Rationale of the intangible a cognitive reading of spatial conception in the story of the stone

YEO KANG SHUA Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Design and Environment Department of Architecture National University of Singapore Rationale of the Intangible A Cognitive Reading o

RATIONALE OF THE INTANGIBLE

A COGNITIVE READING OF SPATIAL CONCEPTION IN THE STORY OF THE STONE

YEO KANG SHUA

M.Arch., B.A (Arch Studies)

A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

CENTRE FOR ADVANCED STUDIES IN ARCHITECTURE

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE

2006

This thesis has been approved and certified by

Thesis Supervisor Professor LI Xiaodong

Chair Professor, Department of Architecture,

School of Architecture, Tsinghua University, Beijing, PR China

(Associate Professor, National University of Singapore, 1997 — 2004)

Thesis Committee:

Thesis Co-Supervisor Associate Professor LI Shiqiao

Department of Architecture, The Chinese University of Hong Kong

(Associate Professor, National University of Singapore, 2000 — 2005)

Thesis Committee Member Professor HENG Chye Kiang

Head of Department, Department of Architecture

National University of Singapore

Thesis Committee Member Assistant Professor YANG Pei Ju, Perry

Department of Architecture

National University of Singapore

Copyright © 2006 Yeo Kang Shua

All Rights Reserved

No part of this work covered by the copyright hereon may be reproduced or used in any form or by any means — graphic, electronic, or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, taping, or information storage and retrieval systems — without the written permission of the owners.

YEO KANG SHUA Doctor of Philosophy in the School of Design and Environment

Department of Architecture National University of Singapore

Rationale of the Intangible

A Cognitive Reading of Spatial Conception in The Story of the Stone

Abstract

This research explores the concepts of space in the Chinese context through the

textual analysis of The Story of the Stone, whereby dissonances of cognitive

elements are used to depict space, through the change of actions or situation that represent behavioural or environmental cognitive element The research is particularly interested in the logic of reasoning in the reconstruction of space in the text The research comes to an understanding of a method to limit the cognitive process of the “where” and the “what”, through the use of precedents

under the workings of harmonised dissonance The significance of The Stone is that

it links the reflection on creative design process with the process of establishing a coherent cultural value for designers that essentially follow the long Chinese aesthetic traditions Attempting further than the simple knowledge base of

precedents in late imperial China, The Stone proffers a system of rules for

designing with precedents

harmonised dissonance, knowledge base,

precedent, and spatial conception

Rationale of the Intangible

Preface and Acknowledgement

The search for the Chinese conception of space, the subject of this thesis, has

occupied my thoughts, conversations and correspondences for many years, wherein

a large number of friends and mentors have played an important role in its development This framework was developed with my thesis supervisor, Prof Li Xiaodong, Chair of Department of Architecture, Tsinghua University, who was then with the Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore, from 1997

— 2004; as well as with thesis advisor Emeritus Prof Alexander Tzonis, Director of Design Knowledge Systems (DKS) Research Centre, Chair of Architectural Theory and Design Methods, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology (TUDelft) It has been a privilege to work with them Their guidance and inspirations were essential to my work, and I am foremost deeply indebted to them for their assistances a well as their theoretical and creative insights My debt to Prof Li is further beyond his role as my supervisor I have been working with Prof

Li since 1997 as his student and collaborator, in various stages of my development

as an undergraduate, and latter as a graduate as well as a Research Assistant I owe a separate debt of gratitude to Emeritus Prof S.J Doorman, Faculty of Philosophy and Humanities, TUDelft, for his interest and commitment to my thesis, and for his inspiring seminars held in DKS Where my research reaches precision in the use of a clear research method, it is due to their guidance; where it does not, the shortcoming is only my own

I would also like to thank my co-supervisor Assoc Prof Li Shiqiao, and my thesis committee panel members, Prof Heng Chye Kiang, and Asst Prof Yang Pei Ju, Perry, for patiently reading my work and improving it with their precious suggestions, objections, critical remarks and challenging comments I am greatly indebted to Adjunct Assoc Prof Thiagarajan K Sabapathy and Asst Prof Wong Yunn Chii, for our discussions and for giving me extremely useful suggestions During the course of research and writing, I have incurred substantial intellectual debts, and I wish here to express my gratitude to the scholarships of many sinologists, linguists, psychologists and sociologists, whom I benefited greatly in my pursuit of this project I also wish to acknowledge those, including anonymous reviewers, who have read the manuscript, either in its entirety or in portions, and who gave me their helpful and valuable comments

My research ran parallel to that of my fellow colleague, Chong Keng Hua Our frequent discussions contributed substantially to my understanding of our mutual research problems Keng Hua and I often saw similar things differently, and the divergence of ideas always stimulated new insights For their contributions in discussions, seminaries and for their companionship, I would like to thank all past and present colleagues from the Centre for Advanced Studies in Architecture (CASA): Messrs Dharmatilleke NAD Senaka, Cam Chi Nguyen, Simon Yanuar Putra Zhuang, Ho Yenn Giin, Zhang Ji, Md Mizanur Rashid, Tian Yang and Lu Yi; Mses Archana Sharma, Chen Yu, Tan Kar Lin, Jeanne-Marie Ten Leu-Jiun, Cai Hui, Li

Rationale of the Intangible

Suping, Zhang Tianjie and Huang Yan In addition, to my past colleagues from DKS:

Dr Asaf Friedman, Dr Jun Wu, and Dr Sophia Vyzoviti

I would like to extend my gratitude to Mses Goh Lay Fong, Esther Tan, Jasmine Law, May Yeo, Cheok Yin Peng, Rozita and Ismurnee (NUS) as well as Ms Janneke Mosterd-Arkesteijn (DKS) for their administrative assistances and especially for their kind support I would also like to acknowledge the assistances rendered by the libraries whom the project materials is drawn: the architecture library of TUDelft, the library of Institute for Sinology at Leiden University, the library of Tsinghua University and the library of Beijing University; special mention for the libraries of the National University of Singapore where the acquisition librarian promptly and expedited many of my requests

For their love, encouragement and care, I would like to thank my family members:

my parents for their untiring care, my sisters, Cortina and Trecia, and my niece, Abery and nephews, Dillion, Max and Ethan for giving me hours of joy I reserve particular thanks to my friends Alfred Goh, Yan Dah Wea and Dr Lok Wan Chee for

their kind support and companionship, as well as my running group — cutues — for

both putting up with and encouraging the final stages of this long labour

Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to the Design Knowledge Systems (DKS) Research Centre, Faculty of Architecture, Delft University of Technology for providing me with a Guest Research Fellowship in 2004 Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Centre for Advanced Studies in Architecture (CASA), Department of Architecture, National University of Singapore (NUS) that is generously supporting this project through the NUS Research Scholarship, where

my work and research are carried out

箭夐糠壁个, 倡ム稜符鞘! 歓咄崘坏駅, 桧糸貞奩鵡?

(HLM I.1.7)

Yeo Kang Shua Oct 2006, Singapore

Rationale of the Intangible

Notes on Transliteration

Transliteration of Chinese names into English follows the Hanyu pinyin•現區跳冂‚

romanization system in this thesis All Chinese names, terms, books and articles

were transcribed into the Hanyu pinyin romanization system

In most cases, the titles of Chinese sources are translated into English by the author The Chinese characters are also provided to facilitate the checking of romanization In the bibliography, if the author used Wade-Giles romanization

system, it is included in parentheses after the pinyin name In places where there

existed an English version of the title, the original title is either maintained, or translated without further acknowledgement

re-The order of the Chinese naming system is also retained That is, the family name (surname) comes first, followed by the given name

Rationale of the Intangible

Editorial Notes

A number of translations have been provided throughout this research Many of the sources have been translated previously In the selection and production of the translation for this research, I have chosen to observe a few principles and conventions Firstly, I have attempted, wherever is possible, to use existing standard translations and the original Chinese text appended alongside Secondly,

if there is no standard translation or for any reason, that the standard translation is not suitable, I will abide by the distinction between normative and flexible translation in my translation In general, normative translation will serve well for technical terms or everyday objects However, if one tries to render more complex ideas unalterably with but a single English word, then one is usually restricted to the most literal of translations Therefore, in this research, I will tend to opt for flexible translation on the principle that one should employ the English word or phrase which modern speakers would use to convey an idea One should try to be

as literal as possible, but not at the expense of intelligibility Lastly, when working with standard translation, it has sometimes been necessary to introduce minor editorial changes to make the passage read more smoothly or intelligibly

