA and my Friends

at the National University of Singapore; some have been mentioned above, Nikhil Joshi, Nayada Nakhasit, Su Jan, Nguyen Tan Trong, Huynh Le Ngoc Thanh, Huynh Kim Tho, and my Friends Tran Hao Thac, Truong Thi Thu Van, Tran Thi Ngoc Thanh… the list would be very long, for their friendship and care

Finally, I owe my deepest gratitude to my beloved family Thanks to my Father Nguyen Huu Tri, my Mother Nguyen Thi Le Hang, and my Sister Nguyen Ngoc Phuong Van for their endless love, care, and inspirations Thanks to my Husband, Nguyen Chi Hieu, for his deep love, understanding, and helpful discussions

I dedicate this thesis to my family and the people in the Mekong Delta

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements i

Table of Contents iii

Summary vii

List of Tables ix

List of Figures x

List of Abbreviations xix

Chapter 1 Introduction 1

1.1 Overview of thesis 1

1.2 Research background 1

1.2.1 The upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 1

1.2.2 Research gaps 5

1.3 Research questions and objectives 8

1.4 Research Method 9

1.4.1 The importance of “adaptation” 9

1.4.2 Method 12

1.5 Thesis outline 16

Chapter 2 Current Environmental Challenges 18

2.1 The Mekong Delta 18

2.2 The studied area – upper part of Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 21

2.3 Current environmental challenges 22

2.3.1 Flooding 22

2.3.1.1 Seasonal floods from the Mekong River 23

2.3.1.2 Tides 40

2.3.2 Other threats 41

2.3.2.1 Salinity intrusion 41

2.3.2.2 Soil acidification 43

2.3.2.3 Seasonal tropical storms 44

2.3.2.4 Climate change 44

2.3.2.5 Pollution 45

2.3.2.6 Reduction of fishery resources 47

2.4 An uncertain future 48

Chapter 3 Existing Literature on Adaptation of Houses and Land Use 50

3.1 Houses in the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 50

3.1.1 Houses built by the people 56

3.1.2 Houses built by the government 58

3.2 Land use planning 63

3.2.1 Master plan of the Mekong Delta for 2020 by SIUP-South (2008) 63

3.1.2 Flood control planning by SIWRP (1998b) 66

Chapter 4 Current Adaptation to Floods 69

4.1 Adaptation of land use: Infrastructure development dealing with floods 70

4.1.1 Flood control infrastructure development 70

4.1.2 Impacts of flood control infrastructure on floods 74

4.1.3 Impacts of flood control infrastructure in the studied area 77

4.2 Adaptation of community 78

4.2.1 Characteristics 78

4.2.2 The role of community in adapting to floods 79

4.3 Adaptation of houses in the studied area 80

4.3.1 Characteristics of houses in the studied area 81

4.3.1.1 Layout of houses in the studied area 81

4.3.1.2 Types of houses in the studied area 85

4.3.2 Current adaptation strategies of houses 96

4.3.2.1 Location and settlement patterns 96

4.3.2.2 The issue of elevation 113

4.3.2.3 The issue of durability – Choice of materials and construction technology 121

4.3.2.4 Flexibility 125

4.3.2.5 Landscape 126

4.3.2.6 Other criteria: land ownership, main source of income, and wealth 131 4.4 Limitations of current adaptation of houses in the studied area in current context 132

Chapter 5 Future Projection of Hydrology Change and Adaptation of Land Use and Houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 134

5.1 Future projection in relation to hydrology change 134

5.1.1 Irregular seasonal floods 135

5.1.1.1 Irregular timing and duration of seasonal floods 135

5.1.1.2 Larger amplitude of flood fluctuation 135

5.1.2 Sea level rise 138

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

5.1.3 More regular and intense typhoons 141

5.1.4 Degradation of soil quality 141

5.1.5 Lack of fresh water and degradation of water quality 143

5.1.6 Reduction of fishery resources 143

5.2 Limitations of adaptation of land use and houses 145

5.2.1 Land use 145

5.2.1.1 The Mekong Delta master plan for 2020 145

5.2.1.2 Drawbacks of flood control infrastructure 147

5.2.2 Houses 147

5.3 Challenges to livelihoods 150

5.4 An approach for land use planning and adaptation of houses 152

5.4.1 An approach for land use planning 152

5.4.1.1 Land use planning and livelihoods 154

5.4.1.2 Land use planning and hydrology 158

5.4.2 Adaptation of houses in the studied area 166

5.4.2.1 Adaptation of the floor level to more intense floods 167

5.4.2.2 Initial observations and suggestions of adaptive measures to improve durability of houses 171

5.4.2.3 Initial suggestions of water harvest and storage, and domestic sewage systems for houses 179

5.4.2.4 Community 181

5.5 Chapter summary 184

Chapter 6 Conclusion 185

6.1 Findings of the thesis 186

6.1.1 Challenges of the studied area in present and future contexts 186

6.1.2 Adaptation at land use scale 188

Current adaptation 188

Limitations of adaptation 188

An approach for land use planning 191

6.1.3 Adaptation at housing scale 192

Current adaptation 192

Limitations of current adaptation 193

An approach for adaptation of houses 194

6.2 Contributions of the thesis 194

6.3 Prospects for future research 196

Bibiliography 198

Appendices 209

Appendix 1 Photos illustrating severe flood in 2011 209

Appendix 2A Hydropower dams on the Mekong River’s mainstream 218

Appendix 2B Statistics of main hydraulic infrastructure in the Mekong Delta 219 Appendix 3 An analysis of the studied houses 220

