From the case study results, the methodology was capable of estimating with good confidence the life cycle carbon emission factor of existing electricity generation systems.. It was also
Trang 1LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE
CHANGE POLICY
NIAN JIALIANG VICTOR
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
Trang 2LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS OF ELECTRICITY GENERATION SYSTEMS WITH IMPLICATIONS ON CLIMATE
CHANGE POLICY
NIAN JIALIANG VICTOR
B.Eng. (Hons.), NUS
A THESIS SUBMITTED
FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE
2014
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I hereby declare that,this thesis is my original work and it has been written by
me in its entirety
I have duly acknowledged all the sources of information which have been
used in the thesis
This thesis has also not been submitted for any degree in any university
previously
Nian Jialiang Victor
3 January 2014
Trang 4I would like to gratefully and sincerely thank my thesis supervisor, Professor Chou Siaw Kiang for his guidance, understanding, and patience during my graduate studies at the National University of Singapore. His mentorship was paramount in providing a well‐rounded experience consistent my long‐term career goals. He encouraged me to not only grow as an engineer and an academic researcher, but also as an instructor and an independent thinker. I
am grateful for his confidence in my development of my individuality and self‐sufficiency by being allowed to work with such independence. For everything you’ve done for me, Professor Chou, I thank you. I would also like to thank the Department of Mechanical Engineering, especially all members in my thesis committee for their advice in shaping the focus of my research.
I would also like to thank Dr. John Bauly for his guidance in getting my graduate career started on the right foot and providing me generously with his expert knowledge valuable to my research. I am grateful for his generous sharing of his vast experiences in nuclear engineering. Despite his busy schedule and the long distance between Singapore and Zurich, his valuable comments and advice had always been reaching me in a timely manner. Working with him granted me with the unique opportunity to gain a wider breadth of research experiences.
I would like to thank the Energy Studies Institute for giving me the opportunity
to participate in important research projects. I was honoured to be awarded with a research scholarship top‐up from the institute for the project on an energy economy model of the Singapore’s electricity sector.
Finally, and most importantly, I would like to thank my family, especially my parents, for their support, encouragement, quiet patience and unfailing love. I
am grateful for their faith in me and allowing me to be as ambitious as I
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Summary iv
List of Figures vi
List of Tables viii
List of Abbreviations ix
List of Symbols xi
1 Introduction 1
2 Literature Review 13
3 Development of the Methodology 27
3.1 Generic power generation system definition 27
3.2 Levelled system structure and associated boundaries 40
3.3 Kaya Identity and decomposition 53
4 Case Study on a Reference Light Water Reactor 107
4.1 Reference global uranium supply chain 107
4.2 Uranium fuel cycle calculation 109
4.3 Process Chain Analysis for the LWR 116
4.4 Life cycle energy and carbon emission analysis 134
4.5 Further analysis 147
5 Case Study on Future Small Medium Reactors 169
5.1 The state of fission power reactor development 169
5.2 Reactor technology roadmap towards Generation IV 181
5.3 The prospects of the SMRs 190
5.4 Evolution towards “Smarter Energy” future 207
6 Discussions 217
6.1 Technical Benefits 217
6.2 Policy Benefits 221
6.3 Limitations 223
7 Concluding Remarks 226
References 231
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Given the urgency to mitigate the warming climate caused by excess anthropogenic carbon emissions, decarbonizing the global energy system ranked as one of the top priorities. In evaluating the alternative low carbon technologies, life cycle analysis (LCA) emerged strongly as a modelling tool for supporting the decision making process. An LCA focusing on energy consumption and carbon emissions can provide insights on climate change policy. Over the decades, two dominant approaches were established in the LCA literature, namely the Input‐Output Analysis (IOA), and the Process Chain Analysis (PCA) approaches.
The IOA is an economic driven top‐down approach that considers aggregated flows between economic sectors. The PCA is a bottom‐up approach that uses engineering and process‐specific data. PCA generally yields more accurate results, but it is a time consuming exercise. Thus, a PCA exercise is usually simplified by applying “cut‐off” criteria to exclude less relevant processes, leading towards potential under‐estimation of the impact. On the other hand, the results from IOA are more complete and less case dependent, but they are also less precise. There are also transparency issues due to the lack of granularity at the process level.
From a quick scan, we detected a large dispersion on the life cycle carbon emission factors of electricity generation system, nuclear power in particular.
Trang 8in the PCA approach for benchmarking. In response, we proposed a methodology to streamline the formulation of the life cycle energy system. The methodology, developed based on the first principle, can give clear depiction
on the elementary mechanisms of the input‐output interactions across the system boundaries. The resulting system boundaries can facilitate the use of Kaya Identity and the decomposition concept to objectively establish the “cut‐off” criteria for an LCA‐PCA exercise.