Principal Chinese Edition

The main reference text used in this research is published by Beijing: Renmin wenxue

chuban she, π蒔: 椴藻滅露甥ヵ矧, 1998 Annotated by Feng Qiyong 去貞刧 based on

“Zhiyan zhai zhongping shitou ji [gengchen (1760)] qiuyue dingben”·壓于噎姆鎮伐忘妻

•窟雲 (1760)‚湯咒勧Д

English Translated Edition

There are a number of translations available, which are generally pared down versions that

omit much of the text The five volumes “The Story of the Stone” David Hawkes & John

Minford’s edition is used in this research and is considered as the Standard English edition

Note: In Hawkes’ translation, Daguan yuan•廻迎吁‚is translated as “Prospect Garden.” And “Garden of Total Vision” in Andrew H Plaks’ Archetype and Allegory in the Dream of

the Red Chamber, following Dore J Levy, suggesting that the complex allegory of garden as

a microcosm of universe (Plaks 1976: 178 — 211; Levy 2001: 175) Although, this study

follows Hawkes’ translation; in this specific case, it retains the Hanyu Pinyin romanization

without translation — Da-guan Yuan (Ta-guan Yuan — Wades-Giles)

Reconstructed Plans of the Ning-Rong Mansions and the Da-guan Yuan•廻迎吁‚

This research does not attempt to reconstruct the plans of the Ning-Rong Mansions and the Da-guan Yuan The examination of the physical dimensions of the space is not of the interest of this study What this research seeks is to render a conscious attempt to investigate the stated objectives Hence, the position of this study is to adopt Guan

Huashan’s 頚広農 reconstruction in “Honglou Meng zhong de jianzhu yanjiu”·醐凄叢奩廓捌

Rationale of the Intangible

List of Abbreviations

[Dream of the Red Chamber], annotated by Feng Qiyong 去貞刧 based on

“Zhiyan zhai zhongping shitou ji [gengchen (1760)] qiuyue dingben”·壓

chuban she, π蒔: 椴藻滅露甥ヵ矧, 1998

Citations refer only to this edition, unless otherwise stated

Story of the Stone, 5 vols Bloomington: Indiana University Press, [1979]

— 1987

Rationale of the Intangible

1.1 Chinese construction of Nature

1.2 Problematique — The notion and conception of space

1.3 A Philosophical overview of space in the Chinese context

1.4 Space in architectural history and social context

1.5 Key Questions and Method of Research

1.6 Synopsis of thesis

1

2 A Case: The Story of the Stone

24

3.3 Spatial analysis and narratology

38

Part II — Socially-institutionalized Design Reasoning:

The case of The Story of the Stone

4 Mental Representation, Social and Spatial Cognition

differences between major & minor characters as representatives of social

institution & public

4.4 Physical and social space

59

Rationale of the Intangible

Part III — The Building of Connections

5 Socio-spatial Organisation

96

6 Landscape and Narratives

6.2 The spatial composition as an aesthetic, experiential & existential problem,

in a ‘visual’ and phenomenological sense in nomenclature

141

7 The Understanding of Space Conception

162

Rationale of the Intangible

List of Illustrations

3 Socio-spatial relations as a problematique

Fig 3.1 Domain of investigation: Cognition and culture/ socio-spatial relationship –

vehicle of investigation: Narrative (discourse analysis)

Fig 4.1 Zengping jiazhu quantu Honglou meng·啼鎮砦孃闘某醐凄叢 [Expanded and

annotated woodblock print to The Story of the Stone], Characters depicted in Space

of Da-guan Yuan in The Stone, Tongwen shuju cangban, 鋒滅緋邪異ヴ, 藻拳伐冢Д,

[藻拳], Chinese Nationalist Government period

Fig 4.2 Han Xizai yeyan tu·軒柳哦伜亰某 [Night Entertainment of Han Xizai] by

Anonymous, copy after Gu Hongzhong•稽瘻奩‚ (circa A.D 1100), handscroll

mounted in the hanging scroll format, ink and colour on silk This is another

excellent example of a handscroll painting This handscroll depicts a series of

banquet activity through the segmenting of time frame Source: Wu Hung, The

double screen: medium and representation in Chinese painting, Chicago, IL:

University of Chicago Press, 1996, p 31 Collection of Palace Museum, Beijing, China

Fig 4.3 Route taken by Lin Dai-yu’s initial entrance to the Jia Mansions in The Stone’s

chapter 3

Fig 4.4 Daguan yuan zongtu·廻迎吁妛某 [Overall Painting of the Da-guan Yuan]

Painting of Da-guan Yuan showing the buildings as parts of the whole, forming the

whole Source: “Zengping butu shitou ji”·啼鎮絢某伐忘妻 域某, Shanghai Library

Collection, “Shanghai tushu guan cang” 拝研某緋劇異.

Fig 5.1 Layout of the Ancestral Hall, from A.D 1602 edition of Zhu Xi’s Family

Instructions, jiali•砕浄‚7/78a (Ebrey 1991b) Note the Chinese characters on the

screen at the back of the hall indicating the genealogical order in which the tablets

should be arranged

Fig 5.2 Section of the painting, ‘Wedding of the Emperor Guangxu.’ Birth, Wedding and

Death are three life events of utmost importance to the Chinese Hence, wedding

ceremonies were seeped in traditional rituals This painting shows an Imperial

Wedding that included the protracted selection of the future bride and empress, the

sending of betrothal presents, the conferring of the title ‘empress’ on the bride, the

welcoming of the bride to the imperial palace, the drinking of the nuptial cup, the

receiving of congratulations from the officials and foreign emissaries, and the giving

of wedding feasts Collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing

Fig 5.3 Bronze mountain-shaped ‘rank markers’ in the front of the Hall of Supreme

Harmony The left-hand column gives official ranks in the Manchu script with their

Chinese equivalents on the right This is one extreme example of denoting one’s

position in space.Source: Liu, Laurence G., Chinese architecture, London: Academy

Editions, 1989, p 60

Fig 5.4 Relative spatial position in the spatial concept of jian•榊‚

Fig 5.5 The Inner (nei) and Outer (wai) Realm.

Fig 5.6 Two conceptual space diagram and their social functions After Zhu Jianfei,

Chinese spatial strategies: imperial Beijing, 1420-1911, New York: Routledge, 2003

Fig 5.7 Zhou jiufu tu•姙屡僑某‚ [Nine Realms of Zhou] According to the diagram, the

degree of barbarism increases or the degree of culture deceases with the square of

the distance from the centre, this houses the royal capital of the Emperor Source:

Hu Wei complied [Qing] 口命孰 [嶋], Yugong chuizhi tu·匳郡寇壻某 , Taipei:

Taiwan Shangwu, 鮒π: 鮒毎馬薬, 1983

Fig 5.8 An idealized diagram of a city in Kaogong ji·戎熊妻 [Record of Artificers]

Fig 5.9 Seating Layout in The Stone reflects the relative social status of the characters

Source: Adapted from Guan Huashan 頚広農, Honglou Meng zhong de jianzhu yanjiu

·醐凄叢奩廓捌嬶腕実 [Investigation into the Architecture of “Dream of the Red

Chamber”], Taipei: Jing yu xiang chuban she, 鮒π: 雫匯蘭甥ヵ矧, 1984

Rationale of the Intangible

Fig 5.10 Order of the spatial concept of jian within physical space

Fig 5.11 The order of Courtyard Spaces

Fig 5.12 The Axis of Courtyards

Fig 5.13 Typical residential cluster blocks, Ming and Qing Dynasties, consisted of basic

Courtyard typologies Source: Liu, Laurence G., Chinese architecture, London:

Academy Editions, 1989, p 174

Fig 5.14 The hierarchy of Interior Space of Courtyards

Fig 5.15 The hierarchy of Courtyards

Fig 5.16 Principles of Linear Relationship

Fig 5.17 Position in Cosmos

Fig 5.18 Houtian •倖倣‚ map of the cosmos showing the relative position

of family members and character properties associated with that

position.

