Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industrie

Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries... Novel enzyme technology for food applicationsISBN 978-1-84569-132-5 The food indu

Trang 1

Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and

nutraceutical industries

Trang 2

Novel enzyme technology for food applications

(ISBN 978-1-84569-132-5)

The food industry is constantly seeking advanced technologies to produce added, nutritionally-balanced products for consumers in a sustainable fashion Since enzymes are so specific in their action, they are a useful biotechnological processing tool and by controlling the action of enzymes, innovative food ingredients and higher

value-quality food products can be produced Part one of Novel enzyme technology for food

applications covers the principles of industrial enzyme technology, including methods

to develop and tailor enzymes for food bioprocessing Part two introduces the reader

to novel applications of enzymes for the production of improved ingredients and food products.

Food processing technology (Third edition)

(ISBN 978-1-84569-216-2)

The first edition of Food processing technology was quickly adopted as the standard

text by many food science and technology courses The publication of a completely revised and updated third edition consolidates the position of this textbook as the best single-volume introduction to food manufacturing technologies available The third edition has been updated and extended to include the many developments that have taken place since the second edition was published In particular, advances in microprocessor control of equipment, ‘minimal’ processing technologies, functional foods, developments in ‘active’ or ‘intelligent’ packaging, and storage and distribution logistics are described Technologies that relate to cost savings, environmental improvement or enhanced product quality are highlighted Additionally, sections in each chapter on the impact of processing on food-borne micro-organisms are included for the first time.

Details of these and other Woodhead Publishing books can be obtained by:

∑ visiting our web site at www.woodheadpublishing.com

∑ contacting Customer Services (e-mail: sales@woodheadpublishing.com; fax: +44 (0) 1223 893694; tel.: +44 (0) 1223 891358 ext 130; address: Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park, Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK)

If you would like to receive information on forthcoming titles, please send your address details to: Francis Dodds (address, tel and fax as above; e-mail: francis dodds@woodheadpublishing.com) Please confirm which subject areas you are interested in.

ii

Trang 3

Separation, extraction and concentration processes

in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries

Edited by Syed S H Rizvi

Oxford Cambridge Philadelphia New Delhi

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition:

Number 202

Trang 4

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park,

Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, UK

www.woodheadpublishing.com

Woodhead Publishing, 525 South 4th Street #241, Philadelphia, PA 19147, USA Woodhead Publishing India Private Limited, G-2, Vardaan House, 7/28 Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi – 110002, India

www.woodheadpublishingindia.com

First published 2010, Woodhead Publishing Limited

The authors have asserted their moral rights.

This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources Reprinted material is quoted with permission, and sources are indicated Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the authors and the publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials Neither the authors nor the publisher, nor anyone else associated with this publication, shall be liable for any loss, damage or liability directly or indirectly caused or alleged to be caused by this book.

Neither this book nor any part may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or

by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, microfilming and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited.

The consent of Woodhead Publishing Limited does not extend to copying for general distribution, for promotion, for creating new works, or for resale Specific permission must be obtained in writing from Woodhead Publishing Limited for such copying.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation, without intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

ISBN 978-1-84569-645-0 (print)

ISBN 978-0-85709-075-1 (online)

ISSN 2042-8049 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (print) ISSN 2042-8057 Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition (online) The publisher’s policy is to use permanent paper from mills that operate a

sustainable forestry policy, and which has been manufactured from pulp

which is processed using acid-free and elemental chlorine-free practices

Furthermore, the publisher ensures that the text paper and cover board used

have met acceptable environmental accreditation standards.

Typeset by Replika Press Pvt Ltd, India

Printed by TJI Digital, Padstow, Cornwall, UK

iv

Trang 5

Contents

Contributor contact details xiii

Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition xvii

Preface xxvii

Part I Developments in food and nutraceutical separation, extraction and concentration techniques 1 Principles of supercritical fluid extraction and applications in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries 3

Ž Knez, M Škerget and M Knez Hrnčič, University of Maribor, Slovenia 1.1 Introduction 3

1.2 Thermodynamic fundamentals 8

1.3 Cycle processes for extraction using supercritical fluids 21 1.4 Extraction of solids using SCF 26

1.5 Extraction of liquids using SCF 30

1.6 Conclusion 32

1.7 References 36

2 Principles of pressurized fluid extraction and environmental, food and agricultural applications 39

C Turner and M Waldebäck, Uppsala University, Sweden 2.1 Introduction 39

2.2 Instrumentation and principles of pressurized fluid extraction 41

2.3 Applications of pressurized fluid extraction 56

2.4 Future trends 59

2.5 Sources of further information and advice 61

2.6 Conclusions 63

2.7 References 64

Trang 6

vi Contents

3 Principles of physically assisted extractions and

applications in the food, beverage and nutraceutical

industries 71

E Vorobiev, Compiègne University of Technology, France and F Chemat, University of Avignon and Pays de Vaucluse, France 3.1 Introduction 71

3.2 Pulsed electric field-assisted extractions in the food industry 72

3.3 Ohmic heating-assisted extractions in the food industry 83

3.4 Extraction assisted by high-voltage electrical discharges and applications in the food industry 86

3.5 Ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) in the food industry 90

3.6 Microwave-assisted extraction (MAE) in the food industry 96

3.7 Combination of physical treatments for extraction in the food industry 100

3.8 References 102

4 Advances in process chromatography and applications in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries 109

M Ottens and S Chilamkurthi, Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands 4.1 Introduction 109

