The gulf of mexico oil spill a corpus based study of metaphors in british and american media discourse 6 1

Summing up the results of the aggregate empirical analysis and the metaphor conceptual keys mined from the IICM, it is clear that the corpora from the conservative broadsheets WP-Corpus

CHAPTER 6 METAPHORS IN AMERICAN & BRITISH

MEDIA DISCOURSE:

A CROSS-CULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

6.1 Introduction: The American broadsheets vs the British

broadsheets (A comparative approach)

Musolff (2004, p.61) states that the specific function of metaphors in political (and media) discourse is to “frame arguments into stereotypical scenarios that suggest particular conclusions” In other words, Musolff sees metaphor as a persuasive tool that effectively exploits our specific cultural values in order to evoke a particular outlook desired by those in power He goes a step further by stating that these metaphors are “best analysed by way

of the distributional analysis of sufficiently large amounts of corpus data which reveal the usage patterns and relative dominance of certain scenarios” Hence, this particular study aims to combine the functions of two leading web-based concordancing software to document and analyse the aggregate metaphorical framings pertaining to the BP oil spill The overarching aim is to establish a methodology that is inductive, empirically based and most importantly, repeatable

At this juncture, it is important to note that while this study aims to explicitly identify and critique the aggregate range of conceptual metaphors and their corresponding scenarios in the target corpora, the resultant analysis is not value neutral This is simply due to the fact that the entire categorical slots for participant roles and narratives are generated from the analyst’s

perspectives that are constrained by socio-cultural experiences and stereotypes Hence, while other readers and metaphors analysts are free to challenge, reify and recontextualise the associated scenarios and conceptual metaphors, it is hoped that the IICM provides an empirical and inductive platform for metaphorical analysis in large representative corpora that would result in useful methodological uniformity This would provide a common platform for subsequent metaphorical disagreements and discussions

As a definitive statement on a broadsheet’s stance cannot be made from a single study due to the inherent limitations in any corpus and in the scope of the study, all the statements and claims made in this thesis are generalisable only to this dataset, and are not extendable to each broadsheet’s overarching political stance per se until further validation across a wider range

of comparable studies are carried out The findings in this thesis are the result

of the careful compilation of 250 articles EACH from four separate broadsheets, all gleaned according to strict criteria and in accordance to a pre-determined timeframe It is important to note that the analysis is streamlined into two broad evaluative categories across both American and British media discourse:

1 The potentially nationalistic portrayal of the key players in the entire disaster: Namely the respective evaluative stances taken towards BP and the US Government (specifically, the Obama administration, the Bush administration and the associated range of governmental agencies like the MMS)

2 The pre-eminence of the WAR/CRIME/CONFLICT metaphors across all four corpora: With particular emphasis placed on the variations in the aggregate framing of the disaster e.g the predominance of HEALTH AND DISEASE vs NATURAL DISASTER scenarios, the metaphorical foregrounding of nationalistic sentiments (and the relentless pursuit of justice) vs the emphasis on pragmatic economic considerations, predominantly framing business as CONFLICT

Table 6.1 below presents an aggregate overview of the two broad evaluative categories stated above:

Table 6.1 – Aggregate comparison of metaphor types in British and American Broadsheets (G

& TT, NYT & WP):

Summing up the results of the aggregate empirical analysis and the metaphor conceptual keys mined from the IICM, it is clear that the corpora from the conservative broadsheets (WP-Corpus and the TT-corpus) generate a significant proportion of conceptual metaphors that focus on the mitigation and negation of BP’s culpability in the entire oil spill This can be seen in the specific nature of the embodiment within the WAR/CRIME/THREAT conceptual key in the WP-corpus (53.6%) and TT-corpus (68.1%), conceptualising

BUSINESS as a WAR/ GAME OF SURVIVAL in an effort to justify BP’s continued economic survival On the other hand, the metaphors mined from the more liberal broadsheets (NYT-Corpus and the G-Corpus) focus on the scale of the disaster and emphasise the range of negative emotions arising from the BP Oil Spill, favouring a narrative centering on the pursuit of justice and the relentless castigation of culpable parties This can be seen in the higher percentage of negative evaluations for the key players in the oil spill in the NYT and G-corpus Thus, it would appear that the corpora gleaned from the conservative broadsheets adopt a less explicit, and a more subtle and mitigated approach to the metaphorical evaluation of the key actors in the oil spill – in

an effort to foreground the more pragmatic, pro-business editorial ideology This is in contrast to the corpora obtained from the liberal broadsheets which are more focused on the more explicit and intense metaphorical framings of the scale of the disaster and on the ideological adherence to notions of justice and ecological sustainability