Appendix 4 House study sample 239

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

The aim of this research is to study the current adaptation of land use and houses, and its limitations in the possible future context relating to hydrology change in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area This thesis examines land use and houses in their connections with critical issues, to provide an overview of and insights into adaptation to environmental change While this study does not aim

to reach specific design solutions, it frames the problem, suggests an integrated

approach, and raises the questions for land use planning and housing design Data

was analyzed by reviewing the literature about land use planning, houses, and hydrology in the studied area, site visits were made to observe the community, and

to interview the people and document the house layouts

The current adaptation strategies of houses are examined in terms of location and settlement patterns, elevation of houses, durability and construction materials, flexibility, and landscape In addition, this research postulates the future context with the current trend of irregular seasonal flooding, sea level rise, more frequent

and intense typhoons, reduction of fishery resources, degradation of soil and water quality, and lack of the fresh water Examining these current adaptation strategies against the projected future context, this study reveals the limitations of the status quo and challenges to the built environment resulting from changes in hydrology and the livelihoods of people

This thesis suggests that land use planning in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area should be examined in relation to hydrological phenomena and their impact on livelihoods Traditional livelihoods may not be sustained in the future, so research on the adaptation of livelihoods to hydrological change can provide input for future land use planning in the studied area Regarding the relationship between land use and hydrology, the approach of land use planning should be one of living with the floods and reserving spaces for floods, rather than one of controlling or preventing the floods Land use planning and flood control planning should be integrated, which requires collaboration of relevant institutions

The study attempts a land use approach which considers flood risk, green and blue network and farmland, and the current fabric of the area These layers of knowledge would help determine locations and scales of spaces reserved for water and development of the built environment In addition, at the scale of the dwelling, this thesis suggests the issues need to be considered, including elevation, durability, the water harvest and storage systems, and the domestic drainage and sewage systems in response to the future threats For the community, it is necessary to create

an awareness of the challenges ahead Community-based adaptation is also a potential approach in the studied area to foster resilience of the community in dealing with change

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

List of Tables

Table 1 Concepts of adaptation and mitigation to hydrology change in the Mekong

Delta 10 

Table 2 Framework to examine the problem 13 

Table 3 Average income of people in the eight economic areas of Vietnam 20 

Table 4 Land use in the Mekong Delta 21 

Table 5 Facts about the studied area 22 

Table 6 Percentage of people with access to water supply and owning latrines 46 

Table 7 Settlement patterns of houses directly connected to roads and canals 101 

Table 8 Sea level rise (cm) relatively to the period of 1980-1999 138 

Table 9 Approximate annual average estimates of Mekong sediment and nutrients deposition 142 

Table 10 Vulnerability of houses in the studied area to typhoon and suggestions of solutions 172 

Figure 1 The Mekong River Basin 2 

Figure 2 The studied area's location in the Mekong Delta flood map in 2000 4 

Figure 3 The studied area’s location in the Mekong Delta flood duration map 4 

Figure 4 Research issues and research gaps 5 

Figure 5 Research Process Diagram 15 

Figure 6 Thesis outline 17 

Figure 7 Floating Market in Can Tho City 19 

Figure 8 Location of the studied area in the administrative map 22 

Figure 9 Long term distribution of daily water levels at Tan Chau 24 

Figure 10 Long term distribution of daily water levels at Chau Doc 24 

Figure 11 Peak levels of flood at Tan Chau, 1980-2006 25 

Figure 12 Flood map in 2000 26 

Figure 13 Flood duration in 2000 27 

Figure 14 The LMB mainstream reservoirs: 55% of the Mekong River (Chiang Saen to Kratie) will be converted into reservoirs 30 

Figure 15 Proposed Mekong mainstream hydropower projects in the LMB and Yunnan Province, China 31 

Figure 16 Map of water resources management in the Mekong Delta in 2004 33 

Figure 17 Typical places where water level is monitored in the studied area 34 

Figure 18 Flood peak level at Tan Chau, 1960 – 2005 35 

Figure 19 Flood peak level at Chau Doc, 1960 – 2005 35 

Figure 20 Peak Flood Level at Tram Chim, Tam Nong District, 1910 - 2006 35 

Figure 21 Peak flood water level at Sa Rai, Tan Hong District, 1910 – 2006 36 

Figure 22 Flood water from year 2000 to 2009 36 

Figure 23 Flood maps in the year 1997, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, and 2005 37 