Two case studies were developed with one on a reference large size reactor system and the other on a Small and Medium Reactor (SMR) system. From the case study results, the methodology was capable of estimating with good confidence the life cycle carbon emission factor of existing electricity generation systems. It was also capable of projecting the life cycle energy input and carbon emissions of future electricity generation technologies, such as an advanced SMR system. Moreover, the methodology was also capable of analysing the influence of key design parameters on the life cycle carbon emissions of the system. These capabilities can provide insights directly relevant for energy system planning and climate change policymaking.
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Figure 1‐1 The “450 Scenario” developed by the IEA 3
Figure 1‐2 General framework of an LCA on fission power generation 6
Figure 1‐3 Life cycle carbon emissions of fission power generation reported in the literature (logarithm plot) 7
Figure 2‐1 Criteria on the evaluation of LCA methodologies 14
Figure 3‐1 Schematic of a heat engine 28
Figure 3‐2 Schematic of steam electricity generation 29
Figure 3‐3 Schematic of the generic electricity generation system 30
Figure 3‐4 Generic electricity generation system with representations on environmental impact 31
Figure 3‐5 Power generation and upstream systems 32
Figure 3‐6 Schematic of a broader fuel fabrication system 34
Figure 3‐7 Extended energy input definition for power generation system 35
Figure 3‐8 Formation of life cycle electricity generation system via system merging 36
Figure 3‐9 Complete representation of the life cycle electricity generation system 37
Figure 3‐10 Generic life cycle electricity generation system 37
Figure 3‐11 Generic “LCA Main System” definition for electricity generation in the PCA approach 38
Figure 3‐12 Boundaries between the technological system and its surroundings 45
Figure 3‐13 Boundaries between the “LCA Main System” and the “LCA Sub‐ systems” 45
Figure 3‐14 Expanded view of levelled system structure 49
Figure 3‐15 Defining the carbon emission streams with CInt and CExt 55
Figure 3‐16 Simplified multi‐process system representation 58
Figure 3‐17 Schematic for decomposing at Level 1 ‐ “Energy Input” side 63
Figure 3‐18 Schematic for decomposing at Level 2 ‐ “Energy Input” side 71
Figure 3‐19 Schematic for decomposing at Level 1 ‐ “Non‐Energy Input” side . 82
Figure 3‐20 Schematic for decomposing at Level 2 ‐ “Non‐Energy Input” side . 85
Figure 4‐1 Global uranium supply chain for the case study 109
Figure 4‐2 Summary of uranium fuel cycle calculation results 116
Figure 4‐3 Schematic of the uranium mining and milling “Process” 118
Figure 4‐4 Schematic of uranium conversion “Process” 120
Figure 4‐5 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 1) 122
Figure 4‐6 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 2) 123
Figure 4‐7 Schematic of uranium enrichment “Process” (Scenario 3) 123
Figure 4‐8 Schematic of fuel fabrication “Process” 126
Figure 4‐9 Schematic of power generation “Process” 129
Figure 4‐10 Schematic of SF interim storage “Process” 131
Figure 4‐11 Schematic of spent fuel disposal “Process” 133
Trang 10published LCA results 142
Figure 4‐13 Benchmarking the case study results for Level 0 against the median of published LCA results 143
Figure 4‐14 Benchmarking the case study results against the average of published values 144
Figure 4‐15 Benchmarking the case study results for Level 0 against the average of published values 145
Figure 4‐16 Distribution of “Process Energy Input” 149
Figure 4‐17 Share of “Process Energy Input” 150
Figure 4‐18 Distribution of upstream “Process Energy Input” 151
Figure 4‐19 Distribution of “Process” carbon emissions 153
Figure 4‐20 Share of “Process” carbon emissions 154
Figure 4‐21 Distribution of upstream “Process” carbon emissions 155
Figure 4‐22 Influence of uranium ore grade to the life cycle carbon emission factor of the reference LWR system 158
Figure 4‐23 Typical initial loading map for a reactor core 160
Figure 4‐24 Impact of enrichment concentration to the life cycle emission factor 162
Figure 4‐25 Scenario dependent trajectories of emission factors 163
Figure 4‐26 Influence of 235 U Concentration in Scenario 1 164
Figure 4‐27 Influence of 235 U Concentration in Scenario 2 166
Figure 4‐28 Influence of 235 U Concentration in Scenario 3 168
Figure 5‐1 Graphite “pebble” for Pebble Bed Reactor 171
Figure 5‐2 Olkiluoto nuclear power station Unit 3 (EPR unit) 174
Figure 5‐3 Loviisa nuclear power station with two units of VVER‐440 174
Figure 5‐4 Qinshan CANDU nuclear power station 175
Figure 5‐5 Shika nuclear power station (BWR and ABWR) 176
Figure 5‐6 Leningrad nuclear power plant (RMBK and VVER reactors) 177
Figure 5‐7 Monju nuclear power station (sodium cooled LMFBR) 179
Figure 5‐8 Torness AGR power station, Scotland 180
Figure 5‐9 Roadmap for fission power reactors 183
Figure 5‐10 The prospect of future reactor licensing 184
Figure 5‐11 Benchmarking life cycle carbon emission factors 192
Figure 5‐12 Benchmarking the life cycle carbon emission factor of the SMR in the technology conservative scenario 195
Figure 5‐13 Benchmarking the life cycle carbon emission factor of the SMR in the technology optimistic scenario 197