However, it is important to note that in most of these cases, the differences amongst all four broadsheet corpora are lesser than expected from our preconceived biases In a comparable study done by Semino (2002, p.4-5)

where she analyses the metaphorical representations of the euro in British and Italian newspapers, “overarching similarities” were found in the metaphorical patterns involving the euro in both sets of newspapers Semino attributed these similarities to two main factors

1 The “significant similarities in the conceptual metaphorical systems underlying (British) English and Italian”

2 The “predictable mutual influences between reports about the euro in different countries”

While Semino’s observations are somewhat transferable to the context of this analysis, it is important to note that there are significant differences in the frequencies of the various types of metaphors as well as in the subtle metaphorical realisations of the same source domain within this study This can be attributed to the differences in the dominant attitudes and editorial perspectives to the oil spill in accordance to specific experiential embodiments, cultural influences and political affiliations that are captured within these specific corpora subsets These subtle metaphorical textures will be uncovered

in the subsequent analysis in this chapter

The analysis for this chapter will take the following structure:

• A detailed cross-cultural comparison of the range of analogy-based

metaphors identified by the IICM across the four empirically-salient

USAS domains analysed in this thesis:

1 Substances & Materials: Liquid (NYT_1/ WP_1/G_1/TT_1)

2 Speech: Communicative (NYT_2/ WP_2/ G_6/TT_8)

3 Damaging and Destroying (NYT_5/WP_5/G_7/TT_6)

4 Green Issues (NYT_11/WP_7/G_5/TT_10)

The metaphors mined from these four domains will be analysed with

reference to another new salient USAS domain: Other Proper Names

(NYT_4/WP_3/ G_2/TT_1) The analysis of this additional domain is

motivated by the significant recurrence of two contextual references that seem to run throughout all four corpora:

a The constant reference to the BP Oil Spill as the environmental and corporate equivalent of the “9/11” attacks

adaptation of Grady, Taub & Morgan’s (1996) concept of Primitive and Complex metaphors provides a systematic account of the various metaphorical complexes in the target discourse In other words, it is a systematic and integrated visual representation of Musolff’s (2004a, 2004b) Scenarios/Conceptual Metaphors and Charteris-Black’s (2004) Conceptual Keys/ Conceptual Metaphors/ Linguistic Metaphors

6.2 A cross-cultural comparison of analogy-based metaphors in

American and British media discourse

Kovecses (2002, p.69) states that conceptual metaphors are inevitably grounded in experience, either “perceptual, biological or cultural” These physical, socio-cultural and sensory embodiments are thus collectively referred to as the experiential basis of metaphor For the purposes of this cross-cultural metaphorical analysis, only the metaphors that entail most independent and culturally specific experiential basis will be analysed This is because generic level metaphors would tend to merely reflect universally shared perceptions Thus, the range of analogy-based metaphors identified in the IICM will be the springboard for a cross-cultural evaluation of the metaphors framing the BP oil spill The choice of these metaphor subsets is a strategic one because the embodied nature of these metaphors results in participants negotiating the way a concept is represented and understood in specific situations, facilitating a textured cross-cultural metaphor analysis in the process

6.2.1 A cross-cultural analysis of two recurring contextual

metaphors: The 9/11 attacks and Hurricane Katrina: Other Proper Names (NYT_4/WP_3/ G_2/TT_1)

The critical metaphor analysis in this section will be preceded by the critical analysis of two recurring contextual references throughout the analysis thus far:

1 The contextual references to the unprecedented scale of the ecological and economic damage inflicted with reference to the 9/11 attacks (THE BP OIL SPILL IS AN ENVIRONMENTAL 9/11)

2 The constant contextual parallels with Hurricane Katrina with respect to the Obama administration’s handling of the BP oil spill and the Bush administration’s handling of Hurricane Katrina (THE BP OIL SPILL IS OBAMA’S KATRINA)

As is the convention in this thesis, the IICM phases are applied to the

analytical process for the USAS domain: Other Proper Names (NYT_4/WP_3/

G_2/TT_1)

6.2.1.1 A cross-cultural analysis of contextual metaphors: The 9/11

attacks - Other Proper Names (NYT_4/WP_3/ G_2/TT_1)

Figures 6.1-6.4 show the entire range of concordances mined from the respective corpora via Sketch Engine for the recurrent parallel reference, “9/11”

or “Sept.11” The analysis for this section will focus on the range of metaphors linked directly to this recurrent parallel reference in the target text

Fig 6.1

Collocates for ‘9/11’ (NYT-corpus) in Sketch Engine (All 8 instances)

