Readings in social theory The classic tradition ton post - Modernism

l-i READINGS IN SOCIAL THEORYThe Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism... Louis B angkok Bogota C aracas Kuala Lum pur Lisbon London M adrid M exico City Milan M ontreal New Delhi Santiago

l-i READINGS IN SOCIAL THEORY

The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism

K READINGS IN SOCIAL THEORY

The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism

Boston Burr Ridge, IL D ubuque, IA M adison, W l N ew York San Francisco St Louis

B angkok Bogota C aracas Kuala Lum pur Lisbon London M adrid M exico City Milan M ontreal New Delhi Santiago Seoul Sin gapore Sydney Taipei Toronto

m u Higher Education

R E A D IN G S IN S O C IA L THEORY: T H E C LASSIC T R A D ITIO N T O POST-M ODERN ISM

P u b lish e d b y M cG raw -H ill, a b u s in e s s u n it o f T h e M cG raw -H ill C o m p a n ie s, Inc., 1221 A venue of

th e A m e ricas, N ew Y ork, NY, 10020 C o p y rig h t © 2004, 2 000,1996,1993, b y T h e M cG raw -H ill

C o m p a n ie s, Inc A ll r ig h ts re se rv e d N o p a rt o f th is p u b lic a tio n m ay b e r e p ro d u c e d o r d istrib u ted

co n sen t o f T h e M cG raw -H ill C o m p a n ie s, Inc., in clu d in g , b u t n o t lim ited to, in a n y n e tw o rk or o th er

e lectro n ic s to ra g e o r tra n sm issio n , o r b ro a d c a st f o r d ista n c e learn in g Som e a ncillaries, in clu d in g

e lectro n ic a n d p rin t c o m p o n e n ts, m a y n o t b e a v ailab le to cu sto m e rs o u ts id e th e U n ited States.

T h is b o o k is p rin te d o n acid-free paper.

4 5 6 7 8 9 0 F G R /F G R 0 9 8 7 6

IS B N - 13: 9 7 8 - 0 -0 7 -2 8 2 5 7 7 -0

IS B N - 10: 0 -0 7 -2 8 2 5 7 7 -4

P u b lish er: Phillip A Butcher

S p o n so rin g e d ito r: Sherith H Pankratz

D ev e lo p m e n ta l e d ito r: jill Gordon

S e n io r m a rk e tin g m a n a g e r: Daniel M Loch

Project m a n a g e r: Jill M oline

P ro d u c tio n s u p e rv iso r: Janean A Utley

A sso cia te d esig n e r: George Kokkoiias

Lead su p p le m e n t p ro d u c e r: Marc M attson

Typeface: 10/12 Paiatino

C o m p o sito r: Electronic P ublishing Sen'ices Inc., T N

P rin ter: Qucbecor World Fairfield Inc.

L ib ra ry o f C o n g re s s C a ta lo g in g -in -P u b lic a tio n D ata

R e a d in g s in social th e o ry : th e classic tra d itio n to p o st-m o d e rn ism / e d ite d w ith

in tro d u c tio n s b v Ja m e s F arganis — 4 th ed

p cm.

In c lu d es b ib lio g rap h ic al references.

ISBN 0-07-282577-4 (so ftco v er : alk p a p e r)

1 Sociology— P h ilosophy I F arg an is, Jam es.

H M 585.R43 2004

301'.01— dc21 2003046354

w w w m h h e.c o m

About the Author

JA M ES F A R G A N IS w a s b o m a n d ra is e d in N e w York C itv, a tte n d e d its p u b lic

s c h o o ls, a n d rec e iv ed h is B.A fro m B ro o k ly n C o lle g e a n d h is Ph.D in g o v ­

e rn m e n t fro m C o rn e ll U n iv ersity H e h a s ta u g h t a t s e v e ra l co lle g e s a n d u n i ­

v e rsitie s, in c lu d in g H a r p u r C o lle g e a t SU N Y B in g h a m to n , B ro o k ly n C o lleg e,