Figure 24 Flood duration at Hong Ngu gauging station, 1996 - 2007 38 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Figure 25 Peak water level in Tan Chau, 1960 - 2000, showing the trend of

increasing amplitude of water level 39 

Figure 26 Peak water levels at Tan Chau, 1996 – 2000, with the construction of China Dams 40 

Figure 27 Sea level trend at Hon Dau Station 41 

Figure 28 Status of saline intrusion in the Mekong Delta 42 

Figure 29 Soil map in the Mekong Delta 43 

Figure 30 Mean temperature trend in the Mekong Delta 45 

Figure 31 Trend of mean annual temperature change (0C) from 1970 to 2007 45 

Figure 32 Setting of rural areas in Can Tho Province 46 

Figure 33 "Bát dần" typology 51 

Figure 34 "Thảo bạt" typology 52 

Figure 35 "Chữ đinh" typology 53 

Figure 36 "Ba gian" typology 54 

Figure 37 "Xếp đọi" typology 55 

Figure 38 Map of location of residential clusters and dykes in Dong Thap Province 59 

Figure 39 Plan and section of residential cluster at Nhon Hung Commune, Tinh Bien District, An Giang Province 60 

Figure 40 The Mekong Delta master plan for 2020 – model of core cities area and multi-corridors 64 

Figure 41 Map of Spatial Development Orientation in the Mekong Delta to 2020 64  Figure 42 Diagram of relationship among urban, residential, industrial and agricultural areas by the year 2020 66 

Figure 43 Location of the studied area and houses 69 

Figure 44 Location of studied area and houses studied in the flood map for year 2000 70 

Figure 45 Preliminary design of dykes in Tam Nong District 71 

Figure 46 A main road combined with dyke in Tam Nong District 71 

Figure 47 Local road combined with semi-dyke, canal system, and high elevated

area in the studied area 72 

Figure 48 Flood control infrastructure of the studied area in 2004 72 

Figure 49 Infrastructural change in the Mekong Delta: (a) during 1996 – 2000 73 

Figure 50 Infrastructural change in the Mekong Delta: (b) after 2000 73 

Figure 51 Average elevations of dykes in Tam Nong District and simulated max water levels in the historical 97 years under current infrastructure situation 74 

Figure 52 Average elevations of dykes in Tam Nong District and simulated water levels in August in the historical 97 years under current infrastructure situation 74 

Figure 53 Average elevations of dykes in Tan Hong District and simulated max water levels in the historical 97 years under current infrastructure situation 75 

Figure 54 Average elevations of dykes in Tan Hong District and simulated water levels in August in the historical 97 years under current infrastructure situation 75 

Figure 55 Flood control infrastructure in a nice flood in the studied area 75 

Figure 56 The formation of new village: when there was not enough land for farming, people went to fresh land 79 

Figure 57 The villages along the transport way 79 

Figure 58 General layout of houses in the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 82 

Figure 59 Plan of a house in the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area 82 

Figure 60 Exploded axonometric of a traditional house on stilts in the studied area 83 

Figure 61 The living room and worship area 84 

Figure 62 The verandah 84 

Figure 63 The kitchen 84 

Figure 64 The bridge area 84 

Figure 65 The water floor, bathroom and WC 84 

Figure 66 Ancillary area 84 

Figure 67 A pigsty 84 

Figure 68 A store house 84 

Figure 69 Type A houses 85 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Figure 70 Photos of Type A House 86 

Figure 71 The plan of a Type A house in dry season 87 

Figure 72 The plan of a Type A house in flooding season 87 

Figure 73 The section of a Type A house in dry season 88 

Figure 74 The section of a Type A house in a nice flood 88 

Figure 75 Type B houses 89 

Figure 76 Plan of a temporary house on stilts in Phu Tho village, Tam Nong District in dry season 90 

Figure 77 Section of a temporary house on stilts in Phu Tho village, Tam Nong in a nice flood 90 

Figure 78 Type C houses 91 

Figure 79 Type D houses 92 

Figure 80 Type E houses 93 

Figure 81 Section of a floating house in Chau Doc 93 

Figure 82 Plan of a floating house in Chau Doc 94 

Figure 83 Type F houses 95 

Figure 84 Plan of a house in residential dyke in Tam Nong District 95 

Figure 85 Section of a house of in residential dyke in Tam Nong District, year 2000 peak flood level 95 

Figure 86 Locations of houses in the studied area in dry season and flood in 1998, 2000, 2009 99 