Fig 5.19 Relative space of major buildings in Rong-guo Mansions formed

through the cognitive reading of space experienced by the reader of

The Stone.

6 Landscape and Narratives

Fig 6.1 Plan of the Garden of the Unsuccessful Politician, Zhuozheng Yuan•寥堽吁‚,

Suzhou Source: Liu, Laurence G., Chinese architecture, London: Academy Editions,

1989, p 197

Fig 6.2 Routes in/around the Da-guan Yuan and their relationships formed through the

cognitive reading of space experienced by the reader of The Stone

Fig 6.3 Detail of the handscroll painting by Wang Hui (circa A.D 1632 – 1717) et al ‘The

Emperor Kangxi’s tour of the South Example of a handscroll painting that is viewed

by segments Collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing

Fig 6.4 An aerial photograph of the Forbidden City, Beijing A strong, insistent axis cuts

through the Beijing Source: Hou Renzhi 鯉突壗, Beijing lishi ditu ji (erji)·π蒔埴蛤

額某魂(毅魂) [Collection of Beijing Historic Maps], Beijing: Beijing chubanshe, π蒔:

π蒔甥ヵ矧, 1997

Fig 6.5 Ritual Vessels, ding•刊‚and gui•鯢‚of varying sizes in proportion found from

the tomb of Marquis Yi It is also a ‘grammar’ signifier at a higher level, alluding to

Wang Sunman’s迄葡箭 speech “Wending qingzhong”·麺刊塘姆 [Response to the

Weight of Tripods], signifying the importance of virtues of rulers, and hence the

status of the owners Source: Ledderose, Lothar, Ten thousand things: module and

mass production in Chinese art, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2000, p

47 And, Rawson, Jessica (Ed.), The British Museum book of Chinese art, London:

Published for the Trustees of the British Museum by British Museum Press, 1992, p

351 – 352

Fig 6.6 Liuli wa gejian fentu·嵩蝕魔串撮休某 [Glazed roof tile components —

grammar] Illustration extracted from Qingshi yingzao zeli tuban – ershi·嶋叛冽喙啾

植某ヵ – 毅髪 Roof tile components as part of the whole Source: Liang Sicheng,

Zhongguo jianzhu gongye chubanshe, π蒔: 奩拳捌嬶熊倔甥ヵ矧, 2001, vol 6, p 112

7 The Understanding of Space Conception

Fig 7.1 Perceptual Field showing the inter-networking relationships between Progression,

Order, Form and Variation

Fig 7.2 Progression between objects – navigation through space – informal versus formal

Fig 7.3 The psychological harmonization/normalization conceptual process between an

individual and his/her environment

Fig 7.4 Cognitive System incorporating the Harmonization/Normalization process of the

Perceptual Field relationships

Fig 7.5 Active cogitating paradigm of harmonization/normalization conception, which has

accretive discursive responses or feedback, cumulating a harmonised picture of the

whole

Fig 7.6 Suggested Plan of Naiad’s House – Residence of Lin Dai-yu in Da-guan Yuan

showing its simple but elegant organisation of space

Rationale of the Intangible

Summary

This research attempts to study the concepts of physical space, and investigates the conception of space as understood in Chinese society Furthermore, it attempts

to discover the underlying mechanism of reasoning, of how spaces are put together

as a formal structure, producing pieces of architecture with critical, cultural and philosophical meanings The way that space is treated, or rather the problems of the concepts of space involve a number of problematic features that is still in need

of clarification, exacerbated by cultural differences

This research subscribes to the theory that different conception of space arises, due to spatial status differences, conceptual relations differences, viewpoint differences, as well as differences in modes of thought, have different significance

in terms of relationship to the perceivable space As such, spatial imagery from the imagining of textual analysis becomes a dominant yet flexible tool Just as spatial conceptions are expressed through physical manifestation as architecture, it is useful to understand the conceptual framework of how design objects are

produced This work begins with textual analysis of a classic epic, The Story of the

Stone; (Honglou Meng · 醐 凄 叢 , HLM, henceforth The Stone), where the

intermingling of theoretical principles concerning decorum, mimesis and invention traditionally shared by all arts will shed light on how a culture conceives space

In The Stone, dissonances of cognitive elements are used to depict space, through

the change of actions or feelings that elements represent — behavioural cognitive element and/or changed by changing the situation the element represents — environmental cognitive element If the elements are impossible to remove or change, the magnitude can/will need to be changed by adding new cognitive elements This work is particularly interested in this logic of reasoning in the construction of space, which is still in line both metaphorically and physically the relationship to the two components of space: architectural space and social/cultural space Attempting further than the simple knowledge base of

precedents of classical Chinese, The Stone proffers a system of rules for designing

with precedents

Part I — Frames & Constraints in Reasoning &

Framework of Research

1 Introduction

The introductory chapter defines and describes the background, the problematical issues and the specific questions with which these issues have been addressed in the present research The criteria of relevance are clarified: why is this interesting

to study? The work encompasses a comprehensive coverage of areas with an

analytical focus upon space and spatial arrangement The work concerns The Story

of the Stone , (Dream of the Red Chamber; Honglou Meng, HLM · 醐 凄 叢 thereafter The Stone) by Cao Xueqin•胃婁党‚in many important areas (social,

tradition, and existential), wherein for each instance, questions of spatial conception — design, arrangement and usage — are raised and explored More

specifically, the search for spatial patterns and arrangements in The Stone is

conducted through the exploration of the relationships or aspects of cognitive

elements (dissonances) responsible for spatial conception in The Stone

The Chinese attitudes toward architecture can be observed through their

perception of architecture in building texts In Ruitenbeek’s Carpentry and

building in late imperial China: a study of the fifteenth century carpenter's manual Lu Ban jing, he considered the Chinese attitude towards architecture as having “technical and non-technical” aspects (Ruitenbeek 1993: 4 – 5) The

‘technical’ constituent, emphasising the material aspects of architecture that concentrate on the issues of visual style, construction, and ornamentation, is widely studied by architectural historians On the other hand, the ‘non-technical’ constituent is generally neglected It is not an exaggeration to say that the very idea of architecture is built upon the idea of the conception of space Perception and thus conception varies from culture to culture Conception is convoluted

1 Introduction/Research Background

Therefore, what does the Chinese conception of space mean? Is the conception of space universal or diverse? Are there differences in the conceptual system or cognition? Can a specific culture, such as the Chinese, develop a unique conception

of space that manifests itself in their design objects? This research addresses this question of space in the social context of design More specifically, it examines the relationships that socially framed and imposed deixis may perform in constraining reasoning in the domains of architecture

1.1 Chinese construction of Nature

This work begins by asking ourselves our assumptions about the Chinese The first step is to ask, “Who are the Chinese?” Linguistically speaking, the Chinese share a

language — Mandarin — and a written script More importantly, they share the

same geographical landscape The Chinese live in a continental country known as China today To the ancient Chinese, China stood at the centre of the world, with fascinating terrain and a multitude of sites speaking of a rich and complicated civilization.1 China’s conception of its position has engendered phrases such as

tianxia•倣妖‚ , ‘land under the sky’ and sihai zhi nei •蒜研壗苔‚, ‘within the

four seas’ as the physical embodiment of the world (Fung Yu-lan 1976; cf Idem

1952) Furthermore, the landscape or even the world is known as shanshui•農姫‚

or literally ‘mountains and waters’ as mountains, hills and highlands cover about sixty-six percent of the nation’s territory Mountains were perceived as living entities; they were the embodiment of the natural order, having the largest bodies, and popular as a locale for the manifestation of paranormal forces At the same time, when perceived in isolation, mountains were dynamic.2 Nature, however

1 China has a vast territory, a population of almost 1.2 billion and 9.6 million square kilometres of land The varied geomorphologic characteristics of the land have created a wide diversity of qualities in the Chinese landscape This research however, strives to unravel the inner logic of Chinese perception by an a-historical investigation on Chinese Culture, specifically the Han Culture