Figure 5‐14 Influence of uranium ore grade to the life cycle carbon emission factor of the conceptualized SMR 199
Figure 5‐15 LCOEs of alternative power generation technologies 201
Figure 5‐16 Capital costs of alternative power generation technologies 202
Figure 5‐17 Capital costs of alternative power generation technologies including SMR 203
Figure 5‐18 LCOEs of alternative power generation technologies including SMR 204
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Table 2‐1 Summary of significant milestones in LCA development 25
Table 4‐1 Operating conditions of the reference LWR system in Singapore 110 Table 4‐2 Summary of SWU calculation 114
Table 4‐3 Mining and milling “Process” inputs 119
Table 4‐4 Conversion “Process” inputs 121
Table 4‐5 Enrichment “Process” inputs ‐ Scenario 1 124
Table 4‐6 Enrichment “Process” inputs ‐ Scenario 2 124
Table 4‐7 Enrichment “Process” inputs ‐ Scenario 3 125
Table 4‐8 Fuel fabrication “Process Energy Input” ‐ Scenario 1 127
Table 4‐9 Fuel fabrication “Process Energy Input” ‐ Scenario 2 127
Table 4‐10 Fuel fabrication “Process Energy Input” ‐ Scenario 3 127
Table 4‐11 Fuel fabrication “Process Non‐Energy Input” ‐ all scenarios 128
Table 4‐12 Power generation “Process” inputs 129
Table 4‐13 SF interim storage “Process” inputs 131
Table 4‐14 Spent fuel disposal “Process” inputs 133
Table 4‐15 Carbon emission factors of electricity 134
Table 4‐16 Carbon emission factors of fuels 135
Table 4‐17 Carbon emission factors of power plant maintenance activities 135 Table 4‐18 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 1 135
Table 4‐19 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 2 136
Table 4‐20 Energy and carbon emission analysis for Scenario 3 137
Table 4‐21 Carbon emission factors of “Non‐Energy Input” 139
Table 4‐22 Case study results for the reference LWR system 140
Table 4‐23 Life cycle carbon emissions on fission power reported globally . 140 Table 4‐24 Summary of results for energy and carbon emission analysis 147
Table 4‐25 Summary of “Process Energy Input” in physical unit 149
Table 4‐26 Summary of “Process Energy Input” in percentage 150
Table 4‐27 Summary of “Process” carbon emissions in physical unit 152
Table 4‐28 Summary of “Process” carbon emissions in percentage 154
Table 4‐29 Initial 235 U enrichment vs. average assembly burn‐up for Leibstadt LWR 161
Table 5‐1 Summary of current SMR designs 186
Table 5‐2 SMR operating conditions – technology conservative scenario 193
Table 5‐3 Summary of case study results for the conceptualized SMR in the technology conservative scenario 194
Table 5‐4 SMR operating conditions – technology optimistic scenario 196
Table 5‐5 Summary of case study results for the conceptualized SMR in the technology optimistic scenario 196
Table 5‐6 Overnight cost and the LCOE of the conceptualized SMR design . 203 Table 5‐7 Benchmarking the key characteristics of alternative power generation technologies 211
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MWt Megawatt of thermal energy
Trang 13OCGT Open cycle gas turbine
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OMR Organically moderated reactor
USC Ultra‐supercritical
U.S. DOE United States Department of Energy
U.S. EIA United States Energy Information Administration
U.S. NERAC United States Nuclear Energy Research Advisory Committee U.S. NRC United States Nuclear Regulatory Commission
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: the n th process of the “LCA Sub‐system” on the “Energy Input”
side : “product” of “Process”
Trang 15: mass of different forms of fuel (denoted by each respective
subscript)
: mass of wastes (residues) from the fuel fabrication process : mass of fuel for producing thermal energy
: wastes (residues) from the power generation process (quasi‐heat‐engine definition)
Trang 16: system energy efficiency
: dimensionless energy payback time : loading factor
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1 Introduction
Global warming caused by anthropogenic carbon emissions has received increasing attention over the decades [1]. There is a strong scientific consensus that continued rising trend of global warming will lead to catastrophic climate change, threatening life of millions [2]. According to the ADB [3], climate change will have severe adverse effects on the sustainable development and poverty eradication efforts globally and particularly to the Southeast Asian region. First, a large population (about 563 million people) lives along the coastlines, measuring about 173,251 kilometres long. These populations are highly vulnerable to sea level rises. Second, even though rapid economic growth and structural transformation brought millions out of extreme poverty, there were still about 93 million (18.8%) living in extreme poverty as of 2005. Third, agriculture accounted for about 43% of the total employment in Southeast Asia and contributed about 11% GDP in 2006. The increase in extreme weather events (such as droughts, floods, and tropical cyclones, and warming), and forest fires due to climate change seriously threaten the export
of agricultural produce. Lastly, increases in frequency and intensity of heat waves, droughts, floods, and tropical cyclones will lead to more frequent and extensive damage to properties and human lives. It is therefore important to take on urgent action in decarbonizing our energy systems.