4.2 Basic principles of process chromatography 113

4.3 Applications of process chromatography in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries 118

4.4 Recent developments in process chromatography 128

4.5 Process control in chromatography 135

4.7 Conclusions 137

4.9 List of abbreviations 137

4.10 References 138

5 Novel adsorbents and approaches for nutraceutical separation 148

B W Woonton, CSIRO Food and Nutritional Sciences, Australia and G W Smithers, Food Industry Consultant, Australia 5.1 Introduction 148

5.2 Molecular imprinted polymers and applications in the nutraceutical industry 149

5.3 Organic monoliths and applications in the nutraceutical industry 153

Trang 7

5.4 Stimuli-responsive resins and applications in the

nutraceutical industry 159

5.5 Mesoporous molecular sieves and applications in the nutraceutical industry 163

5.6 Peptide affinity ligands and phage display methodology and applications in the nutraceutical industry 166

5.7 Membrane adsorbers, membrane chromatography and applications in the nutraceutical industry 169

5.8 Conclusions and sources of further information and advice 172

5.9 References 173

6 Advances in the effective application of membrane technologies in the food industry 180

M Pinelo, G Jonsson and A S Meyer, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark 6.1 Introduction 180

6.2 Theoretical fundamentals of membrane separation 181

6.3 Membrane technology in the dairy industry 182

6.4 Membrane technology in the fruit juice industry 185

6.5 Membrane technology for treatment of wastewater in the food industry 190

6.6 New applications of membrane technology for the food industry: concentration and fractionation of saccharides 191

6.8 References 197

7 Electrodialytic phenomena, associated electromembrane technologies and applications in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries 202

L Bazinet, A Doyen and C Roblet, Laval University, Canada 7.1 Introduction 202

7.2 Principles of electrodialytic phenomena and associated membrane technologies 203

7.3 Applications of electrodialytic phenomena and associated membrane technologies 204

7.5 References 214

8 Principles of pervaporation for the recovery of aroma compounds and applications in the food and beverage industries 219

S Sahin, Middle East Technical University, Turkey 8.1 Introduction 219

8.2 Principles of pervaporation 220

8.3 Transport mechanism in pervaporation for the recovery of aroma compounds 221

Trang 8

viii Contents

8.4 Selection of membranes for pervaporation in the

recovery of aroma compounds 227

8.5 Recovery of aroma compounds by pervaporation and applications in the food and beverage industries 230

8.6 Sources of further information and future trends 239

8.7 References 240

9 Advances in membrane-based concentration in the food and beverage industries: direct osmosis and membrane contactors 244

E Drioli and A Cassano, Institute on Membrane Technology, ITM-CNR, Italy 9.1 Introduction 244

9.2 Conventional technologies in the food and beverage industries 245

9.3 Direct osmosis and applications in the food and beverage industries 248

9.4 Membrane contactors and applications in the food and beverage industries 250

9.5 Conclusions 275

9.6 Nomenclature 275

9.7 References 278

10 Separation of value-added bioproducts by colloidal gas aphrons (CGA) flotation and applications in the recovery of value-added food products 284

P Jauregi and M Dermiki, The University of Reading, UK 10.1 Introduction 284

10.2 Colloidal gas aphrons (CGA) properties 285

10.3 Applications of CGA in the recovery of value-added food products 293

10.4 Feasibility of industrial application of CGA 307

10.7 References 310

11 Membrane bioreactors and the production of food ingredients 314

M.-P Belleville, D Paolucci-Jeanjean and G M Rios, European Institute of Membranes, France 11.1 Introduction 314

11.2 Membrane bioreactors for the production of food ingredients 315

11.3 Applications of membrane bioreactors in food industries 322 11.4 Future trends 331

11.5 References 331

Trang 9

Part II Separation technologies in the processing of particular

foods and nutraceuticals

12 Separation technologies in dairy and egg processing 341

G Gésan-Guiziou, INRA, France 12.1 Introduction 341

12.2 The dairy industry and composition of dairy products 343

12.3 Pretreatment of milk using separation techniques 347

12.4 Standardization and concentration of milk proteins in the dairy industry 351

12.5 Isolation of whole casein in the dairy industry 354

12.6 Separation techniques applied to whey and derivatives in the production of cheese 357

12.7 Fractionation of individual proteins and peptides in the dairy industry 360

12.8 Treatment of effluents and technical fluids in the dairy industry 366

12.9 Conclusions and future trends in the dairy industry 368

12.10 The egg products industry and composition of egg products 369

12.11 Concentration and stabilization of egg white and whole egg 371

12.12 Industrial extraction of egg-white proteins 371

12.13 Industrial extraction of yolk components 374

12.14 Conclusions and future trends in the egg-processing industry 375

12.16 References 377

13 Separation technologies in the processing of fruit juices 381

G Vatai, Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary 13.1 Introduction 381

13.2 Characteristics of foods/fluids in the fruit juice product sector 382

13.3 Designing separation processes to optimize product quality in the fruit juice product sector 383

13.4 Production of fruit juice concentrate 386

13.5 References 394

14 Separation technologies in oilseed processing 396

M A Williams, Anderson International Corp., USA 14.1 Introduction 396

14.2 Preparation for oilseed processing 397

14.3 Extrusion preparation for oilseed processing 399

14.4 Mechanical pressing of oilseeds 403

14.5 Percolation solvent extraction in oilseed processing 415

14.6 Solvent recovery in oilseed processing 422

Trang 10

x Contents

14.7 Obtaining oil from fruit pulps 424

15 Separation technologies in brewing 430

G J Freeman, Campden BRI, UK 15.1 Introduction 430

15.2 Characteristics of brewery products 431

15.3 Selection of technology and raw materials appropriate to brewery products 432

15.4 Wort production in the brewhouse 433

15.5 Whirlpools and applications in brewing 434

15.6 Yeast flocculation and applications in brewing 435

15.7 Beer fining agents 436

15.8 Filter aid filtration and applications in brewing 437

15.9 Regenerable and reusable filter aids and applications in brewing 441

15.10 Bulk beer filtration by membranes 443

15.11 Recovery of cleaning detergents in brewing 446

15.12 Dissolved gas control by membrane technology 446

16 Methods for purification of dairy nutraceuticals 450

C J Fee, J M Billakanti and S M Saufi, University of Canterbury, New Zealand 16.1 Introduction 450