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

when viewed holistically, is epitomized by the mountains’ material permanence which provided a stark contrast against the transience of mankind Consequently, mountains also offered respite in times of difficulty as the spiritual symbol of stability The geographical formation of China was typically continental with a large land mass Hence, agriculture formed the main economic activity of the Chinese.3 Land, the measure of affluence in an agrarian country, was greatly treasured The Chinese emulated the way of sowing and reaping of their ancestors

by following their elemental agricultural experiences The relationship with Nature occupies a prominent position in Man’s activities since he relies on Nature for the fulfilment of his essential needs Hitherto, fewer cultures have been closer to

than it is at present (Holzman 1996: 26) So, it is not surprising to find this close affinity to the land expressed in an ancient folksong celebrating agriculture,

Anonymous, trans Burton Watson

This idea has been systematically outlined the connection of man and nature and agriculture (Fung Yu-lan 1976;

cf Li, Dun Jen 1978; Graham 1989)

4

The Chinese started to move away from the mysticism of pagan religion during the Zhou Dynasty•姙渦‚ (circa

1066 – 256 B.C.), slowly understanding the workings of Nature, embracing Nature, evident in the Book of Odes, Shijing·溌式 , or Lisao·嬢祢 (Xu 麗況迎 1998: 225 – 226)

1 Introduction/Research Background

Agriculture leads to the evolution of cultivation practices and the classification of

Nature in the categorization of seeds, plants, land — landforms, fertility, et cetera

— and seasonal planting These important elements of the food supply system further develop the systems of trading, cities and more In the process of classification and categorization, the Chinese progressively developed and manipulated their conception of the world through perception

1.2 Problematique — The notion and conception of space

Why should the concept of space hold the crucial key to the development of architecture in the twentieth and twenty-first century and possibly the future? It is the capacity of space to be categorized as both abstract (intangible) mathematical and physical concrete (tangible), or philosophical and phenomenological, both of which constitutes a construction in the mind (intangible), a construction in the physical world (tangible), as well as a construction of the way we think and conceive the world (rationale of the intangible) (cf Ruitenbeek 1993; Idema 1995; Shonfield 2000) However, this “capacity” complicates matters Is space the struggle to see or locate objects, in the process, objects defining their boundaries

(the “what”) or it is a space that contains everything — coordinates — (the

“where”) as well as the space between the “what”? The “where” specifies the relationships of continuity of objects, while the “what” defines objects Let us first

give an example to illustrate this complication in The Stone

•勁林仁Δ敦 勁万鑓林, 鮎眼吮 岶仁倡這壗額, 皿孩

枚抜, з劉妖卜甥逃仁.‚

[After being carried for what seemed a very great length

of time … on the north front of the east-west street … the chair proceeded some distance more down the street … after traversing the distance of a bow-shot inside, half turned a corner and set the chair down.]

(HLM I.3.37; SS I.3.87–88)

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

Here, the account attempted to show what it ‘meant’ or ‘felt like’ to be carried over “a very great length of time” and “some distance more” is complicated by Cao Xueqin’s further description of distance as being that of “a bow-shot” This is further exacerbated with cartographic directional markers such as ‘front’, ‘back’,

‘left’, ‘right’ as well as cardinal points, ‘North’, ‘South’, ‘East’ and ‘West.’ The reader must be careful to differentiate how far one ‘feels’ he/she have travelled (space as a psychological construct) from the actual distance covered, in this example, by the carrier (space as an entity) How can one overcome such complications and, possibly, confusion?

The research should therefore begin by clarifying the term spatial representation

By this the research intends a format or level of mental representation that encode the properties of objects in the world and the relationships amongst them in space For the reason that spatial information can be derived from vision, auditory localization, and haptic (touch) faculty, it demands a format that is not modality-specific Therefore, that is, this representation is neither visual nor haptic nor aural, but spatial (cf Jackendoff & Landau 1992 & 1993) With its “capacity” in mind, space is about the process from abstraction by means of representation to the construction of objects Space is hence defined in this research as “a mental organiser of process” which distinguishes architectural space from distances between objects; one is the way space is arrived at or designed and the other is in the properties of the object The conception of space is the understanding of the mental organization of objects and forms, thereby understanding the mental organization of architecture which is to say that this work is concerned about the

“what” and the “where”

In this research, I have drawn upon such cognitive based understanding of spatial system This will give us a much better understanding on the complexities of human diversity in spatial conceptions and the investigation specific to the Chinese context in the conceptual systems of narrative representation to reveal the

1 Introduction/Research Background

underlying patterns of spatial reasoning in late imperial China.5 The research begins with the goal of using evidence from a classic text (language) to provide insight into the nature of spatial cognition, in particular to help understand how one represents objects and places in space How does one talk or write about what one sees? How does one’s mind encode spatial and linguistic information? In addition, what are their corresponding relationships? What is the relationship between the “what” and the “where”? A number of theoretical themes and bases emerge from the discipline of cognitive science Spatial cognition is most likely the earliest domain of systematic cross-modal cognition Like Jackendoff, there is a reassertion of the value in researching into the mind Namely, in terms of “formal symbolic descriptions of information structures” whose importance is in its expressive power of formalism (Jackendoff 1992: vii) Formal descriptions allow one to see if what one claims for a mental capacity can be truly accomplished Moreover, if the resources of a mental capacity can be suitably limited, the intention to adopt such a system hinges on its pragmatic usefulness in explaining the nature of spatial conception as design knowledge, in a cultural context

Hence, it is pertinent to keep the following questions in mind: Do Chinese comprehend space uniquely because of a difference in conceptual system (rule system: Institution, convention, habit) or is there a fundamental cognitive (innate) difference in its conception? What are the conventions used in representation (narrative) pertaining to the domains investigated? How do such conventions relate

to the human spatial cognitive ability? In what ways is this pragmatic useful in the socio-economical context?

5

Most of the literature on spatial conception is predominantly based on cognitive science, psychology and neurophysiology of Western subjects Theories that have come from this narrow base often deviate from the picture presented here even though this research relies on the framework of Cognitive Scientist/Linguist, Jackendoff and Landau

(cf Jackendoff 1997, 1996, 1992; Landau 1994a; Jackendoff & Landau 1991, 1993)

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

1.3 A Philosophical overview of space in the Chinese context

How do the Chinese view/experience space? Foremost, space is ‘empty.’ Space is rendered as an ontological necessity in the Chinese context represented by the

character xu • 隷 ‚ It has its pictographic origin in the drawing of the gap

between two mountains.6 The Wei Dynasty (circa A.D 220 – 265) glossary the

Guang Ya·傑枠 7, stated: “‘xu’ means ‘empty’” (Zhang 囀俾 et al 1984: 釆慱尿)

•夭隷混, 匪宍髀‚

[The (state of) vacancy should be brought to the utmost degree, and that of stillness guarded with unwearying vigour.]

(Laozi 紹孱 1990: Laozi 16; Legge 1927: Laozi 16)

•湊鈎魂隷J隷坏稜噎俥‚

[Where the (proper) course is, there is freedom [Space]

from all pre-occupation; — such freedom [Space] is the fasting of the mind.']

(Chen 嬰掲冱 1983: 117; Legge 1927: Book IV: Part I,

Section IV)

The fasting of the mind is a state that is free from the mundane worldly affairs, away from the sensual attractions of the world Subsequently, in the late Warring States and early Han period, space came to be understood as a cosmological

principle with writings referring xu to heaven

•倣咏隷J額咏宍J体鮎F季G [毆]… 隷坏抹役壗反俥.‚

[Heaven is called ‘space’; earth is called ‘tranquil’; and neither varies …

Space is the beginning of the myriad things.]