One of the typical approaches in identifying the means of reducing carbon emissions is energy systems modelling. Under the broad family of energy
Trang 18system modelling frameworks, there is a large pool of methodologies and tools focusing on the assessment of environmental impacts, reported by Finnveden [4]. By examining the pool of methodologies, life cycle analysis (LCA) is the most relevant methodology for quantifying major potential environmental impacts related to the product or service. In this case, the environmental impacts refer to carbon emissions, which cause global warming.
The interest in LCA experienced rapid growth since the early 1990s. Initially, LCAs were applied for products [5, 6] as a decision support tool for selection among different alternatives. In the early development, LCA received both high expectation and varied criticisms, as seen in Udo de Haes [7], Ayres [8], Ehrenfeld [9], Krozer and Viz [10], and Finnveden [11]. These expectations and criticisms stimulated strong development efforts globally. Over the years, international standards, ISO14040 [12] on principles and framework, and ISO14044 [13] on requirements and guidelines were established. These standards were complemented by operational guides, such as Guinée [14], and textbooks, such as Wenzel and others [15], and Baumann and Tillman [16].
Over the decades, LCA has been progressively applied to energy producing systems, especially power generation [17]. From 1973 to 2011, the global energy production increased from 6,129 TWh to 22,202 TWh at an average annual growth rate of 3.5% [18]. In 2010, power generation was accountable for 41% of carbon emissions with 67.8% of the world electricity production
Trang 19of the popular targets for LCA studies [22]. In the “450 Scenario” developed by the International Energy Agency (IEA), fission power was expected to contribute to 6% of the carbon emissions reductions from the Business‐As‐Usual (BAU) scenario (Figure 1‐1 drawn based on the information from [23]).
Figure 1‐1 The “450 Scenario” developed by the IEA
According to Turconi [17], there were broadly four phases in conducting an LCA: 1) goal and scope definition, 2) inventory analysis, 3) impact assessment, and 4) interpretation. Although there was a regulatory framework defined in ISO 14040 and ISO 14044, the guidelines provided in the current ISO standards for conducting an LCA study allowed for flexibility in interpreting key methodological issues [24]. Such flexibility has led to subjective approaches in the formulation of an LCA methodology, which may produce incompatible results with other LCA studies of identical goals and scope. In the absence of a
Trang 20standardized approach, it was difficult to benchmark the LCA results from different methodologies.
In general, there are broadly two approaches in the LCA literature, the Process Chain Analysis (PCA) and the Input‐Output Analysis (IOA). PCA is a bottom‐up approach that uses engineering and process‐specific data. Ideally, these data are obtained directly from the actual plants in the supply chain. PCA generally yields more accurate results, but it is a time consuming exercise [25]. Very often, a PCA exercise is simplified by applying “cut‐off” criteria to exclude less relevant processes, leading towards potential under‐estimation of the impact [26]. On the other hand, the IOA is an economic driven top‐down approach that considers aggregated flows between economic sectors. It is often used for tracking the embodied energy or embodied carbon emissions in trade [27, 28] with the ability to consider the feedback effects in a multi‐regional setting [29]. Compared with PCA, the results from IOA are more complete and less case dependent, but they are also less precise [30]. There are also transparency issues due to the lack of granularity at the process level.
In the literature, there were also developments on the hybrid approaches by linking up the IOA and PCA, such as Bullard [31], Wilting [32], Treloar [33], Suh [34]. However, there were not many studies using these approaches available
in the literature [17]. Wiedmann and others [35] used two hybrid approaches
as well as the PCA approach to estimate the life cycle carbon emissions of wind
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For both the IOA and PCA approaches, it is necessary for an LCA study to select
an appropriate set of LCIs to reflect the local conditions and the temporal scope of the study [17]. The selection of LCI is closely dependent on the formulation of the life cycle system. In the case of a PCA, the granularity requirement for the LCI dataset is high and can be difficult to obtain. However, the same set of LCIs can lead to considerably different results in the absence
of a properly formulated LCA methodology in the PCA approach. The cause of such variation was found to be related to the reliability of the methodological development in the PCA approach.