16.2 Components of acidic whey protein 451

16.3 Purification technologies for acidic whey proteins 454

16.4 Basic proteins in the dairy nutraceutical industry 462

16.5 Purification technologies for basic whey proteins in the dairy nutraceutical industry 463

16.6 Immunoglobulins in the dairy nutraceutical industry 470

16.7 Purification technologies for immunoglobulins in the dairy nutraceutical industry 471

16.9 References 474

17 Methods of concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 483

S P J Namal Senanayake, Danisco USA, Inc., USA 17.1 Introduction 483

17.2 Urea adduction in the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 484

17.3 Chromatographic methods for the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 486

Trang 11

17.4 Low-temperature fractional crystallization for the

concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 488

17.5 Supercritical-fluid extraction for the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 490

17.6 Distillation methods for the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 492

17.7 Enzymatic methods for the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 495

17.8 Integrated methods for the concentration and purification of omega-3 fatty acids 498

17.9 Conclusions 501

18 Extraction of natural antioxidants from plant foods 506

E Conde, A Moure, H Domínguez and J C Parajó, University of Vigo, Spain 18.1 Introduction 506

18.2 Antioxidant activity in food systems 507

18.3 Natural compounds with antioxidant activity and major sources 511

18.4 Biological activities of natural antioxidants 521

18.5 Extraction of natural antioxidants from plant foods and residues 526

18.6 Integration of extraction processes and purification 556

18.9 Acknowledgements 568

19 Fractionation of egg proteins and peptides for nutraceutical applications 595

B P Chay Pak Ting, Y Pouliot and S F Gauthier, Laval University, Canada and Y Mine, University of Guelph, Canada 19.1 Introduction 595

19.2 Composition and physicochemical characteristics of egg proteins and applications in the nutraceutical industry 597

19.3 Biological activities of egg proteins and peptides and applications in the nutraceutical industry 601

19.4 Available technologies for the fractionation of egg proteins and peptides, and applications in the nutraceutical industry 605

19.5 Conclusion and perspectives 612

19.6 References 613

Trang 12

xii Contents

20 Supercritical-fluid extraction of lycopene from tomatoes 619

J Shi and S Jun Xue, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Canada, Y Jiang, The Chinese Academy of Sciences, China and X Ye, Zhejiang University, China 20.1 Introduction 619

20.2 Supercritical-fluid extraction (SFE) of lycopene 622

20.3 Factors affecting lycopene yield 623

20.4 Effects of pressure and temperature on the antioxidant activity of lycopene 628

20.5 Effect of co-solvent and modifiers in lycopene extraction 631

20.6 Solubility of lycopene in supercritical fluids 634

20.7 Conclusion and future trends 639

20.8 References 640

Index 647

Trang 13

Contributor contact details

Prof Dr Ž Knez*, Prof Dr M

Škerget and M Knez Hrnčič

Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical

751 24 UppsalaSweden

E-mail: charlotta.turner@kemi.uu.se

and

C TurnerDepartment of ChemistryLund University

P.O Box 124

221 00 LundSwedenE-mail: charlotta.turner@organic.lu.se

Trang 14

xiv Contributor contact details

UMR 408, Sécurité et Qualité des

Produits d’Origine Végétale

Université d’Avignon et des Pays

Victoria 3190AustraliaE-mail: geoff.smithers@gmail.com

Chapter 6

M Pinelo and A S Meyer*Department of Chemical and Biochemical EngineeringCenter for BioProcess Engineering Building 229

Technical University of DenmarkDK-2800 Kgs Lyngby

DenmarkE-mail: am@kt.dtu.dk

G JonssonCAPECCenter for BioProcess Engineering Building 229

Technical University of DenmarkDK-2800 Kgs Lyngby

2425 rue de l’agriculture, Pavillon Paul-Comtois

Laval UniversityQuébec, QC, Canada G1V 0A6E-mail: laurent.bazinet@fsaa.ulaval.ca

Trang 15

Chapter 8

S Sahin

Department of Food Engineering

Middle East Technical University

06531, Ankara

Turkey

E-mail: serp@metu.edu.tr

Chapter 9

Enrico Drioli* and Alfredo Cassano

Institute on Membrane Technology,

The University of Reading

Whiteknights, P.O Box 226

du Lait et de l’œufINRA – Agrocampus Ouest

65 rue de Saint Brieuc

35042 Rennes cedexFrance

E-mail: genevieve.gesan-guiziou@ rennes.inra.fr

Chapter 13

Prof G Vatai Corvinus University of BudapestFaculty of Food Science

Department of Food Engineering

1114 BudapestMenesi út 44HungaryE-mail: gyula.vatai@uni-corvinus.hu

Chapter 14

M A Williams Anderson International Corp

6200 Harvard AvenueCleveland, OH 44105USA

E-mail: moe.williams@andersonintl.com

Chapter 15

G J Freeman Campden BRICentenary HallCoopers Hill RoadNutfield

RedhillSurrey RH1 4HYUK

E-mail: g.freeman@brewingresearch.co.uk

Trang 16

xvi Contributor contact details

Chapter 16

C J Fee*, J M Billakanti and S

M Saufi

Biomolecular Interaction Centre

Department of Chemical and

Danisco USA, Inc

Four New Century Parkway

2425 rue de l’agriculture, Pavillon Paul-Comtois

Laval UniversityQuébec, QCCanada G1V 0A6E-mail: yves.pouliot@inaf.ulaval.ca

Y MineDepartment of Food ScienceUniversity of GuelphGuelph, ON

Canada N1G 2W1

Chapter 20

J Shi* and S Jun Xue Guelph Food Research CenterAgriculture and Agri-Food CanadaOntario