(Guan 鯨姨 1927; Rickett 1985: Guanzi 36, Techniques of

1 Introduction/Research Background

The earth is the repository of all things, whereas heaven is empty Therefore, heaven is described as ‘space’:8

•匂畔坏, 妹鮎迎公匸婉, 苔鮎墮公廻汚 畔僂鮎権公嘗拙, 鮎 劈公噴隷.‚

[When people without such internal knowledge wait to be questioned by others in dire extremity, they show that externally they see nothing of space and time, and internally know nothing of the Grand Commencement

Therefore they cannot cross over the Khwan-lun [Mount Kunlun], nor roam in the Grand Void.'[Ultimate space]]

(Chen 嬰掲冱 1983: 妹牒2 墮π劈掛毅髪毅, 581; Legge 1927:

Book XXII: Part II, Section XV)

Huainanzi also assimilates ‘space’ as one of the processes in a cosmogony:

•鈎反勣隷┰, 隷┰駁匸婉 匸婉駁訂, 訂辨現攵 嶋伉坏, Ω 奏既稔倣; 姆尓坏, 但奠既稔額.‚

[The Way begins in empty space; space gives rise to

space-time; space-time gives rise to qi Qi has limits: what is light and yang is rarefied and becomes heaven; what is

heavy and muddy congeals and becomes earth.]

(Liu 据チ 1935; Major 1993: 18 – 19)

In Huainanzi, priority is given to xu rather than qi: the term ‘empty space,’ is the

ultimate beginning; from ‘empty space’ come the dimensions of space-time; from

space-time come qi that is thus, not the origin itself Qi separates and produces heaven and earth Conversely Zhang Zai 囀哦, in the Song Dynasty, equates xu and

qi, giving each equal position in the hierarchy:

8

An indicator of the superlative ‘ultimate’ frequently prefixes the term ‘space.’

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

•訂壗灼妊勣噴隷, 劒э但釆勣姫 墮噴隷嵯訂, 啾戻戻.‚

[The condensation and dispersal of qi in ultimate space is

like the freezing and melting of ice in water When one

knows that ultimate space is qi then there is no

beinglessness.]

•墮隷舜嵯訂, 啾辨戻冦要, 粕慌臨臓褒倡戻毅.‚

[When one realizes that space and emptiness are qi, then

‘being’ and ‘beingless’, the hidden and manifest, the wondrous and transformation, human nature and destiny are seen as one and not as separate things.]

•匂明隷貸駁訂, 啾隷戻淘, 訂辨浴, 墓剔斐需, 南紹頒辨駁戻 屬鴇壗折…‚

[If one says that space can generate qi, then space would

be limitless, qi limited; space would be substance; qi its

function; each radically different from the other This would be to fall into Laozi’s theory of natural spontaneity

by which being is generated from beingless ]

倣苔妹思訂, 額奩儖訂, 役隷噺思訂, 褒混拝妖喙慌壗噺墓俥

畔畦隷庇公訂, 喫貸駁訂俥.‚

[Before heaven and earth were yet split apart, original qi

was all in a cosmic soup, clear, spacious, with no gaps It was the original impetus for making and transforming

There was space and hence there was qi; space was not independent of qi; qi was not independent of space There

was the mystery of no beginning and no ending It is not possible to attain its limits, thus it is called ultimate space

[Spacious emptiness is the container of qi Qi is fine

without boundaries, minute and formless; thus people see

spacious emptiness but do not see qi Whatever is spacious emptiness is all qi When gathered it is apparent; when it is

apparent then people say that it exists When scattered then it is hidden; when it is hidden then people say it does

not exist … As for its reality, then principle is within qi; qi does not not have principle Qi is within emptiness;

emptiness does not not have qi Both are united such that

there are not two things.]

(Wang 迄虚壗 1995; Black 1989: 23)

Thus, Zhang Zai, Wang Tingxiang, and Wang Fuzhi affirmed that qi is without

beginning or end, without limit or boundary, and existing forever and proposed a

theoretical understanding of space through qi Qi unites both space (intangible)

and physical objects (tangible)

When space is coupled with time, the cosmological concept of the totality of

phenomena in time and space is expressed as a binary set (yuzhou•匸婉‚—

modern understanding as the ‘universe’), which composed of characters that when

read separately mean ‘extension’ (yu•匸‚) and ‘duration’ (zhou•婉‚) One

could also translate it as ‘space-time,’ but ‘space’ is used to mean ‘empty space’

when translating xu ‘Space’ as in ‘space-time’ suggests what is measurable,

whereas the more Bergsonian ‘extension-duration’ is probably nearer to the

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

original meaning of the term yu-zhou Zhuangzi and Shizi used yuzhou, the Mohist logicias used jiuhe and the Guanzi used zhouhe Of these three expressions only the former lasted The combinations with jiu and he failed because the words have too many different meanings In Han Dynasty and later works, the formulation yu-

zhou appears

Contrasted with xu — space as ultimate beginning, yuzhou — “extension-duration”

refers to the exteriorised consciousness of the world It is the tangible universe

The earliest known use of yuzhou is in one of Zhuangzi Although, Zhuangzi does

not give an explanation of the terms, the definition of the two concepts can be

Laozi 紹孱 1990; Liu 据チ 1935; Zhang 囀後 1968)

•辨噺既戻公鴬坏, 匸俥; 辨宇既戻Д廰坏, 婉俥.‚

[… has a real existence, but it has nothing to do with place, such is his relation to space; he has continuance, but it has nothing to do with beginning or end, such is his relation to time.]

(Chen 嬰掲冱 1983: 611 – 612; Legge 1927: Book XXIII: Part

III, Section I)

1 Introduction/Research Background

•万携招飼明壗婉, 蒜祇拝妖明壗匸.‚

[Going back to the past and coming to the present is called

“duration”; the four directions, above and below are called

“extension.”]

(Liu 据チ 1935: 廷冨聾; Zhang Dainian 2002: 148)

•匸壗с戻混, 婉壗肝戻淘.‚

[The measure of “extension” is without limit: the ends of

“duration” are infinite.]

(Ma 扇拳元 1995; Zhang Dainian 2002: 148)

Commenting on Zhuangzi, both Guo Xiang •懸蘭‚and Guo Qingfan •懸棟記‚noted that although heaven and earth are limited, the concepts “extension-duration” are without limit A logical analysis of the terms is also elucidated in the

Mohist Canons (The term used for duration in these canons is jiu•柴‚rather than

zhou•婉‚, their definitions are similar) and in the Guanzi there is a chapter

earth, and the myriad things in the world:

•匸婉辨蒜祇拝妖既蒜祇拝妖矛辨淘鴬 匸婉辨携飼壗宇戻混 ‚

[“Extension” is the four directions, above and below, and the four directions, above and below, are without limit

“Duration” is what perdures from the past to the present and neither in past nor in present does it have a limit.]

(Guo 懸蘭 1978: Vol 3 斈孱魂糸; Zhang Dainian 2002: 148)

in time one cannot know its beginning nor yet its ending.”]

(Guo 懸棟記 1995; Zhang Dainian 2002: 148)

•·式拝 咄: •柴, 匝兌抜俥.‚·式標 : •携飼階足.‚·

[Canon: “Duration” is pervasion of different times (A40)

Explanation: “Present” and “past” combine mornings and evenings (A40)

Canon: “Extension” is pervasion of different places (A41)

Explanation: “East and west” covers “north and south”

(A41).]

(Mo 速革 1935: 腫壗髪; Graham 1978: 293)

•倣額抹役壗怠, 婉糊辨怠倣額.‚

[Heaven, earth encapsulate the myriad things; “zhou-he”

encapsulates heaven and earth.]

(Guan 鯨姨 1927; Rickett 1985: Guanzi 11, All Embracing

Unity, 1:1 35)

•婉糊壗儔, 拝褒勣倣壗拝, 妖騰勣額壗妖, 妹甥蒜研壗妹, 糊占倣額, 僂稔倡怠.‚

[The meaning of “zhou-he” is that above it reaches to

above heaven and below it has its source below the earth, outside it goes beyond the four seas It unites heaven and earth so as to make of them one bundle.]