Q u e e n s C o lleg e, a n d T h e G r a d u a te F a c u lty o f th e N e w S chool for Social R esearch

H e is c u rre n tly P ro fesso r E m e ritu s o f Sociology a t V assar C ollege, w h e re h e t a u g h t

so c ia l th e o ry a n d p o litic a l so ciology, c h a ire d th e S o cio lo g y D e p a rtm e n t a n d

h e lp e d e s ta b lish , a n d la te r c h a ire d , t h e co lle g e 's first p ro g ra m in m u ltid is c ip lin a ry

s tu d ie s , th e P ro g ra m in Science, Technology, a n d Society H e h a s b e e n th e re c ip ­

ie n t o f a n N E H S u m m e r F e llo w sh ip , a n N E H P ro g ra m D e v e lo p m e n t G r a n t, a n d

a F u lb rig h t S e n io r S c h o lar G r a n t to A u stra lia H is p u b lis h e d a rtic le s o n so cial th e ­

o r y h a v e a p p e a r e d in The British journal o f Sociology, Sociological Focus, Journal o f

Psychiatry and Ltnv, a n d Theory and Society, a n d h e h a s re v ie w e d fo r Contemporary Sociology, Social Forces, Polity, a n d The Am erican Political Science Revieio H e h a s

s e rv e d o n t h e e d ito ria l b o a rd o f Polity a n d a s a c o rr e s p o n d in g e d ito r to Theory nticỉ

Society H e c u rr e n tly tea c h e s so c ia l th e o ry a t th e N e w S ch o o l U n iv ersity

P re fa c e xi

I n tr o d u c tio n T h e C la ssic T ra d itio n to P o s t-M o d e rn is m : A n O v e r v ie w 1

PAET 1: THE CLASSIC TRADITION 21

CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS 23

I n tr o d u c tio n 23

F ro m K arl M a rx a n d F re d e ric k E ng els: The M anifesto o f the C o m m u n ist Party

F ro m K arl M arx : Economic and Philosophic M a n u scrip ts o f 1844 37

F ro m K a rl M a rx a n d F re d e ric k E ng els: The German Ideology 43

F ro m K arl M arx : " T h e F e tis h is m o f C o m m o d itie s a n d th e S ecret T h e re o f"

2 ÉMILE DURKHEIM: ANOMIE AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION 55

I n tr o d u c tio n 55

F ro m É m ile D u rk h e im : The Rules o f Sociological M ethod 59

F ro m E m ile D u rk h e im : " E g o istic S u ic id e a n d A n o m ic S u ic id e " 64

F ro m E m ile D u rk h e im : The Elem entary Forms o f Religious Life 73

F ro m É m ile D u rk h e im : " In d iv id u a lis m a n d th e I n te lle c tu a ls " 81

3 MAX WEBER: THE IRON CAGE 91

6 w E B Du BOIS: DOUBLE-CONSCIOUSNESS AND

THE PUBLIC INTELLECTUAL 165

I n tr o d u c tio n 165

Fro m w E B D u Bois: The Philadelphia Negro: A Social S tu d y 167

F ro m w E B D u Bois: The Souls o f Black Folk 171

7 FUNCTIONALISM 181

I n tr o d u c tio n 181

Fro m K in g sle y D a v is a n d W ilb e rt E M o o re: "S o m e P rin c ip le s o f S tra tifica tio n " 183

F ro m T alcott P a rso n s: " A g e a n d Sex in th e S ocial S tru c tu re o f th e U n ite d S ta te s" 191

F ro m R o b e rt K M e rto n : " M a n ife st a n d L a te n t F u n c tio n s " 201

I n tr o d u c tio n 219

F ro m R alf D a h re n d o rf: "Social S tru c tu re , G r o u p In te re s ts , a n d C o n flic t G ro u p s " 222

F ro m c W rig h t M ills: " T h e S tru c tu re o f P o w e r in A m e ric a " 241