Canada N1G 5C9E-mail: john.shi@agr.gc.ca

Y JiangSouth China Botanical GardenThe Chinese Academy of SciencesGuangzhou 510650

China

X YeDepartment of Food Science and Nutrition

School of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science

Zhejiang UniversityZhejiang 310029China

Trang 17

1 Chilled foods: a comprehensive guide Edited by C Dennis and M

Stringer

2 Yoghurt: science and technology A Y Tamime and R K Robinson

3 Food processing technology: principles and practice P J Fellows

4 Bender’s dictionary of nutrition and food technology Sixth edition

7 Nitrates and nitrites in food and water Edited by M J Hill

8 Pesticide chemistry and bioscience: the food-environment challenge

11 Vitamins and minerals in health and nutrition M Tolonen

12 Technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Second edition D

Trang 18

16 Food emulsions and foams Edited by E Dickinson

17 Maillard reactions in chemistry, food and health Edited by T P

20 Flavours and fragrances Edited by A D Swift

21 Feta and related cheeses Edited by A Y Tamime and R K

24 Food irradiation: a reference guide V M Wilkinson and G Gould

25 Kent’s technology of cereals: an introduction for students of food

science and agriculture Fourth edition N L Kent and A D Evers

26 Biosensors for food analysis Edited by A O Scott

27 Separation processes in the food and biotechnology industries:

principles and applications Edited by A S Grandison and M J

Lewis

28 Handbook of indices of food quality and authenticity R S Singhal,

P K Kulkarni and D V Rege

29 Principles and practices for the safe processing of foods D A

Shapton and N F Shapton

30 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 1:

ingredients D Manley

biscuit doughs D Manley

32 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 3:

biscuit dough piece forming D Manley

33 Biscuit, cookie and cracker manufacturing manuals Volume 4:

baking and cooling of biscuits D Manley

secondary processing in biscuit manufacturing D Manley

biscuit packaging and storage D Manley

36 Practical dehydration Second edition M Greensmith

37 Lawrie’s meat science Sixth edition R A Lawrie

38 Yoghurt: science and technology Second edition A Y Tamime and

R K Robinson

39 New ingredients in food processing: biochemistry and agriculture

G Linden and D Lorient

40 Benders’ dictionary of nutrition and food technology Seventh

edition D A Bender and A E Bender

xviii Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

Trang 19

41 Technology of biscuits, crackers and cookies Third edition D

Manley

42 Food processing technology: principles and practice Second edition

P J Fellows

43 Managing frozen foods Edited by C J Kennedy

44 Handbook of hydrocolloids Edited by G O Phillips and P A

Williams

45 Food labelling Edited by J R Blanchfield

46 Cereal biotechnology Edited by P C Morris and J H Bryce

47 Food intolerance and the food industry Edited by T Dean

48 The stability and shelf-life of food Edited by D Kilcast and P

51 HACCP in the meat industry Edited by M Brown

52 Biscuit, cracker and cookie recipes for the food industry D

Manley

53 Cereals processing technology Edited by G Owens

54 Baking problems solved S P Cauvain and L S Young

55 Thermal technologies in food processing Edited by P Richardson

56 Frying: improving quality Edited by J B Rossell

57 Food chemical safety Volume 1: contaminants Edited by D

60 EU food law: a practical guide Edited by K Goodburn

61 Extrusion cooking: technologies and applications Edited by R

Guy

62 Auditing in the food industry: from safety and quality to environmental

and other audits Edited by M Dillon and C Griffith

63 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 1 Edited by K V Peter

64 Food product development: maximising success M Earle, R Earle

and A Anderson

65 Instrumentation and sensors for the food industry Second edition

Edited by E Kress-Rogers and C J B Brimelow

66 Food chemical safety Volume 2: additives Edited by D Watson

67 Fruit and vegetable biotechnology Edited by V Valpuesta

68 Foodborne pathogens: hazards, risk analysis and control Edited by

C de W Blackburn and P J McClure

69 Meat refrigeration S J James and C James

70 Lockhart and Wiseman’s crop husbandry Eighth edition H J S

Finch, A M Samuel and G P F Lane

Trang 20

71 Safety and quality issues in fish processing Edited by H A

75 Colour in food: improving quality Edited by D MacDougall

76 Meat processing: improving quality Edited by J P Kerry, J F Kerry

and D A Ledward

77 Microbiological risk assessment in food processing Edited by M

Brown and M Stringer

78 Performance functional foods Edited by D Watson

79 Functional dairy products Volume 1 Edited by T Mattila-Sandholm

and M Saarela

80 Taints and off-flavours in foods Edited by B Baigrie

81 Yeasts in food Edited by T Boekhout and V Robert

82 Phytochemical functional foods Edited by I T Johnson and G

Williamson

83 Novel food packaging techniques Edited by R Ahvenainen

84 Detecting pathogens in food Edited by T A McMeekin

85 Natural antimicrobials for the minimal processing of foods Edited

by S Roller

86 Texture in food Volume 1: semi-solid foods Edited by B M

McKenna

87 Dairy processing: improving quality Edited by G Smit

88 Hygiene in food processing: principles and practice Edited by H

L M Lelieveld, M A Mostert, B White and J Holah

89 Rapid and on-line instrumentation for food quality assurance Edited

by I Tothill

90 Sausage manufacture: principles and practice E Essien

91 Environmentally-friendly food processing Edited by B Mattsson

and U Sonesson

92 Bread making: improving quality Edited by S P Cauvain

93 Food preservation techniques Edited by P Zeuthen and L

Bøgh-Sørensen

94 Food authenticity and traceability Edited by M Lees

95 Analytical methods for food additives R Wood, L Foster, A Damant

and P Key

96 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 2 Edited by K V Peter

97 Texture in food Volume 2: solid foods Edited by D Kilcast

98 Proteins in food processing Edited by R Yada

99 Detecting foreign bodies in food Edited by M Edwards

100 Understanding and measuring the shelf-life of food Edited by R

Steele

xx Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

Trang 21

101 Poultry meat processing and quality Edited by G Mead

102 Functional foods, ageing and degenerative disease Edited by C

Remacle and B Reusens

103 Mycotoxins in food: detection and control Edited by N Magan and

Congress, 24–26th May, 2004, Harrogate, UK Edited by S P

Cauvain, L S Young and S Salmon

110 Improving the safety of fresh meat Edited by J Sofos

111 Understanding pathogen behaviour in food: virulence, stress

response and resistance Edited by M Griffiths

112 The microwave processing of foods Edited by H Schubert and M

Regier

113 Food safety control in the poultry industry Edited by G Mead

114 Improving the safety of fresh fruit and vegetables Edited by W

Jongen

115 Food, diet and obesity Edited by D Mela

116 Handbook of hygiene control in the food industry Edited by H L

M Lelieveld, M A Mostert and J Holah

117 Detecting allergens in food Edited by S Koppelman and S Hefle

118 Improving the fat content of foods Edited by C Williams and J

Buttriss

119 Improving traceability in food processing and distribution Edited

by I Smith and A Furness

120 Flavour in food Edited by A Voilley and P Etievant

121 The Chorleywood bread process S P Cauvain and L S Young

122 Food spoilage microorganisms Edited by C de W Blackburn

123 Emerging foodborne pathogens Edited by Y Motarjemi and M

Adams

124 Benders’ dictionary of nutrition and food technology Eighth edition

D A Bender

125 Optimising sweet taste in foods Edited by W J Spillane

126 Brewing: new technologies Edited by C Bamforth

127 Handbook of herbs and spices Volume 3 Edited by K V Peter

Trang 22

128 Lawrie’s meat science Seventh edition R A Lawrie in collaboration

with D A Ledward

129 Modifying lipids for use in food Edited by F Gunstone

130 Meat products handbook: practical science and technology G

135 Maximising the value of marine by-products Edited by F Shahidi

136 Chemical migration and food contact materials Edited by K Barnes,

141 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food

processing Volume 1 Edited by K W Waldron

142 Improving the flavour of cheese Edited by B Weimer

143 Novel food ingredients for weight control Edited by C J K

Henry

144 Consumer-led food product development Edited by H MacFie

145 Functional dairy products Volume 2 Edited by M Saarela

146 Modifying flavour in food Edited by A J Taylor and J Hort

147 Cheese problems solved Edited by P L H McSweeney

148 Handbook of organic food safety and quality Edited by J Cooper,

C Leifert and U Niggli

149 Understanding and controlling the microstructure of complex foods

Trang 23

154 Delivery and controlled release of bioactives in foods and

nutraceuticals Edited by N Garti

155 Fruit and vegetable flavour: recent advances and future prospects

Edited by B Brückner and S G Wyllie

156 Food fortification and supplementation: technological, safety and

regulatory aspects Edited by P Berry Ottaway

157 Improving the health-promoting properties of fruit and vegetable

163 Carbohydrate-active enzymes Edited by K-H Park

164 Chilled foods: a comprehensive guide Third edition Edited by M

Brown

165 Food for the ageing population Edited by M M Raats, C P G M

de Groot and W A Van Staveren

166 Improving the sensory and nutritional quality of fresh meat Edited

169 Functional foods: principles and technology M Guo

170 Endocrine-disrupting chemicals in food Edited by I Shaw

171 Meals in science and practice: interdisciplinary research and

business applications Edited by H L Meiselman

172 Food constituents and oral health: current status and future

and bakery products Edited by G Talbot

176 Foodborne pathogens: hazards, risk analysis and control Second

edition Edited by C de W Blackburn and P J McClure

177 Designing functional foods: measuring and controlling food structure

breakdown and absorption Edited by D J McClements and E A

Decker

Trang 24