(Guan 鯨姨 1927; Rickett 1985: Guanzi 11, All Embracing

Unity, 1:1 52)

Thus, “extension” refers to the space of space and time; it is tangible but cannot

be located “Duration” refers to the time of space and time; it lasts permanently,

it perdures but has no beginning or ending In other words, “duration” refers to all dimensions of time and “extension” refers to all dimensions of space Collectively, they refer to the three dimensions of space with time (four dimensional world) Such understanding affirms the reality of space and the continuing nature of time

as well as the limitlessness of both

The variety of philosophical perspectives offered by Chinese philosophers, as this overview presented here, makes it difficult to identify a conceptual system that the research might use as a model for thinking about how Chinese encodes spatial relations There is a lack of discussion pertaining to how space is understood in the

1 Introduction/Research Background

social context In taking these perspectives as a whole, however, these perspectives are likely to serve as a critical backdrop for the discussion of this work

1.4 Space in architectural history and social context

Space has not always been viewed as a “mental organiser of process.” The concept

of space had curiously entered the realm of western architectural theory only in relatively recent years, although since antiquity, the concept of space has been an essential subject for debate in western philosophy and natural sciences It found a point of emergence in the development of architectural theory from the fifteenth century with the discovery of Vitruvius’ writings (cf Appendix IV) The concept of space was also seen as a unique tool for constructing ‘architectural space’ The changing definition of space, over the years, are linked to changes in culture, science, politics, philosophy and arts, which in turn lead to the development of a

‘culture of space’, as described by the Stephen Kern in the book The Culture of

Time and Space, 1880 – 1918 In arguing for the culture of ‘space’, certain paradigms are usually elicited Specifically, there is the assumption that there is such a phenomenon as ‘space’ amongst the Asian people such as the Chinese and the Indians, which may be contrasted with their counterparts in the West

The changing development of the concept of space was not evidently connected with the development of architecture until fifteenth century Joseph Rykwert in his

On the Oral Transmission of Architectural Theory, tried to explain that:

"… masons like all other craftsmen, were always bound into

a guild, that the transmission of ideas went on inside it and that was a secret society whose proceedings were therefore inevitably unrecorded… In later years, … the invention of printing weakened the hold of the secret oath

on craftsmen, as well as the fascination of the secret."

(Rykwert 1988: 31 – 48)

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

Perhaps, the same argument can be extended to the Chinese After all, the builders of Chinese traditional buildings were craftsmen too This also probably explained why there were no significant volumes of architectural treatises but manuals.9 The question on whether the Chinese do or do not have a concept of

‘architectural space’ will be answered accordingly as this work examines further

The western pre-modern normative notion of space was in accordance with Plato’s

teaching (Timaeus, circa 37 – 38 B.C.) that only the visible, the tangible and existing, were considered real.10 Plato understood ‘space’ as one of the four elements that made up the world: earth, air, fire and water The Platonic world was a three-dimensional world and any notion of ‘space’ was suppressed in favour

of geometry (Plato 1957: 97 – 107; Jammer 1954: 5 – 24; Sorabji 1983: 268 – 176) Geometry and objectivity were the vehicles to reconcile man’s alienation with the invisible and therefore mysterious universal space With Newton, ‘space’ was homogeneous and undifferentiated; its parts were imperceptible to our senses, thus coordinate system had to substitute them To Newton, it was logical and an ontological necessity for absolute space It was a qualification for the validity of the first law of motion: “Every body continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in a right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it.” Such unilinear homogeneous motion necessitates a reference

9

The earliest extant version of Luban jing·清ワ式 is dated from the Ming Dynasty•霜拐‚ Luban•清ワ‚is

also known as Gong Shupan•勲泌地‚or Gong Shuban•勲泌ヲ‚ There are numerous citation of Luban jing throughout Chinese classical texts: for example, Mozi·速孱 , Mencius·倉孱 , Liji·浄妻 , Zhanguo ce·嚥拳

謂 , Yingzao fashi·冽喙徽叛 , et cetera Yu Haozeng [Song] 卩醪喩 [頻], Mujing·汰式 [Timber manual]The

manual is lost, only a portion is preserved in Meng xi bi tan·叢有П併 [Notes written in Dreams]

(Ruitenbeek 1993; Du 竿堕 1994; Shen 舶娼 1978; Li擾試 date unknown)

Yuan Ye·吁俤 [The Craft of Gardens] was completed in late Ming dynasty, circa mid seventeenth century, the first manual to be written on gardening It was even regarded by Zheng Yuanxun•墹曼弄‚, in his foreword to the

manual, to have achieved an importance in contribution to the Chinese craft of gardening equivalent to Zhou Li - Kao Gong Ji·姙浄 戎熊妻 It was originally titled Yuan Mu·吁堕 by its author but was later changed to its present title, as suggested by Cao Yuanfu•胃曼匡‚, on the basis that it was the first such manual to be

written on gardening Zhang Jiaji•囀砕綢‚, the author and interpreter of Yuanye Quanshi·吁俤闘釆 in his

foreword to the interpretation, give a good summary of the history of Yuanye

10 Whereas the Daoist adheres to exactly the reverse

1 Introduction/Research Background

system different from that of relative ‘space’ The state of rest presupposes such

an absolute space as well (Jammer 1954: 99) It was only with the Hegelian aesthetic system whereby beauty in art was attained by the perfect expression of

an idea that the hierarchy of the arts was defined by the degree of immateriality in the means of expression (Hegel 1975, 1999) Architecture was identified as the

‘lowest’ of arts because of its materiality The move from material to ‘space’, as the location for architectural essence in the early 1890s, changed this notion and subsequently attracted a whole range of art historians, painters and sculptors to the field of architecture.11

The physical content of the idea of space that caused architectural ideas to move

in a direction parallel to ideas on space in philosophy and natural sciences occurred

at the scale that we know of today, recently Since then, the idea of ‘space’ is not just an abstract idea, it can be related to the concept of space in philosophy and natural sciences, a threefold division described by Albert Einstein (1953): — ‘space’

as place; absolute concept of three-dimensional ‘space’; and relative concept of space-time The new concept of the duality of matter is opposed to the mind and body schism of the Cartesian worldview; many physicists even saw the similarity

with the Chinese concept of yin and yang (Arida 2002: 52)

Only with this fresh understanding of space, has the notion of a tangible aspect of space changed to that which includes the intangible (Arida 2002).12Consequently,

Concepts of Space: The History of Theories of Space in Physics (Jammer 1954); The

Philosophy of Space and Time (Reichenbach 1958); Problems of Space and Time (Smart 1964); Space and Time in Special Relativity (Mermin 1968); The Natural

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

Philosophy of Time (Whitrow 1961); Conceptions of space in social thought: a

geographic perspective (Sack 1980); The turning point: science, society, and the

rising culture (Capra 1982); The Culture of Time and Space 1880 – 1918 (Kern 1983);

The social logic of space (Hillier & Hanson 1984); The architecture of the jumping

universe: a polemic: how complexity science is changing architecture and culture

(Jencks 1995), are some examples of books written assuming this background Hitherto ‘space’, even when no longer understood as absolute, retained one property in common with such an entity: — it was Euclidean in nature Even in the theory of special relativity, the space-time continuum by which every observer identified the events in his physical world was held to be Euclidean or pseudo-Euclidean, if the Hermann Minkowski’s four-dimensional `World' representation of Pseudo-Euclidean Space-Time is adopted (Jammer 1954: 143) Hence, the

normative concept of space that privileged tangible mass — the Cartesian concept

of space — prevails.13

Space as a context for understanding the world originated from the Kantian notion

of space and time, and thus espoused the Cartesian dual nature of reality, with both external (physical reality) and internal (cognitive) components Kant went further in arguing that in order for our cognitive understanding to have any correspondence to external reality, there must be some concepts that are innate

and intuitive which is the principle of “subjective a priori” The works of Kantian

and Neo-Kantian philosophical systems have since represented a striking breakthrough in how spatial notions are formed Spatial conception is thought of as

a form of mental representation The individual is no longer perceived as a passive observer of an existing reality (object-centred frame), but instead it determines the “shape” of space and time (observer-centred frame) This idea led to Marr’s theory (Marr 1982) in cognitive science that is specifically concerned with how humans process visual input, which in turn influenced researcher like Jackendoff in

13 cf Huggett (1999), Whitrow (1961), Sklar (1974), Mermin (1968), Smart (1964) and Grünbaum (1963.)