Figure 6.1 displays all eight instances of the 9/11 references in the NYT-corpus A dominant unifying thread in these concordances is the

constant allusion to the details associated with the “9/11 victim’s

compensation fund” (seven out of eight instances) This aptly foregrounds

the main preoccupation of the victims of the spill: that of economic survival and monetary compensation The intertwined moral axioms of “victim’s rights” and “fair compensation” as a result of the victims being the targets of unsolicited violence serves to produce group cohesion as it addresses the group’s embodied concerns directly These concerns are captured in Texts 6.1-6.2 below:

Text 6.1

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (NYT-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Text 6.2

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (NYT-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Text 6.1 aptly conveys the full extent of the moral accounting metaphor It is clear that the victims of the oil spill claim “justice” and

“rationality” as guarantees of full compensation and the castigation of the relevant parties The construction of reality in this extract clearly casts BP in the role of the CRIMINAL This can be seen in the second sentence of Text 6.1

where “White House officials have said that BP could be liable for more than

$20 billion” The semantic connotations of being “liable” refer to BP’s culpability in causing damage and injury and is hence legally obliged to make compensation and/or be punished accordingly However, a critical analysis of the text actually conceals the US government’s oversight and failed enforcement measures as key contributors to the current economic and ecological disaster The overarching presumption seems to contain overt xenophobic strains where the innocent victims’ “emotion, anger and frustration” are fully directed against the FOREIGN AGGRESSOR This self-legitimisation is further emphasized in Text 6.2 where the blame attribution rests solely on BP (and not its other equally culpable partners on the rig) This can be seen in the way the Obama administration is trying to ensure that “BP will not be able to walk away from its responsibilities” and in the references to BP’s “uneven treatment and (slow) response” to the victim’s claims This

unabashed self-legitimisation by the Obama administration is invoked by producing group cohesion amongst the victims of the spill by defining the spill against the backdrop of the moral accounting metaphor, depicting the administration as an EFFECTIVE LEADER taking appropriate action, thus concealing the key facts pertaining to the true situation

Fig 6.2

Collocates for ‘9/11’ (WP-corpus) in Sketch Engine (All 4 instances)

In contrast, the contextual reference to the 9/11 attacks in the WP-corpus is far more limited in terms of number and metaphorical range The dominant strain

of economic pragmatism, identified earlier in Chapter 4, is once again clearly

in evidence Figure 6.2 shows that there are only four references to the 9/11 attacks While two out of four concordance lines make direct reference to compensation funds, the core focus is an anecdotal reference to Kenneth Feinberg, the fund administrator, rather than a focus on the full extent of the compensation Hence, it is clear that the WP-corpus deviates from the moral accounting metaphor that often broaches the potentially incendiary topics of compensation and justice, and frames the issue in a narrative sequence focusing on the investigative process This more neutral framing is seen in Text 6.3:

Text 6.3

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (WP-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Text 6.3 is an interesting point of reference, in part due to the fact that the “Sept 11” reference points to an actual date with no metaphorical intent While the lack of a concrete metaphorical reference in all four references to

“Sept 11” in the WP-corpus is acknowledged, however, much of the evaluative slant is in line with the pragmatic ideology that counterbalances the nationalistic rhetoric often seen in the NYT-corpus In this instance, the focus lies in the technical details in the fact-finding process pertaining to the blowout, without the hyperbolic legitimisation embodied in the all-out pursuit

of justice

In contrast, the British broadsheets seem to adopt a diametrically opposed stance to the American broadsheets While the American broadsheets contain the expected ideological oppositions in the metaphorical evaluation of the oil spill, the key focus remains on either the evocation of the moral accounting metaphor (in an effort to obtain a measure of justice and financial compensation from BP and the culpable parties) or on the investigation narrative (focusing on the inquiry procedures and findings in order to avert similar reoccurrences) However, the British broadsheets seem to adopt a more nationalistic stance, critiquing the inefficiencies of the US politics, seemingly

in an effort to mitigate the role played by BP in the entire disaster

Fig 6.3

Collocates for ‘9/11’ (G-corpus) in Sketch Engine (All 10 instances)

Figure 6.3 shows all ten concordance lines for the node term “9/11” from the G-corpus Five out of ten concordance lines conceptualise the oil spill in terms of force images directly linked with the 9/11 incident The metaphorical “quantification” of the impact suggests a strongly negative evaluation, using metaphorical entailments linked with despair and pain that are usually associated with a national crisis The first three concordance lines seem to focus significantly on the internal political strife that is an inherent part of US politics The expansion of two concordance lines will be analysed

in detail in Texts 6.4-6.5:

Text 6.4

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (G-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Text 6.5