Figure 87 Settlement patterns in dry season, nice flood and flood in 2000 99 

Figure 88 Road - House - Farm pattern 102 

Figure 89 Houses of the pattern Road - House – Farm 102 

Figure 90 Houses in the farm 102 

Figure 91 Plan of a house in the farm in dry season 103 

Figure 92 Plan of a house in the farm in flooding season 103 

Figure 93 Section of a house in the farm in dry season 104 

Figure 94 Section of a house in the farm in flooding season 104 

Figure 95 Settlement pattern of floating houses 105 

Figure 96 Floating houses 105 

Figure 97 Land forms in the studied area 106 

Figure 98 Present cropping patterns in the studied area 106 

Figure 99 Schematic diagram of cropping patterns on the natural levee and backswamp, and cropping calendar in Phu Vinh, An Giang 108 

Figure 100 Impacts of land forms and cropping patterns on settlement patterns 108 

Figure 101 A settlement pattern in the natural levee 109 

Figure 102 House gardens with fruit trees and upland crops in the natural levee along Tien River 109 

Figure 103 A settlement pattern (left) and rice fields (right) in the backswamp along Tien River 110 

Figure 104 House gardens with fruit trees and upland crops in the sandbar in Long Khanh island 110 

Figure 105 Schematic Diagram Summer-Autumn rice + Winter-Spring rice pattern and cropping calendar in Tan Phu, Tam Nong, Dong Thap 111 

Figure 106 Settlement patterns in the closed floodplain 111 

Figure 107 Houses in closed flood plain in Tam Nong District, in dry season 112 

Figure 108 Rice field in Tam Nong District, from the end of flooding season till harvest 112 

Figure 109 Peak flood levels recorded on the stilt of a house in Chau Doc District 116 

Figure 110 Different levels of the main area, back area, bathroom and toilet in a house 117 

Figure 111 Different levels in the storage space of a house’s ground floor 117 

Figure 112 Photos of a house in Hung Thanh Village, Thap Muoi District: perspective (left) and the side ground for drying husks (right) 118 

Figure 113 Plan of a house in Hung Thanh Village, Thap Muoi District in dry season 119 

Figure 114 Section of a house in Hung Thanh Village, Thap Muoi District in dry season 119 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Figure 115 Plan of a house in Hung Thanh Village, Thap Muoi District in a nice

flood 120 

Figure 116 Section of a house in Hung Thanh Village, Thap Muoi District in a nice flood 120 

Figure 117 Durability of houses in Tam Nong District 121 

Figure 118 Materials of houses in Tam Nong District 122 

Figure 119 Houses in the studied area 122 

Figure 120 Materials of stilts of houses on stilts in Tam Nong District 123 

Figure 121 Flexibility and utilization of available construction technology and light, natural and available materials in a house in Tan Hong District 125 

Figure 122 Flexibility of houses 126 

Figure 123 Flexibility of space: the verandah is used for livelihood activities (left); the pigsty (right) 126 

Figure 124 A small jetty of a house 127 

Figure 125 A jetty shared by many houses 127 

Figure 126 Photos of a house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District 128 

Figure 127 House in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District – House plan in dry season 129 

Figure 128 A house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District – House section in dry season 129 

Figure 129 A house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District – House plan in flooding season 130 

Figure 130 A house in Phu Tho Village, Tam Nong District – House section in a nice flood 130 

Figure 131 Main income source of households in Tam Nong District 132 

Figure 132 Change in mean monthly simulated water level at Tan Chau 136 

Figure 133 One meter sea level rise inundation 139 

Figure 134 People displaced by one meter sea level rise 140 

Figure 135 The impact of a 1 metre rise in mean sea level on flood depth in the Mekong Delta 140 

Figure 136 Potential incremental impact of LMB mainstream dams on fish

Figure 143 Inter-relationships of critical elements in the studied area 152 

Figure 144 Current landscape in Au Island, Can Tho, Mekong Delta 153 

Figure 145 Proposal of prototype eco-village in Au Island, Can Tho, Mekong Delta 153 

Figure 146 Layers of floating gardens in Bangladesh 155 

Figure 147 Floating vegetable bed cultivation 155 

Figure 148 Demonstration with experimental plot of the new rice-Melaleuca

farming system 157 

Figure 149 LifE's approach 160 

Figure 150 Spatial requirement for water for site at River Wandle at Hackbridge, South London, UK; LifE's approach applied 160 

Figure 151 Land use planning, LifE approach applied 160 

Figure 152 Space for water in different extent of flood 160 

Figure 153 The different layers of knowledge needed to move towards an

"absorbent city" 163 

Figure 154 Flood-resistant house with attic floor and floating object 168 

Figure 155 Flood-resistant house with adjustable floor 168 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Figure 156 Flood-resistant homes in Dordrecht, the Netherlands, designed by

BACA Architects 169 

Figure 157 Flood-resistant homes in Dordrecht, the Netherlands, designed by BACA Architects; Sections showing normal conditions (A) and one-in-1,000-year flooding (B) 169 

Figure 158 Art Zaaijer’s floating homes for the IJburg development in Amsterdam 170 

Figure 159 Flood homes by Factor Architecten, Maas River, stay on earth when water recedes and float when water rises 170 

Figure 160 An amphibious house with two layers of cladding resistant to flood and typhoons 170 