F ro m J a m e s s C o le m a n : "Social C a p ita l in th e C re a tio n o f H u m a n C a p ita l" 289

10 PHENOMENOLOGICAL SOCIOLOGY AND ETHNOMETHODOLOGY 303

12 FEMINIST THEORY 369

in tr o d u c tio n 369

F ro m D o ro th y S m ith : " W o m e n 's E x p e rie n c e a s a R ad ical C r itiq u e o f S o c io lo g y " 372

F ro m M ic h e le B arrett: " W o rd s a n d T h in g s: M a te ria lis m a n d M e th o d in

r a te s H a r o ld G a r f in k e l's w o r k o n " b re a c h e x p e rim e n ts " M ic h e le B a rre tt's e ssay ,

" W o rd s a n d T h in g s: M a te ria lis m a n d M e th o d in C o n te m p o r a r y F e m in ist A n a ly ­sis," p r o v id e s a n im p o r ta n t c o u n te r p o in t to D o ro th y S m ith in th e c h a p te r o n

" F e m in is t T h e o ry " In P a rt 3, a re c e n t e s s a y b y J u rg e n H a b e r m a s b r in g s th e s t u ­

d e n t in to c o n ta c t w ith H a b e r m a s 's re fle c tio n s o n th e p o s s ib ility o f d e lib e ra tiv e

d e m o c r a c y in a m u ltic u ltu r a l so c ie ty a n d s e ts h im a p a r t f ro m M a rc u s e 's c ritiq u e

o f te c h n o lo g ic a l r a tio n a lity a n d d o m in a tio n

A w e b s ite h a s b e e n d e v e lo p e d to a c c o m p a n y th e f o u rth e d itio n It in c lu d e s

n o n -te x t-s p e c ific fe a tu re s s u c h as: c h a p te r o b jec tiv e s, w e b lin k s , I n te r n e t e x e r ­

c ise s, g lo s s a ry te rm s , a n d fla sh c ard s V isit th e S o cial T h e o r y S u p c r s ite b y g o in g

to w w w m h h e c o m /s o c ia lth e o ry

I a m v e ry a p p re c iativ e a n d th an k fu l for th e in sig h tfu l a n d e n c o u ra g in g re v ie w s

s u b m itte d fo r th is e d itio n b y R ic h a rd G a rn e tt, M a rsh a ll U n iv e rsity ; C a ro l Ray, S an

Jo se S ta te U n iv e rsity ; G le n n a C o lc lo u g h , U n iv e rs ity o f A la b a m a , H u n ts v ille , S co tt

A p p le ro u th , C a lifo rn ia S ta te U n iv e rsity , N o r th rid g e ; S te v e B u ech ler, M in n e s o ta

S ta te U n iv e rs ity ; Terri L eM o y n e, U n iv e rs ity o f T e n n e sse e , C h a tta n o o g a ; E m ilia

M c G u lk en , C a s e W e ste rn R eserv e; a n d Basil K a rd a ra s , C a p ita l U n iv e rsity T h e

c arefu l re a d in g o f th e tex t a n d th e c o n s id e re d s u g g e stio n s m a d e b v th e s e r e v ie w ­

e rs a re reflec te d in th e c h a n g e s th a t I h a v e u n d e r ta k e n fo r th is re v is io n ; c h a n g e s ,

fo r w h ic h , I o f c o u rs e , a s s u m e fu ll r e s p o n s ib ility a s e d ito r

W o rk in g c lo se ly w ith th e s u p p o r tiv e s ta ff a t M c G ra w -H ill h a s m a d e it p o s ­

s ib le to b r in g t h e p ro c e s s o f re v is io n a n d r e w r itin g to s u c c e s s fu l c o n c lu s io n w ith

(A ssista n t E d ito r), A m y S h affer (E d ito ria l C o o rd in a to r), a n d Jill M o lin e (Project