178 New technologies in aquaculture: improving production efficiency,

quality and environmental management Edited by G Burnell and

G Allan

179 More baking problems solved S P Cauvain and L S Young

180 Soft drink and fruit juice problems solved P Ashurst and R

Hargitt

181 Biofilms in the food and beverage industries Edited by P M

Fratamico, B A Annous and N W Gunther

182 Dairy-derived ingredients: food and neutraceutical uses Edited by

M Corredig

183 Handbook of waste management and co-product recovery in food

processing Volume 2 Edited by K W Waldron

184 Innovations in food labelling Edited by J Albert

185 Delivering performance in food supply chains Edited by C Mena

and G Stevens

186 Chemical deterioration and physical instability of food and beverages

Edited by L H Skibsted, J Risbo and M L Andersen

187 Managing wine quality Volume 1: viticulture and wine quality

Edited by A.G Reynolds

188 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 1: milk production

and processing Edited by M Griffiths

189 Improving the safety and quality of milk Volume 2: improving

quality in milk products Edited by M Griffiths

190 Cereal grains: assessing and managing quality Edited by C Wrigley

193 Winemaking problems solved Edited by C E Butzke

194 Environmental assessment and management in the food industry

197 Case studies in novel food processing technologies: innovations in

processing, packaging, and predictive modelling Edited by C Doona,

200 Oxidation in foods and beverages and antioxidant applications

xxiv Woodhead Publishing Series in Food Science, Technology and Nutrition

Trang 25

Volume 2: management in different industry sectors Edited by

E A Decker, R J Elias and D J McClements

201 Protective cultures, antimicrobial metabolites and bacteriophages

for food and beverage biopreservation Edited by C Lacroix

202 Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food,

beverage and nutraceutical industries Edited by S S H Rizvi

203 Determining mycotoxins and mycotoxigenic fungi in food and feed

206 Postharvest biology and technology of tropical and subtropical

fruits Volume 1 Edited by E M Yahia

210 Food and beverage stability and shelf-life Edited by D Kilcast and

P Subramaniam

211 Processed Meats: improving safety, nutrition and quality Edited

by J P Kerry and J F Kerry

212 Food chain integrity: a holistic approach to food traceability,

authenticity, safety and bioterrorism prevention Edited by J Hoorfar,

219 Rice quality K R Bhattacharya

220 Meat, poultry and seafood packaging Edited by J P Kerry

221 Reducing saturated fats in foods Edited by G Talbot

222 Handbook of food proteins Edited by G O Phillips and P A

Williams

Trang 26

xxvi

Trang 27

Separation, extraction and concentration of desirable components from their natural matrices are essential unit operations in the preparation of key ingredients for use in the food, pharmaceutical and chemical industries These processes often account for somewhere between 50% and 70% of the product cost and are facing new challenges Ever-tightening regulations on the use of organic solvents, environmental issues and process safety have accelerated the development of a variety of new technologies which are clean and efficient, and

do not cause degradation of the products; these technologies therefore enhance the productivity and global competitiveness of the industries concerned This book aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the most important technologies of interest for the production of high-value compounds

Based on the multidisciplinary expertise of 45 contributors from institutions with strong programs in separation, extraction and concentration processes, the book is organized in 20 peer-reviewed chapters, divided into two parts Part I describes the latest advances in separation, extraction and concentration techniques, including supercritical fluid extraction, process chromatography and membrane technologies It also reviews emerging techniques of particular interest, such as pervaporation and pressurized liquid extraction Part II then focuses on advances in separation technologies and their applications

in various sectors of the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries Areas covered include dairy and egg processing, oilseed extraction and brewing This part of the book discusses the characteristics of different foods and fluids, how food constituents are affected by separation processes and how separation processes can be designed and operated to optimize end product quality This volume collectively provides valuable and timely information on the latest developments in the field

With its team of experienced international contributors, Separation, extraction and concentration processes in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries is an important reference source for experienced professionals

concerned with the development and optimization of these processes It

Preface

Trang 28

is hoped that newcomers to this exciting and emerging field will also find valuable information in this book

I wish to thank the authors for their patience and support during the review and preparation of the manuscripts I also wish to thank Sarah Whitworth

of Woodhead Publishing who gave useful advice during the initial planning stages of the book

Syed S H Rizvi

xxviii Preface

Trang 29

Principles of supercritical fluid

extraction and applications in the food, beverage and nutraceutical industries

Ž Knez, M Škerget and M Knez Hrn�i�, University of Maribor, Slovenia

Abstract: The thermodynamic fundamentals of supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) are

described and the environmental, health and safety benefits of using supercritical fluids are explored Several hundred industrial-scale SFE plants are in operation world- wide for extraction of plant materials, such as hop constituents, decaffeination of tea and coffee, and separation of lecithin from oil, all high-pressure processes Smaller industrial units are used for extraction of spices in the food industry and for natural substances used in cosmetics The design of such an extraction plant is described The unique thermodynamic and fluid dynamic properties of dense gases are also

applied in integrated extractions and in in situ formulations, such as impregnation of

solid particles, formation of solid powder emulsions, and particle coatings.

Key words: extraction, supercritical fluids, dense gases, high pressure,

thermodynamics, food industry.

1000 bar at the bottom of the deepest ocean Because human beings live

on the surface of the globe, the first technologies for the production of various substances took place at atmospheric pressure In the early 20th century, demand for new products like ammonia shifted the technological processes towards high pressure Industrial high-pressure processes operate

at ranges from about 50 bar (in particle formation processes) to over 200

Trang 30

4 Separation, extraction and concentration processes

kbar (conversion of graphite to diamonds) High pressure is a relatively new tool and in several processes it has resulted in completely new products with special characteristics Many of these new processes are environmentally friendly, low cost and sustainable

The advantages of using supercritical fluids (SCF) as solvents in chemical synthesis offer environmental benefits, health and safety benefits and chemical benefits (Jessop and Leitner, 1999) The environmental benefits of most SCFs in industrial processes result from their replacement of far more environmentally damaging conventional organic solvents The low energy consumption of the process is a further environmental benefit Health and safety benefits include the fact that the most important SCFs (SC CO2 and

SC H2O) are non-carcinogenic, non-toxic, non-mutagenic, non-flammable and thermodynamically stable One of the major process benefits is derived from the thermophysical properties of SCFs: high diffusivity, low viscosity and the density and dielectric constant of SCF, which can be fine tuned by changes in operating pressure and/or temperature

The motivation for using high pressure in a wide range of technologies and processes is based on chemical, physicochemical, physicobiochemical, physicohydrodynamic and physicohydraulic effects (Bertuco and Vetter, 2001)