Using fission power as an illustration, a general framework for an LCA study in the PCA approach can be outlined as schematized in Figure 1‐2. Based on this approach, several LCA methodologies on fission power, such as [36‐47] were developed with corresponding life cycle carbon emission factors reported. However, there is a lack of a standardized methodology in the PCA approach for benchmarking the current LCA results on fission power. Without a standardized methodology, it is also difficult to benchmark the life cycle carbon emissions of alternative power generation systems.
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Figure 1‐2 General framework of an LCA on fission power generation
Based on our assessment on the credibility and reputation, we have carefully selected a list of more than 50 LCA studies in the PCA approach. These studies constitute more than 90 sample points for the LCA results. Based on our observation, the reported values of the life cycle carbon emission factors of fission power varied by more than a factor of 100 (Figure 1‐3). Such a magnitude of dispersion are hardly plausible. It seems to suggest that there are reliability issues with the current methodologies. Thus, it suggests the need
to carefully investigate the issues associated with the current LCA studies. In brief, we found that there were reliability issues from both the methodological development and LCI selection aspects.
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carbon emissions from alternative power generation technologies with key policy recommendations. The LCA results were also used by the consultants at Mckinsey for the development of a global Marginal Abatement Cost Curve (MACC) [50, 51]. At the regional level, the ADB referenced LCA results in the discussion about climate change in Southeast Asia [3]. At the country level, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) referenced LCA results for the agency’s Annual Energy Outlook series [52]. All of these authoritative works may become unreliable with the use of unreliable LCA results. As such, it may lead to the ill‐informed decision making, which could result in adverse effects
in decarbonizing the energy systems.
To understand the root cause of the issues with the current LCA methodologies, we employ a scorecard method (explained in Appendix A), developed by Nian and others [53]. This method allows for a systematic evaluation on the key aspects of an LCA methodology related to estimating the life cycle carbon emissions of energy systems (explained in Chapter 2). Our findings suggest that the cause of the issues are rooted primarily from the system boundary definition. The definition of system boundaries originated from the development of a cradle‐to‐grave system as well as the input‐output definitions. The definitions for a life cycle system, its input‐output interactions, and boundary selections are fundamental to an LCA methodology on estimating carbon emissions. Thus, the reliability issues need to be addressed fundamentally.
Trang 25There were four other issues with the current LCA methodologies on power generation in the literature. First of all, none of the existing LCA methodologies were capable of analysing “design” related issues. These “design” related issues include projecting the life cycle carbon emissions of future and/or advanced energy systems, and the influence on the life cycle carbon emissions from the change in design parameters (e.g. reactor size, enrichment concentration, and uranium ore grade). Indicators derived from these capabilities are very important for climate change policymaking. Secondly, there was no standardized LCA methodology even though they were based on
a similar framework. In other words, the current methodologies were usually case specific. An LCA methodology for solar PV power generation system cannot be used on a fission power generation system without re‐defining the entire life cycle system. Thirdly, there was a lack of generic representation on the energy systems. A life cycle system defined for solar PV cannot be used to represent a hybrid diesel‐backed solar PV system. These problems created a barrier for establishing a common platform for repeatability and benchmarking.
In view of the above discussion, the objectives of this dissertation are: (i) to develop a generic methodology for analysing carbon emissions from electricity generation systems using the LCA‐PCA approach; (ii) to establish the cut‐off criteria for an LCA‐PCA by using the generic methodology together with the concept of Kaya Identity and decomposition; (iii) to apply the generic methodology to determine the life cycle carbon emission factor (measured in
Trang 26t‐CO2/GWh) of a large sized reactor system with reference design parameters; (iv) to apply the generic methodology to determine the life cycle carbon emission factor (measured in t‐CO2/GWh) of a small and medium reactor (SMR) system with conceptualized design parameters; and (v) to apply the generic methodology in a parametric study to understand the influence of design parameters on life cycle carbon emissions.
In brief, the proposed methodology is formulated based on three generic definitions: generic system definition, generic input‐output definition, and generic system boundary definitions. The life cycle system definition is conceptualized based on the first principle. In the formulation of the process chain, the methodology allows for explicit representation of key engineering parameters, such as the uranium ore grade, power plant thermal efficiency and loading factor, uranium fuel burn‐up, and uranium enrichment concentration. Applying the concept of energy balance with reference to thermodynamics, the methodology enables clear depiction on the elementary mechanism of the input‐output interactions across the system boundaries. The resulting system boundaries definitions can facilitate the use of Kaya Identity and the decomposition concept to objectively establish the “cut‐off” criteria for an LCA exercise.
There are multiple benefits with the proposed methodology. First of all, it is a generic methodology that can standardize the LCAs for electricity generation
Trang 27cycle system formulation can help minimize potential hazards in an LCA exercise, such as incorrect lifetime definition, biased boundary selections, and insufficient granularity in LCI dataset. The methodology enables transparent and balanced carbon emission analysis due to the use of energy with accurate inclusion of carbon emission streams. Thus, it is able to estimate with good confidence the life cycle energy input and carbon emissions of current electricity generation systems. The methodology is explicit in representing the relevant design parameters at the process level. Thus, it can be used to examine the influence from the variation of these parameters, which advantages conventional sensitivity analysis (such as a Monte‐Carlo simulation). In turn, this methodology can be used to project the life cycle energy input and carbon emissions of future power generation technologies, such as an advanced nuclear reactor.