Figure 161 Typical components of a whole-house rainwater harvesting system 180 

Figure 162 Water harvest in the studied area 180 

Figure 163 Fitering system for rural fish-pond toilets in the Mekong Delta 181 

Figure 164 Rain water storage system 181 

Figure 165 Domestic sewage system 181 

Figure 166 Challenges of the studied area in present and future contexts 187 

Figure 167 Current adaptation at the land use scale and its limitation in present and future contexts 190 

Figure 168 Houses in Tan Hong District are inundated by flood in 2011 209 

Figure 169 Households in Binh Thanh Village, Hong Ngu District moved to temporary shelters on the roads 210 

Figure 170 A house in the flooded field 210 

Figure 171 Brick houses in Tan Hoi Village surrounded by flood in 2011 211 

Figure 172 Floating houses on Tien River in Dong Thap Province 211 

Figure 173 A school in Binh Thanh Village has to be closed due to flooding 212 

Figure 174 Rural roads elevated roughly 4 meters were inundated, causing difficulties for transportation 212 

Figure 175 People is banking inundated roads in An Binh B Village to prevent the flood 213 

Figure 176 Children in An Giang Province go to school by boats 214 

Figure 177 People in Bung Ram Hamlet, Hung Dien B Village, Tan Hung District,

Long An Province are harvesting the rice in flood 215 

Figure 178 Flood in the Plain of Reeds 215 

Figure 179 Flood water may make dykes in the Mekong Delta breached 216 

Figure 180 People and local authority are protecting the dykes 216 

Figure 181 Dykes are damaged Soldiers and young people stay awake all night to strengthen the dykes to protect the rice fields 217 

Figure 182 Strengthening dykes to protect rice fields in Tu Thuong Canal, Hong Ngu Town 217 

Figure 183 Location of the house 239 

Figure 184 Location of the house in year 2000 flood map (2.5 – 3.0 meter of inundation in year 2000 flood) 240 

Figure 185 Some views of the house 243 

Figure 186 The house with flood levels in 1998, 2000, 2009 and exceptionally high and low flood in the future scenario 243 

Figure 187 The house plan in dry season 244 

Figure 188 The house section in dry season 244 

Figure 189 The house plan in flooding season 245 

Figure 190 The house section in a nice flood 245 

Figure 191 The house section in flood in 2000 246 

Figure 192 The house section in flood in 1998 246 

Figure 193 The house section in exceptionally high flood in the future scenario 247  Figure 194 The house section in exceptionally low flood in the future scenario 247 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

List of Abbreviations

CDPC Company of Design, Planning and Construction

DTPDC Dong Thap Province’s Department of Construction

DRAGON Delta Research and Global Observation

GSO General Statistics Office

ICEM International Centre for Environmental Management

LMB Lower Mekong Basin

MoC Ministry of Construction

MoNRE Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

MRC Mekong River Commision

NAGECCO Vietnam National General Construction Consulting Joint Stock

Company NCHMF National Centre for Hydro-meteorological Forecasting

SIHYMETE Sub-Institute of Hydrometeorology and Environment of South

Vietnam SIUP-South Southern Vietnam Sub-Institute for Urban and Rural Planning SIWRP Southern Institute for Water Resources Planning

SIWRR Southern Institute of Water Resources Research

VAA Vietnam Association of Architects

Based on an understanding of the complexity of the problem, the thesis suggests an integrated approach for land use planning, in which land use is considered in its relation to hydrology and the livelihoods of inhabitants It also raises initial discussions of adaptation to of houses in the future context For the community, it is necessary to raise people’s awareness of changes and to consider the potential of the community-based adaptation approach

1.2 Research background

1.2.1 The upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

After a long journey of approximately 4,350 kilometers from the Tibetan Plateau through Myanmar, Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, the Mekong River flows via the Mekong Delta before emptying into the East Sea (Figure 1) The major part (about 80 percent) of the Mekong Delta is in the southernmost part of Vietnam

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Flooding has been the most critical issue in the Mekong Delta The upper part of Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area, which is most deeply inundated, is the studied site of this research (Figure 2) Current problems include flooding, salinity intrusion, soil acidification, seasonal tropical storms, climate change, fisheries depletion, and pollution The studied area experiences annual flooding from July to December (Figure 3) While floods cause the loss of lives, diseases, and damage to infrastructure, houses and economic production, it enables fertile sediments, fresh water, fishery resources, remediation of acid soils, and field cleaning as part of the agrarian cycle Therefore, the Mekong people have devised adaptive measures to alleviate damages while reaping the benefits of annual inundation

In recent years, flooding in the studied area has become more unpredictable

in terms of timing, duration, and intensity This trend of experiencing more of the detrimental effects of flooding is probably caused by dam construction upstream the Mekong River in China and by climate change Adapting to these changes would be

a challenge for people in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

of the settlement to meet the challenges of the future in terms of change in climate and hydrology (Figure 4)