The extraction of hop constituents and the decaffeination of tea and coffee are the largest scale processes and are mostly performed on an industrial scale Several industrial plants also extract spices for the food industry and natural substances for use in cosmetics The advantages of using supercritical fluids for the isolation of natural products have been well described (Marr and Gamse, 2000) and include solvent-free products, low temperature, and

no byproducts One of the most important advantages of using supercritical fluids is the selective extraction of components or the fractionation of total extracts, which is made possible by use of different gases for isolation or fractionation of components and/or by changing the process parameters A limitation on the further application of high-pressure technology for obtaining extracts is the relatively high price of the product compared with that of those produced conventionally The legal restrictions on solvent residues and solvents (in products for human use) and the isolation or fractionation

of special components from total extracts, in combination with different formulation (controlled release for example) and sterilisation processes, encourage the use of dense gases in extraction applications

There are fewer industrial units involved in using supercritical fluids for the separation of components from liquid mixtures Some laboratory-scale studies involve extraction systems using liquid/supercritical fluid Some data on binary systems liquid/SCF has been produced, but there are fewer data on liquid/liquid/supercritical fluid systems As in all extraction processes, including the supercritical extraction of solid and liquid mixtures, the solubility of a single component or a mixture of components in SCF

is the basic data for the design of separation processes The components

Trang 31

or mixture of compounds to be extracted must be soluble in SCF/dense gas.

As is known from thermodynamics, the solubility of compounds in SCF/dense gases depends on the density of the SCF/dense gas, which depends on the pressure and temperature of the SCF Another very important parameter influencing the solubility of compounds in SCF is its dielectric constant, which is influenced by the temperature and/or pressure of the SCF The general flow sheet of the extraction process is presented in Fig 1.1 and some industrial scale units are shown in Figs 1.2 to 1.4

In one extraction stage, the solubility of a compound or mixture of compounds has to be high whereas in another stage, the solubility of a compound in SCF has to be low Therefore, the phase equilibrium data

is the most important factor in the design of the operating pressure and temperature of SCF in an extraction plant Thus, the theoretical amount of SCF necessary for separating compounds from a solid or a liquid mixture may be calculated The design of process parameters has a very important influence on the investment costs of high pressure plants and subsequently, for the economics of the process In addition to the solubility data of solute

in SCF, mass transfer also has a large influence on the economics of the extraction process Mass transfer models usually describe extraction yield versus extraction time, but a better presentation for the design of extraction apparatuses is yield versus mass of SC solvent/mass of solid material (S/F)

Cascade operation is used in industrial-scale plants to increase the economy of the solid–SC solvent extraction process To date, there has been some research on the continuous operation of plants for the extraction

of solids with SC solvent (Eggers, 1996), but currently, no application for

Solvent tank

Fig 1.1 General flow sheet of SCF extraction plant Subscripts EXT and

S represent the extractor and separator respectively.

Trang 32

the continuous feed of solids has been applied on an industrial scale In industrial scale operations, extractors are usually combined in series By means of the cyclic operation of a battery of extractors, a quasi-continuous solid flow may be achieved Such a mode of operation results in extremely high extraction yields because pure solvent is in contact with pre-extracted material, thus loading the solvent to maximum capacity

Fig 1.2 High-pressure extraction unit (700 bar) (Photo: courtesy of Uhde HPT,

Hagen, Germany.)

Fig 1.3 High-pressure extractor solids during manufacturing (Photo: courtesy of

Uhde HPT, Hagen, Germany.)

Trang 33

One of the major advantages of SFE processes is the fractionation of extracts Multi-step separation may be performed by use of several separators

by decreasing the solvent power Decreased solvent power may be achieved

by various methods, as described in sections 1.3 and 1.4

Fig 1.4 High-pressure extraction unit: closure of extractor (Photo: courtesy of Uhde

HPT, Hagen, Germany.)

Extract

Solvent tank

Fig 1.5 Cascade of extractors for extraction of solid materials.

Trang 34

polarity Complex phase behaviour can be readily interpreted by P–T and P–x projections of P–T–x space diagrams By using the phase rule (equation

[1.1]), the geometrical limits for presentation of multiphase regions in the phase diagram are determined

where i = 1, 2, 3, , N.

Only binary systems will be discussed in detail in this chapter The phase equilibria of ternary and multicomponent mixtures is discussed by Brunner (1994) and McHugh and Krukonis (1986), and Sadus (1992)

1.2.1 Solid–supercritical fluid equilibrium

Phase diagrams

In solid–SCF systems where the normal melting temperature of the solid is

higher than the critical temperature (Tc) of the SCF, two possible types of

Fraction 1 Fraction 2 Fraction 3

Fig 1.6 Scheme of multi-step separation.

Trang 35

phase behaviour exist The simplest is presented in Fig 1.7a and is typical

of mixtures in which the components are chemically similar The critical mixture curve runs continuously between the critical points of both components

of the mixture The solid–liquid–gas (SLG) line is continuous and begins

at the normal melting point of the heavy component, moves toward lower temperatures as the pressure is increased, and ends at a temperature usually well below the critical temperature of the lighter component The melting point of the pure solid normally increases with an increase in the hydrostatic pressure However, in the presence of dense gas, the melting point of the solid decreases as the pressure increases owing to the increasing solubility

of gas in the solid

The second type of solid–SCF phase behaviour (Fig 1.7b) is typical for systems in which the solid and the SCF differ considerably in molecular size, shape and/or polarity and can be interpreted as type III fluid-phase behaviour (de Loos, 2006) according to the classification of van Konynenburg and Scott (1980) In this type of system, the light gas is not very soluble in the heavy liquid, even at high pressures Therefore, the melting-point depression of the solid is relatively small The SLG curve is no longer continuous; three

phase SLG equilibria are presented by two branches of the SLG line in P–T

diagram The high-temperature branch of the SLG line starts at the normal melting point of the solid and intersects with the critical-mixture curve at the upper critical end point (UCEP) The low-temperature branch of the SLG line intersects with the critical-mixture curve at the lower critical end point (LCEP) At these two points, the liquid and gas phases merge into a single fluid phase in the presence of excess solid Only solid–gas equilibria exist between these two branches of the SLG line Possible phase behaviour for type III systems with interference of the solid phase is presented in detail

by de Loos (2006)