1 Introduction/Research Background

visual-spatial cognition (Jackendoff 1992; Idem 1996: 1 – 30) Jackendoff in reacting to literature on frames of reference that postulated a binary distinction between an intrinsic (or object-centred frame) and a deictic (or observer-centred frame), he assumes the existence of four frames under intrinsic and four others under deictic Intrinsic frames include geometric, motion, canonical orientation, as well as canonical encounter frames, while deictic or environmental frames include gravitational, geographical, contextual, and observer frames Of all those frames, only the geometric and motion frames are free from the influence of the environment

1.5 Key Questions and Method of Research

This research attempts to discover the conceptual framework, design reasoning, and how spaces are put together as a formal structure, in producing pieces of architecture with critical, cultural and philosophical meanings understood from a spatial cognition point of view It also endeavours to inquire deeper into the inclination and disposition of space in the Chinese context, and how it works as an

abstract system

The isolation of formal analysis to comprehend space in Chinese context as a coherent system offers a cognitive perspective on how a building or a space and objects in space are planned and made Investigations will lead to the reflection on the logic of some major fields of Chinese thought, especially the predominant thought of the late imperial Chinese period, Neo-Confucianism This reflection will raise basic questions on the concept of space, especially the problematical interface between cognition and conceptual systems (institutions, conventions, habits) The multi-faceted aspects of historical culture require a multi-disciplinarily research approach As most of the sources for this research belong to literary genres, literary criticism can also contribute much to this work, bearing in mind the history of ideas that presents the ideological frame of the period

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

Inevitably, subjective spatial conceptions are tied to man’s “lived experience.” The purpose of this research is to understand conception of space through the re-construction of fragments of mental as well as physical representation (re-cognition) of space as understood in the Chinese society

The primary thesis is that there is an apparent and a unique way in which Chinese conceives space in the late imperial Chinese period More specifically, the research examines the mechanisms and processes that effected the conception of space Pertinent to the research are these questions14:

1 What are the processes and mechanisms affecting the conception of space that were unique to Chinese in the late imperial china?

2 To what extent could The Stone be representative of

this conception of space? Further, how could one justify the use of a novel (and this novel, than other novels) in this research?

3 Can the conception of space in the Chinese context be understood through the cognitive reading of the narration/description of Chinese architecture?

In order to define the space of the Chinese, it is essential to explore the relationship between Chinese society and their place of abode (territorial and environmental consequences, the sociological significance of their community, the understanding of their material structure) which will elucidate how space was conceived culturally

The research starts with a historical understanding of late imperial Chinese culture,

society, and the manifestation of this socio-cultural milieu in The Stone The

14

Not all these question were adequately addressed in this research, but they provided a general overview of this research inquiry (cf Chapter 7)

1 Introduction/Research Background

research also attempts to identify precedents in the conception of a building through a careful compilation and analysis of documents related to its production This phase of the research relies profoundly on the existence of relevant archival materials However, one must bear in mind that there are no guarantees that the material will allow us to understand the way space is being conceived and used in the conceptual process

The next stage consists of studying the discourse of a period in order to extract from it indications pertaining to the conceptions of space in the formalisation of precedents, models, types, rules and principles of design Although this part of the research rarely provides us information on specific building processes, it allows us

to reconstruct and understand the cognitive conceptual framework within Therefore, by adopting a cognitive approach, it is in response to the need to understand Chinese historical moments of intense cultural creativity and the mechanism or the rationale that produces them.15

Then it identifies cognitive elements of The Stone through spatial structures,

spatial practices, and spatial events (social – actions and their spatial relations; identifications of space, i.e the junctures, the boundaries of space, metaphors,

analogies (scent, dream), physical (doors, thresholds, windows, et cetera), time

(activities); representation (re-cognition) of the world) Consequently, the

15

At a cognitive level, we deal in abstractions We do not store design objects as such in memory but rather their representations Hence, architecture is understood as a represented form of knowledge: a significant organisation

of information concerning the projected form, the intended operations, and the anticipated performance of a

building (Tzonis et al 1978; Tzonis & Oorschot 1987) Furthermore, these representations are encompassing, in a

way, a number of independent experiences Thus, what we carry around, as knowledge seems to come in the form

of concepts or categories rather than specific independent events (Bourne et al 1986: 125)

There are several points to note, like what Foucault has expounded:

Representation (re-cognition) is to do with knowledge but also thereby ‘control over things’; Action is to do with relations with others, but also ‘action on others’; Identification is to do with relations with oneself, ethics, and the ‘moral subject’ (Rabinow 1994: 303 – 319)

“relations of control over things, relations of action upon others, relations with oneself This does not mean that each of these three areas is foreign to the others It is well known that control over things is mediated by relations with others; and relations with others in turn always entails relations with oneself, and vice versa But we have three axes whose specificity and whose interconnections have to be analyzed: the axis of knowledge, the axis of power, the axis of ethics…” (Foucault 1994: 303 – 319)

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

research examines and analyses the text using the six main areas of interpreting

narrative discourse and relates it to space: The concept of deictic shift; The distinction between located object (figure) and reference object (ground); The concept of regions, landmarks, and paths; Topological (or inherent) and projective (or viewer-relative) locations; The deictic functions of motion verbs•寛架‚Jand; The “what” and “where” systems of spatial cognition (cf Chapter 3: Spatial

analysis and narratology)

This research will also examine in detail the relationships between the design object(s) by which design reasoning was construed in the process of designing them and these include both non-animate as well as animate objects (characters) The research will examine and analyse in detail space and its arrangement in the case The research will seek to explain questions of spatial conception — in the spatial

design, arrangement and usage in The Stone in areas of society, tradition, and

existential thought As a salient precedent of design reasoning, the research will further consider to what extent the findings with respect to this case may be generalized and, thus, how that ‘precedent knowledge’ may be useful in interpreting similar cases and in utilising architectural physical space as

‘precedents’ in the formulation of a vivid description of space

1.6 Synopsis of thesis

Part I will sketch out the frames and constraints in the reasoning as well as the framework of research, discussing the criteria of relevance — why is it interesting

to study; the problematique — space as a mental organiser of process; and

assumptions, sketching the theoretical background for the dissertation The question of space is also addressed here

The introduction describes the background of research The work combines a comprehensive coverage of areas with an analytical focus upon space and spatial

1 Introduction/Research Background

arrangement The work concerns The Stone in many important areas, social,

tradition, and existential, wherein for each instance, questions of spatial conception – spatial design, arrangement and usage are raised and explored More

specifically, the search for spatial patterns and arrangements in The Stone is

conducted in these following chapters, through the exploration of the cognitive

relationships or aspects responsible for spatial conception in The Stone

Chapter 2, the historiographic significance of the case will be discussed, with the

reconstruction of the social and cultural milieu wherein The Stone is produced with

the architectural space on the one hand and the socio-culture factors The identity

of The Stone and Chinese tradition will be discussed to show its context and characteristics In other words, identity and production — for whom — The Stone is

made (communication with the intended user group)

Part II, in chapter 4, socially institutionalized design reasoning in the case of The

Story of the Stone is discussed in terms of the way space is represented versus the way space that is described is made The relations between space and words are

also sketched The spatial patterns in The Stone: Spatial representation of the

“state” — the mansion — and spatial representation of the “other” — the garden The structure of space is the mode of thinking that affects social relations:

interested in the localisation relationship of space to the individual/groups/et

cetera are nested in the social context? What are the constraints formed in the socio-economic structure in pre-modern China?

Part III — The Building of Connections, in chapter 5, the complex spatial organisation, operating as an apparatus of control, and the seeming lack of it, asserting influence over the courtyards, the administration (family household), the

Mansions complex, et cetera How was it structured and how did it operate? What

is the spatial problem, if any?