There have been many studies on hydrology in the current context focus on floods, which examined flooding, water resources management and their environmental impact To (1998, 2002), SIWRP (1998b), Nguyen (2007a), and Le and Wyseure et al (2007) studied about general knowledge on floods such as characteristics, causes, and problems relating to water resources To (1998) and SIWRP (1998b) also studied the top-down planning approach and water resources management, while Le, Shigeko, Nguyen and Tran (2008), and Nguyen and Delgado et al (2012) researched into the impacts of human flood prevention

Adaptation of Land Use and Houses in the Future Context

The Future Context associated with Hydrology Change

Future

Present

Hydrology in the Present Context

Current Adaptation

of Land Use and Houses

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

infrastructure on flooding regime through numerical modelling and a geographic information system (GIS), statistical analysis, and satellite data The problems of salinity intrusion, acidification and water pollution were studied by Le, Chu, Miller, and Bach (2007), Le and Wyseure et al (2007), and Nuber, Thomas, and Stolpe (2004) (Refer to Chapter 2 for information about flooding and other current environment challenges in the studied area and Section 4.1 for the impacts of infrastructures)

Existing research on houses which were mainly conducted by Vietnamese students (Nguyen 1995; Dao 1996; Nguyen 1999; Vu 2004; and Ngo 2004) and Vietnam Association of Architects (VAA) (2002) focused on the traditional and rural houses in the Mekong Delta, in terms of housing typologies and characteristics Nguyen (1995) studied the orientation to organise spaces of the houses and settlement planning, and Ngo (2004) focused on the flexibility of houses in the Mekong Delta Dao (1996) provided general characteristics of houses in the flooding area in the Mekong Delta VAA (2002) mentioned several solutions for rural settlement and houses in the Mekong Delta’s flooding area, without detailed description and analysis There have not been insightful and thorough studies about adaptation of houses built by the people in the Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area The houses have not been considered in relation to the water resources management plan and change of hydrology and climate On the other hand, there have been in-depth studies on the resettlement project of the government, as well as advantages and disadvantages of resettlement in residential dykes and clusters (Fforde et al 2003; Pham 2007; Vo 2007; and Phan 2004) (Refer to Section 3.1 for more details

of existing literature on adaptation of houses)

At the land use scale, SIUP-South2 (2008) and SIWRP3 (1998) developed the master plan and flood control planning for the Mekong Delta SIWRP (1998) presented the principle, approach, long term orientation and flood management plan for different areas in the Mekong Delta This report also evaluated the social-economic effectiveness and environmental impacts of short-term flooding control methods, and the schedule of construction of flood control infrastructures to 2010 However, change of hydrology has not been considered in these plans (Refer to Section 3.2 for more details of existing literature on land use planning)

Research into climate and hydrology change has gained importance due to the threats of severe environmental change MoNRE4 (2003) studied the general tendency of climate change in Vietnam, while MoNRE and SIHYMETTE5 (2010), Nguyen (2007a, 2007b), and Marchand, Dam, and Bucx (2011) focused on the trends of change in the Mekong Delta Roberts (2001) studied the possible impacts

of China’s hydropower and Mekong navigation project on downstream countries It suggested the ecological implications that may significantly affect these countries, especially Vietnam Blackmore, Perry and Stein (2004) evaluated development scenarios in the Lower Mekong Basin in terms of hydropower and irrigation development, and inter-basin diversions to around 2015 Meanwhile, Le and Nguyen

et al (2007) studied the combined impacts of local man-made tructures, sea level rise and dams upstream the Mekong River on floods in the Mekong Delta In addition, ICEM (2010) was comissioned the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) to identify potential opportunities, risks, and contribution of the twelve proposed dams on the mainstream of Mekong River in the Lower Mekong River

2 Southern Vietnam Sub-Institute for Urban and Rural Planning

3 Southern Institute for Water Resources Planning

4 Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment

5 Sub-Institute of Hydrometeorology and Environment of South Vietnam

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Basin to regional development Le (2010) presented the key concerns on future climate threats, especially to the rice and fish production sector of the Mekong River Basin in general and the Lower Mekong River Basin in particular There have not been specific details of future predictions of flooding such as flood level, extent and duration, and the problems concerning water resources such as salinity, acidification, etc However, these studies have presented the general trends and potential impacts of hydrology change as a result of climate change and development along the Mekong River and in the Mekong Delta It is necessary to frame the problems from these studies to provide a background for examining adaptation of land use and houses in the future (Refer to Section 5.1 for future projection relating hydrology change)

In summary, despite the critical role of land use and houses in the Mekong Delta in dealing with floods, they have not been thoroughly studied in relation to flooding, water resources management and change of hydrology and climate To deal with environmental threats in the future, there is a need to examine adaptation

of land use and houses in the studied area in the present and future contexts

1.3 Research questions and objectives

Based on the above specifications, the research question is: “How do land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area adapt to flooding in the present context, and how will they adapt in the future context?” This question consists of specific questions as follows

 What are current adaptation strategies of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area?