In this dissertation, we start with a literature review in Chapter 2. Based on the literature review, Chapter 3 describes the formulation of the methodology, which includes life cycle system conceptualization, input‐output definitions, and the selection of system boundaries and “cut‐off” criteria. The concepts of Kaya Identify and decomposition are used to facilitate the discussion on system boundaries. In Chapter 4, we conduct a case study on a reference light water reactor (LWR) system. The LWR system is assumed to be operating in Singapore with a reference global uranium supply chain. The case study also includes sensitivity analyses related to design parameters, such as uranium ore grade. To demonstrate the ability to project life cycle carbon emissions of
Trang 28on an SMR system with conceptualized design parameters. Chapter 6 discusses about the benefits and limitations of the methodology. Finally, Chapter 7 concludes the dissertation with recommendations for future research.
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2 Literature Review
In the literature, there were broadly two approaches for an LCA of power generation, the IOA approach, and the PCA approach. The IOA was generally referred to as the top‐down approach while the PCA was referred to as the bottom‐up approach. From a system design and modelling perspective, the top‐down approach (also known as decomposition) is the breaking down of a larger system into smaller segments to gain insights to its compositional elements. This approach typically employs a “black box”, which tends to lose details at the elementary mechanism. The bottom‐up approach assembles the smaller segments and the elementary mechanisms that can eventually give rise to a larger system. In this approach, elements at the base level are firstly specified in great detail before being assembled to form a larger segment. In general, engineering design process usually come from the bottom‐up approach, also known as synthesis.
In the top‐down approach, the IOA enabled a standardized platform for scholars to evaluate energy systems in a multiregional setting [27, 28], with the ability to estimate the feedback effects [29] among the different systems.
In brief, it was a proven method in evaluating energy systems at the macroeconomic level but lacking in granularity at the elementary process level. In contrast, the bottom‐up approach enabled high granularity at the elementary level, which was useful for engineering analysis on energy systems. However, methodologies developed in the PCA approach were case specific.
Trang 30According to Nian and others [53], there was not yet a standardized methodology in the bottom up approach. The unifying and standardizing effort required a comprehensive evaluation of the current methodologies in the PCA approach. The authors argued that there were four main criteria in evaluating LCA‐PCA methodologies, namely, LCA scope, LCA system, and LCA inventory data. Each of the main criteria can be further divided into sub‐criteria to enhance the granularity of analysis (Figure 2‐1).
Trang 31systems with minimum effort of adjustments; whether the methodology was capable of analysing different aspects of the an LCA, such as carbon emissions, waste generation, and overall energy efficiency; and whether the LCA can accurately account for the carbon emission streams. Under the “LCA Scope”,
we examined how specific a published LCA method was in a cradle‐to‐grave analysis; how expandable the scope was such that it can be systematically expanded to include different streams of carbon emissions; and whether there was a visible and justifiable timeframe in defining the “lifetime” in the LCA methodology. Under the “LCA System”, we examined whether the system and its input‐output definitions were sufficiently generic to represent all energy systems; benchmarked on the granularity of the PCA used in the methods; critically examined the system boundaries defined in each methodology; and assessed the completeness of a cradle‐to‐grave life cycle definition. Under the
“LCA Inventory Data”, we examined the accessibility of the LCI dataset referenced by the current methodologies; benchmarked the granularity of the LCA dataset; and examined whether the published methodology can lead to engineering analysis from design perspective. With reference to the scorecard,
we selected a list of well recognised works for our literature review.
White [54] employed a typical cradle‐to‐grave approach with net energy analysis, which considers the energy (and related emissions) expanded at all phases of the power plants lifetime. The merit of this work lied with its comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts from power generation, including a broad coverage of gaseous emissions beyond mere greenhouse
Trang 32of fossil fuels. Apart from thermal electricity generation, fossil fuels were also consumed in the process of manufacturing the materials used for power plant and other facilities constructions. However, there was a lack of detailed discussion on the definitions of the life cycle systems for fission power generation and system boundaries. Without a clearly defined system boundary, this method can be unreliable in accurately registering the emission streams relevant to the life cycle power generation system. In turn, it could lead unreliable results. Moreover, this method was specifically applicable to thermal electricity generation, which hindered the possibility of benchmarking against renewables.