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

Chapter 6, the interplay between the characteristic manifestation of space — architectural features that frame spatial practices) and the texts or records that taught or reminded people what the space they occupied signified) in the construction and diffusion of Chinese Architecture are described The harmonisation of the conceptual dissonance of space, I will argue, is a key element

informing/shaping/forming their conception of space, through examining the garden in The Stone as a field of tectonics manipulation as well as the significance

of the garden Dissonances inherent in The Stone are also discussed and how

reflections on space — a configuration of narrative space functions — divulges the relationship with architectural objects, communicating with the viewer/reader, and bestowing an experience of space

Lastly, the question here is how space in The Stone is composed revealing the role

of cognitive dissonance(s) in the creation of architectonic innovation In addition, from here what attitudes of a collective mind, regarding spatial positioning of

things and human beings are revealed? The significance of The Stone is that it links

this reflection on creative design process with the process of establishing a new coherent cultural value for designers that essentially go along with the long Chinese aesthetic traditions Attempting further than the simple knowledge base of

precedents of classical Chinese, The Stone proffers a system of rules for designing

with precedents

2 A Case: The Story of the Stone

The classic Chinese epic The Story of the Stone also known as Dream of the Red

Chamber or Dream of the Red Mansion (Honglou Meng, ·醐凄叢 ), serves as the vehicle to explore Chinese spatial concepts in architecture The author Cao Xueqin,

as he recalled his own painful experiences or his dissatisfaction with reality, wanted to expose and satirize the social life he knew and lived.16 Many scholars deem that the epic’s portrayal of the family clan’s lifestyle possessed elements of criticism of real history, and because of this criticism of history, we are provided with immense information on the aesthetics of the day It is also well regarded as a summary of social conditions in China as feudalism neared its end The story was clear in its depiction of the illusoriness of life and its goals; it was written during the reign of Emperor Qianlong and even though the period from Emperor Kangxi to Emperor Qianlong was extolled as an era of prosperity, they were no more than embers of a dying system that soon collapsed beyond recovery

Textile Commissioner in Jiangning•三達‚ (present-day Nanjing) His paternal great grandmother, surnamed Sun

•葡‚, had been nursemaid to the infant who was later to become the Emperor Kangxi His grandfather, Cao Yin

•胃冓‚became Emperor Kangxi’s study companion and close attendant Cao’s family had become extremely rich

as to be able to play host four times to the Emperor Kangxi in his itinerant trips down south in Nanjing After the death of Cao Yin, the family, under the headship of Cao Xueqin's father Cao Fu, continued to enjoy the emperor's favour, but when the Emperor Yongzhen ascended the throne in A.D 1723, Cao Fu was removed from his office and punished on charges of financial mismanagement and incompetence in the management of courier stations The family property was confiscated in A.D 1728, and the Caos' peaceful days ended After which, the family moved to Beijing

Most of what we know about Cao Xueqin was passed down from his contemporaries and friends Cao Xueqin, who had spent his childhood in pampered luxury, now shared the family's fate Friends and acquaintances reported an intelligent, highly talented man who spent a decade, roughly A.D 1740 – 1750, working diligently on a work that

must have been The Story of the Stone He also worked for a period in the Imperial Clan's school for the children

of the nobility and bannermen, but eventually settled in the countryside west of Peking He earned some money

by selling his own paintings, but his family seems to have been perpetually in poverty The death of his young son

in A.D 1762 was a crushing blow to Cao, from which he never recovered, and passed away on February 12, 1763(?) Extant handwritten copies of this work, some 80 chapters, had been in circulation in Beijing shortly after Cao’s death before Gao Ê, who claimed to have access to the Cao Xueqin’s working papers, published a complete 120 chapter version in A.D 1792 (cf Spence 1966; Wu 悶旗厮 1964 & 1980; Wu 悶療証 & Huang 紘寺嚇 1983)

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

The Stone, completed in the mid eighteenth century, is considered representative part of the critical realism movement in literature (Li Zehou 1988) It is considered one of China’s most prized epics It is an impressive account that portrays the daily affairs of the Jia family: unveiling the family's glory days through their decline and all the while immersing its reader in abounding details of life during that period in China, with the imbedded love story of the protagonists, Jia Bao-yu and Lin Dai-yu (Hsia C.T 1968: 245) It is widely hailed as a compendium of late imperial Chinese culture and admired for its realistic depiction of the life of the nobility during the Qing dynasty The bountiful details of the material environment of the Jia family are probably our most complete picture of the relation of art and daily life in Chinese society then Idealized as this picture may be, the imagination that produced this image of almost unimaginable luxury and refinement drew upon conventions of the role of art in life to create an ideal, waiting to be shattered in the name of the hero’s liberation from the coils of human attachments In the

macrocosm, The Stone sought to reproduce the visual culture of a world now

regarded by its creator with nostalgia and regret The overriding, structuring and central image of the world in the novel is the garden “paradise”, the Da-guan Yuan

The Garden, however, is a work of art within the larger work of art — the novel What the adults see as a site for a unique formal occasion, the children (Chinese consider all unmarried adults, children) will find to be a universe Indeed, it is so because the description of the buildings, promenades, waterways and pools, hills and dales, and most abundantly the plants, symbolically represent all the elements

of the environment of a vastly wealthy and privileged gentry family Its precise detail and application of theories of aesthetics, cosmology, and horticulture produced a timeless vision of the ultimate garden of the mind.17 Indeed, the epic portrayed a startling number and variety of buildings, and of traditional Chinese

17

cf Feng (1996); Liang 申館唾 (1987); Meng 倉棟呆 (2001); Scotts (1986: 83 – 94); Yu 勸冩抜 (1973, 1976 & 1999b); Zeng 喩仗広 (1989 & 1990); & Zhang 囀斑就 (1999)

2 A Case: The Story of the Stone

culture, mannerism, religion, philosophy, entertainment, medicine, and family

and others proliferate in its allusions to Chinese literature and history.19

Before this work begins on the case proper, it is important to first have a general indication of the garden’s holistic discussion about architectural space While this research focuses on the concept of representation (re-cognition), the knowledge of

The design of a Chinese garden is the confluence of visual and spatial activities, through the perception of the world In effect, Chinese garden design is inextricably tied up with architecture, Chinese landscape painting, as well as Chinese poetry, of which both painting and garden design are actual graphical representations The Chinese garden was alleged to have originated in the hunting grounds of aristocracy during the Zhou•姙‚dynasty (Johnston 1991: 2) By the Song •頻‚dynasty (circa A.D 960 – 1279), the urban bureaucracy led to the creation of the town garden, a crystallization of the interdependent relationship of man and nature The earlier part of the Ming •霜 ‚dynasty saw the physical characteristics of the urban garden becoming more defined as garden design became more sophisticated but it was during the earlier part of the Qing•嶋‚dynasty that the development of garden design reached its peak The Chinese garden played an important role in shaping the physical character of the Chinese city Essentially an urban phenomenon, the Chinese garden was “a part of the urban spatial nature and a unique element in the courtyard form of layout which

Part I – Frames & Constraints in Reasoning & Framework of Research

dominated Chinese planning” since in its early development (Johnston 1991).Hence, the Chinese garden had its own special place in the hierarchy of urban space, functioning separately as both a dwelling’s living quarters and a place for retreat from the real world outside its high walls

Given that the epic’s portrayal of the family clan’s lifestyle showed elements of criticism of real history, which in turn provides vast amounts of information on the spatial conception of the day (intentional and institutional normalization of knowledge), since the normalization of spatial conception is also a social phenomenon It is a form of negotiation about conventional design practices which,

in this case, becomes manifest in the form of a narrative However, once such shared knowledge has been recognized and explicitly described, it may come to be perceived as “institutional”, as an externally constituted form of knowledge seemingly imposed upon the individual This is especially so when for example, codes, regulations, or even building manuals in the case of architecture, produced, imposed and enforced by the State, are taken at face value By virtue of this normalization of knowledge, in convention and bureaucratic systemization, there are ultimately two quite distinct sets of normative compulsions in design reasoning (Jackendoff 1992: 22; Chomsky 1986).21 For this reason, the narrative can be effectively seen as a tool for thinking in demonstrating the influences on cognitive knowledge (the thinking mind and literary narrative) and its domains of study (how people talk about space and even construct space)

2.1 The historiographic significance of the case

Beside the problem of English transliteration, the research encounters the problem

of classification of objects that is influenced by the period wherein they were written This has been the object of severe criticism by many scholars, especially

21 Chomsky has discussed the same tension with respect to the term language For Chomsky’s purpose, the

characterization of the mental resources that makes possible human knowledge of language