M a n ag e r) all d e s e rv e m y s p e cia l th a n k s fo r th e ir c o n s c ie n tio u s a n d th o u g h tfu l

o v e rs ig h t o f th is p roject F inally, I w a n t to t h a n k G e o rg e R itz e r fo r e n d o rs in g th e

o rig in a l id e a fo r th is rea d e r, fo r h is c o n tin u in g s u p p o r t o f th e p ro ject a s a c o n ­

s u ltin g ed ito r, a n d fo r h is s u s ta in e d frie n d sh ip

James Far^anh Poughkeepsie, Nezc York

N e w York City, N eic York

2003

™ READINGS IN SOCIAL THEORY

The Classic Tradition to Post-Modernism

d itio n in so c ia l life, a n d th e c e n tra lity o f th e f a m ­

ily, th e c o m m u n ity , g r o u p s , a n d in s titu tio n s in

o r d e r in g , r e g u la tin g , a n d s h a p in g th e liv e s of

in d iv i d u a ls In th e n e x t f e w p a g e s w e w ill

r e v ie w b rie fly th e k e y id e a s o f th e E n lig h te n ­

m e n t philosopher a n d th e ir c o n s e r v a tiv e critics.

M o n te s q u ie u 's Persian Letters, p u b lis h e d in

c o m m e n ts , o fte n s a tiric a lly , o n th e c u s to m s a n d

h a b its o f F re n c h s o c ie ty o f h is tim e T h e a b ility

m a tic a l a n d p h y sic a l (Z e itlin 1968, 7)

S o cial o rd er, th e in e q u a litie s o f class, th e

e s ta b lis h e d b v n a tu re , a n d c o n sists in d if­

fere n c e o f a g e , h e a lth , b o d ilv s tre n g th , a n d

th e q u a litie s o f m in d o r o f th e so u l: a n d

a n o th e r, w h ic h m a y b e c alled m o ra l o r p o lit­

ical in eq u a lity , b e c a u s e it d e p e n d s o n a kin d

o f c o n v e n tio n , a n d is e s ta b lis h e d , o r a t least

i 'v iJiYi I hot ÍỈH' MK'ial w o u ld p ro g re ss

!-'-to r If they 1< 'Ik n v t'd th e m e th o d s o f th e n a tu ra l

s ta te a n d th o se re lig io u s, so cial, a n d p o litical

in s titu tio n s th a t s u p p o rte d it

In p la c e o f th e linden regime, a n e w social

a b o lis h e d , t h e in d u s tr ia l g u ild s w e re a b o lish e d

D iv o rce b e c a m e leg a liz e d , th e e d u c a tio n a l s y s ­

te m w a s refo rm e d a n d c e n tra liz e d , a n d a new-

O u t o f th e rev o lu tio n a ry u p h e a v a l in France

th e re e m e rg e d a lo n g p e rio d o f instab ility , of

c o u n te rre v o lu tio n , o f a tte m p ts a t m o n arc h ic a l

re s to ra tio n , a n d N a p o le o n ic im p e ria l d o m in a ­tio n R a th e r th a n th e s te a d y p ro g re s s to w a rd a free a n d d e m o c ra tic so c ie ty in w h ic h h u m a n

re a s o n w o u ld o r d e r th e a ffa irs o f po litics a n d

society, th e re fo llo w e d a p e rio d o f b lo o d sh e d ,

d iv is io n , d o m in a tio n , a n d reactio n T h e E n lig h t­

e n te r p ris e o f r e c o n c ilin g th e fac ts o f h u m a n

e x p e rie n c e w ith th e t r u th s a lre a d y , in so m e

fo llo w in g th e R e v o lu tio n , its so c ia l d islo c a tio n ,

p o litic a l t u rm o il, a n d g e n e ra l d isin te g ra tio n , a n d

th e y h e ld th e pliilosophes d ire c tly a c c o u n ta b le

to r tio n o f th e tru ly s o c ia l n a tu r e o f h u m a n life

F am ily , c o m m u n ity , c h u rc h , to w n , a n d g u ild

u n it o f society

T h e p a s t a n d th e p r e s e n t fo rm a s e a m le s s

w e b , a n d it is o n ly th e a rr o g a n c e o f in d iv id u a l­ism , o r m o re p a rtic u la rly t h e p r e s u m p tio n o f th e