Hondo and others [38] (with subsequent update [47]) from the Central Research Institute of the Electric Power Industry (CRIEPI) conducted a comprehensive assessment on the life cycle carbon emissions of different power generation technologies, including fission, coal, natural gas, hydro, geothermal, wind, and solar PV. The assessment report contained a rich set of verifiable primary and secondary data sources of high granularity. Leveraging
on the rich data set, Hondo [36] conducted a life cycle carbon emission specifically on fission power. The merit of the [36] lied with the introduction of life cycle thinking and the importance of setting a specific scope for LCA exercises. Similar to [54], [36] included the emission streams from the use of both fossil fuels and materials. There is lack of discussion on the system
Trang 33cycle carbon emissions of different electricity generation systems. Again, system boundaries were not discussed. Moreover, the LCI dataset of [37] might be conceived as non‐verifiable because [47] and [36] were only available
in Japanese.
Van de Vate [22] discussed the “full‐energy‐chain (FENCH)” methodology on assessing the life cycle emissions for benchmarking different electricity generation systems. The topic on FENCH‐GHG emission was discussed in the expert meeting hosted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in
1994 in Beijing. Subsequently, van de Vate [42] conducted a FENCH‐GHG comparison among fission, hydro, solar, and wind technologies. Similar to [22], the FENCH‐GHG method included the carbon emissions streams from both energy and material use. However, [42] used directly carbon emission equivalent per unit of electricity produced for each stage of fission power generation from mining to final waste disposal with key LCI dataset from the IAEA [55]. Although relevant for benchmarking, it was difficult to access and verify the reference materials. Furthermore, there was no discussion on the definitions of a life cycle system, input‐output, and system boundaries.
Dones and others [56] developed a methodology for an LCA on the carbon emissions of fission power plant in the US. The methodology was based on the schematic of a model US uranium supply chain. The framework was intended for the development of the Eco‐invent database [57], an internationally recognized LCI database. However, the methodology was lacking a clear
Trang 34timeframe for the analysis with poor analytical granularity. An earlier work involved a study of fission power life cycle emissions in China by Dones and others [44] adopted similar framework but the reported a large range of carbon emission factors.
Tokimatsu and others [46] evaluated the life cycle carbon emission of fission power under different nuclear scenarios. With reference to [22, 36, 38, 42], this paper included a detailed discussion on the inclusion of embodied emissions for materials. This paper reported a large range of life cycle carbon emission factors of fission power (from 10 to 200 kg‐CO2/kWh) under the different nuclear scenarios in Japan. It was reasonable to assume that the carbon emission factor of fission power could reduce when more fission power plants were deployed, because the enrichment process and many other activities in the uranium supply chain required large amount of electricity. This methodology was useful for a geographically bounded region covered by the same electricity grid. However, the methodology was difficult to be generalized in a multi‐regional setting. In the case of a global uranium fuel cycle program involving multilateral cooperation for uranium fuel and waste management across different geographical regions, this methodology may not produce reliable results. Furthermore, this work was lacking a clearly defined life cycle system, input‐output, and system boundaries. As such, it was susceptible to incorrect inclusion of embodied carbon emission streams.
Trang 35Meier [58] developed an LCA methodology on the carbon emissions based on net energy analysis. This work included a detailed discussion on the energy input to each process relevant to electricity generation including upstream processes (such as mining of raw materials for plant construction) and downstream processes (such as plant decommissioning). This methodology enabled clear tracking of carbon emissions streams from the fuel use. Moreover, it was capable of computing other important system indicators, such as overall system energy efficiency, and energy payback. In general, it was
a well‐articulated methodology with potential of further improvements. These improvements could be directed at conceiving a generic electricity generation system, establishing a set of clearly and objectively defined system boundaries, and improving the granularity of the PCA exercise.
Lenzen [43] conducted a life cycle energy related carbon emission analysis on fission power to compare the embodied energy and carbon emissions of an LWR system and a heavy water reactor (HWR) system. Apart from the carbon emissions, other indicators such as energy payback were also included. Lenzen explained in details some of the key processes involved in fission power generation. Overall, it was a well formulated methodology based on the PCA approach. However, the methodology could be further improved with discussions on system boundary definitions. Furthermore, it would also be beneficial to improve the methodology with generic system definitions on power generation to allow benchmarking. Another improvement to this work
Trang 36
Sovacool [39] conducted a comprehensive survey on the current LCA methodologies and results on fission power. This paper provided a comprehensive collection of LCA works on fission power in the literature. The life cycle emission factor of fission power was obtained by taking the mean value of selected literature reference. The selection of references was streamlined to exclude less relevant references based on the following criteria: 1) outdated reference data; 2) unavailable in the public domain; 3) methods relying on unpublished data or unverifiable data. These criteria were useful for selecting the list of published works for our literature review. Sovacool’s methodology was developed based on the PCA approach but the granularity
of data analysis can be further improved. Another potential improvement can
be directed at the life cycle system and associated boundary definitions.