 Is the hydrology in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area changing? How is it changing? What is the future context?

 What are the limitations of current adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area in the current and future contexts?

 What should be the approach for land use planning and adaptation of houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area?

This research aims to provide a thorough understanding of problems the studied area encounters and their complexity It examines the current adaptation of land use and houses and change of hydrology in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area Then it considers whether current adaptation can deal with future challenges associated with hydrology change It also suggests an approach for land use planning and adaptation of houses, and prospects for future research

1.4 Research Method

This section begins with clarifying the concept of “adaptation” to hydrology change in the studied area and its importance Then it presents the process of conducting this research, from selecting the site and houses to collecting and analyzing the data

1.4.1 The importance of “adaptation”

The concept of “adaptation” in this study has its roots from research on climate change “Adaptation” is used in this study because it is an important

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

measure to deal with change and there are similarities of change of hydrology in the Mekong Delta and climate change

Adaptation – Mitigation

Two measures to cope with climate change are mitigation and adaptation Mitigation is the measure “to slow the speed of climate change by reducing the amount of greenhouse gas emissions” while adaptation is the measure “to reduce or avoid negative impacts by reducing vulnerability to climate change.” (UNU-ISP 2009)

In the case of this study, adaptation can be understood as the measure to minimize negative impact by reducing vulnerability to change of hydrology in the Mekong Delta (Table 1) The change includes several aspects of climate change such as sea level rise, increase in temperature and change of precipitation and typhoons

Table 1. Concepts of adaptation and mitigation to hydrology change in the Mekong Delta 

Adaptation (of land use and

houses) to floods in the

Mekong Delta

The measures (of land use and houses) to reduce or avoid negative impacts by reducing vulnerability to floods in the

Mekong Delta

Adaptation (of land use and

houses) to hydrology change

in the Mekong Delta

The measures (of land use and houses) to reduce or avoid negative impacts by reducing vulnerability to change of hydrology in the Mekong Delta

 mitigation of climate change

 water resources management in the Mekong Delta

 waste management in the Mekong Delta

Source: Author (based on concepts concerning climate change) 

It is controversial whether adaptation is effective or “a kind of laziness, an arrogant faith in our ability to react in time” (Ayers and Forsyth 2010) and just brings about short term and local benefits However, with the increasing extent and impact of climate change, the importance of adaptation has been recognized and discussed internationally

Reasons to study “adaptation of land use and houses”

Although adaptation cannot address the root cause of the problem or eradicate it completely, it helps sustain people’s life and wellness in coping with change, especially for the most vulnerable groups Mitigation of climate change is usually a long process Till recently, it was uncertain as to what extent mitigation could be effective, and while waiting for mitigation to improve the situation effectively (if it can), change is still happening and influencing people, especially the poor whose livelihoods depend significantly on natural resources and climate Therefore, adaptation is important and must be studied and implemented in parallel with the mitigation process

The relationship of adaptation, vulnerability, and risk, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), is presented below

Vulnerability = Risk (predicted adverse climate impacts) – Adaptation

This framework represents the role of adaptation in determining people’s vulnerability The more effective adaptation is, the less vulnerable people are

Adaptation of land use and houses in the Mekong Delta can be understood as adjustments at the scale of land use and houses to reduce or avoid negative impacts

by reducing vulnerability to floods and change of hydrology in the future These

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

scales are studied because the houses are closely related to the people and both scales have strong and direct impacts on people’s life and well-being, especially in dealing with floods

The following presents in detail the research process from selecting the site

to collecting and analyzing the data

Selection of the site and houses

The selected site is part of the most heavily flooded area in the Mekong Delta, with a flood depth of over 3 meters in 2000, and flood duration over 3 months annually (Refer to Section 1.2.1 and 2.2 for detailed information) Most of the

population live in rural areas and rely on agricultural production, in which rice cultivation is the most important

In the studied area, 34 houses were examined based on diversity of location, housing typology, and livelihood practices In addition, 13 houses in the surrounding area were studied, including floating and Champa houses, to better understand other housing typologies in the larger area The objective was to study a wide range of housing adaptation in the studied area to identify how differently houses adapt to floods due to differences in location, typology and livelihood activities, in current and future contexts

Data collection and analysis

Data about the problem consists of two main groups The first is about the built environment including land use and houses, and the second is about hydrology and its future projections in the studied area The information is sourced from archival data and from documentation of site observation (Table 2)

Table 2. Framework to examine the problem 

Land Use Planning - Houses Hydrology - Future Projections

 Characteristics of land use and

houses in the Mekong Delta

 Current adaptation of land use and

houses to floods in the studied area

 Onsite information relating to

houses, including impact of floods,

settlement patterns, housing

characteristics and typology, and

adaptation strategies

 Adaptation of land use and houses

to floods in other countries

 Nature and characteristics of floods

in the Mekong Delta

 Challenges relating to hydrology of the Mekong Delta

 Future projections relating to hydrology, to postulate the future context

 Onsite information about trends and change of hydrology

Source: Author 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

In site visits to the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area, the author observed the community, interviewed people about housing and flooding issues, and documented houses In a site visit to a house, the following data is collected and analyzed (See Appendix 3 for house study sample):