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (G-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Text 6.4 portrays the US Government as enslaved by incendiary political opinions Text 6.4 strategically depicts the American media, personified by the “columnists” as a MOB demanding that Obama “harness(es) the nation’s outrage” Taken in tandem with the unflattering portrayal of US

scientists as headline-mongering rabid dogs “howling blue murder”, the corpus is constructing the portrait of Britain being the antithesis of America, where the British government is rational, avoids disunity and is able to demonstrate adequate moral responsibility Hence, BP is clearly personified as

G-a VICTIM OF PARTISAN POLITICS constantly “castigated” by the Obama Administration despite the involvement of similarly culpable operators (“American site operators Transocean and Halliburton”) and even more damningly, despite the failure of the US’s own government watchdog agency This is seen in the reference where “(Obama’s) own regulators” are concealed behind a curtain of “xenophobic rhetoric” This antithesis is even more pronounced in Text 6.5 where a clear dividing line is drawn between the political disunity and xenophobic myopia inherent in US politics and the implicitly pre-supposed objectivity and impartiality of the British government Hence, the inherently nationalistic stance embodied by the G-corpus in Chapter 5 is once again clearly demonstrated, triangulating the findings from the previous IICM analysis

Finally, the eight concordance lines in the TT-corpus with the node term “9/11” conceptualises the oil spill in more measured terms (Figure 6.4) This is seen in the way six of the eight concordance lines references the 9/11 attacks in terms of the scale and unprecedented nature of the oil spill, rather than on the incompetence of the parties involved or in the search for justice through the relevant measure of compensation A clearer exposition can be seen in Texts 6.6 - 6.7

Screenshot for ‘9/11’ (TT-Corpus) in Sketch Engine

Texts 6.6-6.7 essentially embody a more pragmatic stance This can be seen in the overt focus on the investigative processes pertaining to the spill Text 6.6 highlights the mutual cooperation by all parties – ranging from Transocean (“which ran the rig on BP’s behalf”) to the US department of Energy in the open sharing of information in order to come to a satisfactory conclusion to the issue Apart from the issue-focused approach, Text 6.6 foregrounds its pragmatic concerns by highlighting the financial impact on

BP The clearly unhedged quantification of BP’s losses (“shares falling as

CONCEPTUAL KEY (SCENARIO):

A MORAL DEBT IS NECESSARY PUNITIVE OR FINANCIAL

COMPENSATION

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN EFFECTIVE LAW ENFORCER

much as 9%” and “pounds 56 billion being wiped off BP’s company value”) suggests that the BP’s value is a troublesome concern for the TT-corpus This has the effect of drawing a parallel between the impacts of the 9/11 attacks with the corresponding financial repercussions suffered by BP

However, Text 6.7 foregrounds a separate but unrelated concern: the unfavourable portrayal of Obama’s leadership in terms of his inability to

“summon that crisis-battling volunteer spirit that Americans hold so dear” This seems to implicitly construct a metaphorical evaluative response to Obama’s leadership (OBAMA IS AN INCOMPETENT LEADER) and apportion blame for the rescue efforts directly on the administration’s shortcomings, thus mitigating some blame from BP The implicit reference to the “plentiful supply of fossil fuels” once again highlights the carefully constructed ideology

of pragmatism inherent in the TT-corpus that justifies BP’s continued existence

Figures 6.5-6.8 are simple yet powerful diagrammatic representations

of the range of conceptual keys, scenarios and conceptual metaphors depicted

in each broadsheet:

Fig 6.5

Pictorial Representation of Metaphorical Primitives and Compounds (NYT-Corpus) – A pictorial representation of the “9/11” Contextual References (adapted from Grady, Taub & Morgan, 1996): Texts 6.1-6.2

CONCEPTUAL KEY (SCENARIO):

THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT IS AN ANTITHESIS OF THE US POLITICS

(CRIME AND PUNISHMENT/ MORAL ACCOUNTING METAPHOR)

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS A POLITICAL PRISONER

THE US MEDIA

IS A MOB

BP IS A VICTIM

OF PARTISAN POLITICS

CONCEPTUAL KEY (SCENARIO):

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN INVESTIGATOR

(CRIME)

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN IMPARTIAL

INVESTIGATOR

BP IS A CRIME SUSPECT THE OIL SPILL

IS A CRIME

CONCEPTUAL KEY (SCENARIO):

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS AN INVESTIGATOR

THE OBAMA ADMINISTRATION IS THE CHIEF

Fig 6.7

Pictorial Representation of Metaphorical Primitives and Compounds (G-Corpus) – A pictorial representation of the “9/11” Contextual References (adapted from Grady, Taub & Morgan, 1996): Texts 6.4-6.5

Fig 6.8

Pictorial Representation of Metaphorical Primitives and Compounds (TT-Corpus) – A pictorial representation of “9/11” Contextual References (adapted from Grady, Taub & Morgan, 1996): Texts 6.6-6.7