Storm van Leeuwen and Smith [40] conducted a detailed LCA on carbon emissions from fission power with an update in [41]. This peer‐reviewed technical report employed the concept of energy balance in computing the life cycle carbon emissions as well as the net energy gain. The energy balance concept was also useful for the development of our LCA methodology. Storm van Leeuwen and Smith included a detailed discussion on the dynamism of energy input expanded at different stages of fission power generation. It also
Trang 37a wide range of verifiable LCI dataset. A first potential improvement could come from a structured view on the process chain, and the associated input‐output definitions of the life cycle system when discussing the uranium supply chain. A second potential improvement could come from a thorough analysis
on the system boundaries and elementary mechanisms of the input‐output interactions across the system boundaries. Without these improvements, there can be reliability issues with the methodology, especially on the inclusion
of carbon emission streams.
Warner and Heath [59] schematized a harmonization method for an LCA on fission power generation. The objective of this paper was to determine the causes of variability in estimating the life cycle carbon emissions from fission power so as to reduce such variations. This paper used meta‐analytical process called “harmonization” in defining the life cycle system, its processes, and system boundaries. By harmonization, the paper aggregated the different stages for fission power generation into upstream processes (such as facility construction and supply of materials), operational processes (such as mining, milling, conversion, enrichment, and power generation), and downstream processes (such as facility decommissioning and radioactive waste disposal). The upstream processes were applicable to all “operational processes” in the definition. By harmonization, Warner and Heath argued that all of these processes should be included in the life cycle carbon emission accounting. The
Trang 38harmonizing method effectively established a consistently defined gross system boundary. However, there was a lack of transparency on the elementary input‐output interactions across the system boundary. As such, there could be reliability issues on the inclusion of carbon emission streams from the process inputs.
Echávarri [60] reported a range of life cycle carbon emission factors of fission power from 2.6 to 5.5 kg‐CO2/kWh. This range of values was considered very low compared with the selected literature. The primary focus of this work was more on the comparison of life cycle carbon emissions among power generation technologies, and less on the LCA methodology. For fission power, the LCA emission values were referenced from [61], which was superseded by [62]. One might argue that the inclusion of Echávarri’s work into the literature review was less relevant due to the differences in the focuses of discussions. However, this highlighted a critical issue on the reliability of the reference data. Pro‐nuclear publication might report favourably low carbon emission factors while anti‐nuclear ones might report otherwise. Depending on the granularity of the PCA, system boundary definitions, and the reference data, it was possible to manipulate an LCA on carbon emissions towards favourable results. Therefore, it was important to discuss in details on the formulation of
a life cycle electricity generation system and system boundaries. A careful analysis on the credibility of the reference data was crucial, especially when an LCA work only referenced the final life cycle carbon emission factors from
Trang 39Suh and others [63] argued that there were practical difficulties in drawing the system boundaries with current LCA methodologies, including the relevant ISO method. There was a lack of scientific basis in determining the cut‐off criteria (inclusion/exclusion of processes). In response, Suh and others proposed a hybrid approach in determining the system boundaries, which incorporated the use of PCA as well as the economic Input‐Output method. Overall, this method was more of a top‐down IOA dominant one with less focus on the PCA.
It was a useful method for clarifying some of the boundary issues at the framework level. A potential improvement could come from a quantitative analysis in the PCA approach for scientifically justifying the selection of system boundaries.
In his most recent report published in 2012, which served as an update to [40] and [41], Storm van Leeuwen [64] pointed out that there were still “many controversies with regard to fission power turn out to originate applying different system boundaries and time horizon: which processes and activities are included in the system and which are not. Often the system boundaries are not explicitly defined”. This was another clear indication that there were critical issues with the selection of system boundaries in the current LCA methodologies yet to be addressed at the fundamental level.
In summary, there were issues pertaining to all four criteria defined in the scorecard. Under the “LCA Framework”, there was a lack of standardization in
Trang 40the LCA framework. Each published work represented a unique life cycle technology system even though they were based on a similar approach. There was a lack of transparency in tracking the emission streams. Most critically, none of the published methodologies was capable of representing complex electricity generation systems. For example, this complexity may refer to a system comprised of more than one input fuel type and/or technology system, such as hybrid diesel‐backed solar PV power generation system. Under the
“LCA Scope”, most of the published work seemed to have diluted the scope for assessment with the most common dilution between the study on carbon emissions and waste stream generation. On the timeframe of assessment, there was a lack of distinction between lifetime of a power plant and lifetime
of the value chain for power generation. Under the “LCA System”, there was a lack of a generic system and its associated input‐output definitions; and there was little attention paid to the system boundaries. Under the “LCA Inventory Data”, there were issues with the accessibility of data, such as language barrier and proprietary protections. Many of the published works were lacking in data granularity, which increased the difficulty in validation and benchmarking. In most instances, there was a lack of transparent analysis on the fuel‐to‐fuel, and fuel‐to‐energy conversion but heavy reliance on secondary sources with only gross process or system carbon emission factors. For better visualization, the milestones in the literature is summarised in Table 2‐1.