The course of the high-temperature branch of the three-phase SLG line

of a binary system depends on the solubility of the gas in the liquid phase

Fig 1.7 Solid–SCF equilibrium: P–T projection of phase diagram for similar (a)

and asymmetrical (b) binary systems C, critical point; TP, triple point; L, liquid; G, gas; S, solid; UCEP, upper critical end point; LCEP, lower critical end point Dashed curves are critical lines, lines denoted as 1 and 2 are the vapour pressure curves of the

two components.

Trang 36

If a compressed gas is dissolved in the melting of a heavy component, two opposite temperature effects occur as given by equation [1.3] (Arons and Diepen, 1963):

of gas in the melted heavy component results in a larger melting-point depression

Four characteristic shapes of the SLG equilibrium lines in the P–T

projection were observed experimentally for asymmetric binary systems of compressed gases and non-volatile components (Arons and Diepen, 1963;

Loos, 2006; Tuminello et al., 1995; Weidner et al., 1997) (Fig 1.8), with:

∑ negative dP/dT slope, where the effect of gas solubility predominates;

∑ positive dP/dT slope, where the effect of pressure predominates;

∑ temperature minimum, where both effects are competing; and

∑ temperature maximum and a temperature minimum

The last type of SLG line is a very rare phenomenon and can be explained

by the higher solubility of the supercritical gas in the solid phase than in the liquid phase (de Loos, 2006) A SLG curve with a temperature maximum and

a temperature minimum was reported for the systems CO2 + polyethylene

glycol (Weidner et al., 1997), CO2 + tripalmitin (O’Connell et al., 2003), and

Fig 1.8 Characteristic shapes of the SLG equilibrium lines.

Trang 37

CO2-tristearin (O’Connell et al., 2003) However, in most studies of these

equilibria, it is assumed that the supercritical gas is insoluble in the solid phase of the non-volatile component (de Loos, 2006) The course of the SLG line is dependent on the gas and the chemical structure of the compound, i.e the type and position of the functional groups

As an example, the melting point of vitamin K3 under the pressure of various gases is presented in Fig 1.9 (Knez and Škerget, 2001) and the various paths of the SLG line can be observed In the presence of CO2 and

dimethyl ether, the negative slope dP/dT can be observed and the

melting-point depression of vitamin K3 is highest under the pressure of dimethyl ether The melting-point depression of vitamin K3 is less pronounced in the presence of propane, the SLG curve having a minimum at 94.9 °C and 39 bar Under the pressure of inert gas (nitrogen and argon), the SLG curve has

a positive dP/dT slope owing to the low solubility of gas in vitamin K3 Another example, which illustrates that isomers may have a different type

of SLG line in the presence of a specific gas, is the vanillin–gas system In

Fig 1.10, SLG phase lines for binary systems of vanillin (V) and o-vanillin (o-V) with fluorinated hydrocarbons (R23, R134a, R236fa) and CO2 are presented For vanillin with –OH group in the para position, the melting-point depression in CO2 and fluorinated hydrocarbons is generally lower as for vanillin with –OH group in the ortho position

CO 2

N2Ar

Fig 1.9 SLG phase equilibria for binary system K3 – gas (CO 2 , propane, dimethyl

ether, argon or nitrogen) (Knez and Škerget, 2001).

Trang 38

By denoting the gas as component 1 and the non-volatile compound as component 2, and assuming that the solubility of the gas in the solid phase

is negligible (x2 = 1), the fugacity of the solid in the solid phase is equal to

the fugacity of pure solid (Prausnitz et al., 1986):

f P T x2( , , ) = f2S,pure( , ) P T [1.5] The fugacity of a pure compound is:

Fig 1.10 SLG phase lines for binary systems of vanillin (V) and o-vanillin (o-V)

with dense gases.

Trang 39

By rearranging and inserting the expression for the fugacity coefficient

where j2G is the fugacity coefficient of solid component 2 in the mixture

By inserting equations [1.9] and [1.10] into [1.5] and [1.4], the expression for solubility of solids in the gas phase is obtained:

2

2G =

2 G 2

The enhancement factor E is the correction of the ideal-gas expression

that is valid only at low pressures and contains three terms:

∑ j2S, which takes into account the non-ideality of the pure saturated vapour

For low sublimation pressure of the solid P2S, j2S almost equals unity

∑ an exponential term called the Poynting correction, which gives the effect

of pressure on the fugacity of the pure solid It is small at low pressures but may become larger at high pressures or at low temperatures

∑ j2G, the gas-phase fugacity coefficient in the high-pressure gas mixture This term is the most important, because it is much lower than 1 and can produce very large enhancement factors (103 or higher)

Assuming that the molar volume of the pure solid (vS

2) at the system temperature

is pressure independent, the Poyning correction takes the simple form:

Trang 40

v P P RT

=

exp ( – )

2 G

2000; Dohrn, 1994; Tuminello et al., 1995) Cubic EOS in combination with

mixing rules are currently the most widely used models for the calculation

of solubilities of components in SCF (Tables 1.1 and 1.2)

Table 1.1 Cubic equations of state

Định dạng
Số trang	1.363
Dung lượng	26,24 MB