 Information about the house’s location, pattern of settlement, typology, durability, owner’s occupation, current adaptation strategies, and limitations of adaptation

 Sections of the house illustrated with flood levels in history

 Plans and sections of the house in dry and flooding seasons to illustrate its activities in these seasons This presents how houses adapt to floods

 Sections of the house in low flood (1998), high flood (2000), and exceptionally low and high flood, to study limitations of adaptation to flood level in current and future contexts

Research methods and processes are illustrated in Figure 5 Data about two main groups of (1) land use and houses, and (2) hydrology and future projections are collected and analyzed by reviewing the literature and visiting the sites Current adaptation and its limitations in present and future contexts are examined This is the basis for recommending an approach to land use planning and adaptation of houses

        Source: Author 

Research Objectives

Selection of Site

Reading and Analyzing

Doing Survey and Documenting

Land Use and Houses

Hydrology and Future Projections

Postulating Current Adaptation of Houses

Postulating Future Context

Limitations of

Adaptation of Houses

in the Current Context

Limitations of Adaptation of Houses

in the Future Context

Approach of Land Use Planning and Adaptation

of Houses

Negative Impacts

on Livelihoods in the Future Context

Figure 5. Research Process Diagram

Source: Author 

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

1.5 Thesis outline

This thesis is organized into six chapters (Figure 6) Chapter 1 introduces the research context, defines the research problems, and raises the research question and objectives It also states the research method, defines relevant concepts to support understanding about adaptation, and presents the thesis structure Chapter 2 presents

in detail current environmental challenges and analyzes the trend of changes in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area Then, Chapter 3 reviews the literature concerning adaptation of houses and land use in the studied area

Chapter 4 examines current adaptation strategies of land use and houses to floods in the studied area by reviewing the literature about land use and houses in the Mekong Delta and analyzing data from site visits, sketches and interviews of 47 households Adaptation is analyzed at the scales of the settlement and the individual dwellings, and limitations of current adaptation strategies in the current context are discussed

Chapter 5 first discusses the future context relating to hydrology change in the studied area by reviewing and analyzing existing research by the governmental sectors (MoNRE, SYHYMETTE), international organizations (World Bank, MRC, ICEM), and hydrological and environmental professionals Then, it examines limitations of current adaptation of land use and houses in the future context In addition, negative impacts and potential changes to livelihoods in the future are examined Based on analysis of limitations of current adaptation, the study suggests

an approach to land use planning and adaptation of individual dwellings Chapter 6 reviews and summarizes findings of the thesis and suggests prospects for future research

Problem Statement

in the future context – Suggestions of approach for land

use planning and adaptation of houses

Conclusion

Chapter 6

Existing Literature and Research Method

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

Chapter 2 Current Environmental Challenges

This chapter first examines the general background of the Mekong Delta and the studied area, including its natural conditions and socio-economic development Then it studies the threats in the Mekong Delta, which are also critical challenges of the studied area The challenges include seasonal floods, sea level rise, salinity intrusion, soil acidification, seasonal tropical storms, climate change, pollution and reduction of fishery resources, in which flooding is the most critical factor

2.1 The Mekong Delta

The Mekong Delta is a low-level area in the Mekong River Basin before the Mekong River empties into the East Sea The Mekong Delta in Vietnam consists of Can Tho city and 12 provinces, with a system of 132 urban areas and thousands of rural residential areas It is crisscrossed by a complex network of canals and rivers, where people’s lives, livelihoods and settlements have close connections with water Figure 7 illustrates houses along the river, water transport, and commercial activities

at Cai Rang floating market in Can Tho City, which is at the intersection of water ways

in 2009, constituting about 50 percent of the rice production and 90 percent of the rice export of Vietnam (General Statistics Office 2011) In 2011, the area produced

23 million tons of rice, in which 6.1 million tons were exported (VBN 2011) The Mekong Delta contributes substantially to the country’s food security and makes Vietnam the second largest rice exporting country in the world It also contributes about 70 percent of the country’s fruit production In addition, the long coastline and rivers such as Tien and Hau are advantageous for aquaculture development In 2009,

6 http://www.vietnamtour4you.com/images/tours/Cai%20Rang%20floating%20market-cantho.jpg, accessed April 16, 2012

Adaptation of land use and houses in the upper Mekong Delta’s deep flooding area

the aquatic production reached 2.8 million tons, sharing roughly 60 percent of the nation’s aquatic production and export (General Statistics Office 2011)

Despite the great contribution in agricultural production, the average income

of people in the Mekong Delta has been lower than the national average since 2004 (Table 3) The lack of financial resource is a constraint to enhancing the quality of the built environment and adapting houses to flooding condition