e d g e T h e cla ssic a l s o c ia l th e o r is ts w is h e d to

d is tin g u is h th e ir w o r k fro m s p e c u la tiv e m o ra l

p h ilo s o p h y a n d to c o n trib u te to a scien tific s tu d y

o f society T h is is th e o b jec tiv e th a t u n ite s th e m ,

b u t th e ir su c c e s s in a c h ie v in g it is d e b a ta b le

D e s p ite th e ir b e s t in te n tio n s th e so cial th e o rists

o f th e cla ssic tra d itio n w e re , fo r th e m o s t p a rt,

u n a b le to le a v e b e h in d th e m o ra l p r e s u p p o s i­tio n s th a t im p e lle d th e ir in q u irie s T h e ir g r e a t­

v o ice a b o u t a n y m a tte r, a n d s o it is d iffic u lt to

a s c rib e c o m m o n c h a ra c te ris tic s to th e m E v e n

o n th e c ritic a l q u e s tio n o f th e ir c o m m itm e n t to

la w s a s n o d iffe re n t fro m th e d isc o v e ry o f th e

th a t ea ch re q u ire s a d iffe re n t m eth o d o lo g y

A lth o u g h th e cla ssic a l th e o rists a g re e th a t

p o s e o f s c ie n tific in v e s tig a tio n

T h e classic tra d itio n is n o t a s in g le tra d itio n

s p e a k in g w ith a u n ifo rm voice It is m ire d in c o n ­

flictin g v ie w s a n d o fte n irreco n cilab le p e rs p e c ­

tiv e s t h a t reflect d e e p ly h e ld m o ra l a s su m p tio n s

S cience is p o w e rle s s to reso lv e th ese m o ra l d if­

feren ces, a n d a s a resu lt m a n y o f th ese d iv e r ­

g en ces c o n tin u e to su rface in c o n te m p o ra ry social

theory T o d a y th e c o n tro v e rs y tak e s th e fo rm o f

th e re la tio n s h ip o f th e s e th e o rists to th e E n lig h t­

e n m e n t t ra d itio n s T h e v a lso d e m o n s tra te h o w

th e ir u n a rtic u la te d m o ra l p r e s u p p o s itio n s led

th e classical th e o r is ts to d e fin e th e ir science,

th e ir m e th o d s , a n d th e ir so c io lo g y in rad ic a lly

d iv e r s e w a y s

T h e p rin c ip a l c o n trib u to rs to t h e classic t ra ­

d itio n a re b o th s c ie n tists a n d d isc u rs iv e th e o ­ris ts, a n d th e ir w o r k is b o th a c o n tin u a tio n of

th e E n lig h te n m e n t tra d itio n a n d a d e p a rtu re fro m it T h e classical th e o rists w e re m o re a tte n ­tiv e s y s te m a tic a lly th a n th e ir E n lig h te n m e n t

d itio n a re e x p la in e d b y re fe re n c e to M a rx a n d his a d v e rs a rie s H o w e v e r, th e d e v e lo p m e n t of

so c io lo g ic a l th e o r y m a y a lso b e s a id to o w e

m u c h to th e p h ilo s o p h y o f F rie d ric h N ie tz sc h e (1844-1900), e sp ecially in lig h t o f his in flu e n ce on

M a x W eber a n d G e o rg S im m e l a n d th e g ro w in g recog n itio n o f his sign ifican ce fo r p o st-m o d ern ist

d a in fo r d e m o c ra tic c u ltu r e a n d p o litics, a n d h is

ro m a n tic v isio n o f th e h e ro ic triu m p h o f th e

th a t d e fin e th e so cio lo g ical e n te rp ris e , a n d th e

s tu d e n t is in v ite d to th in k th ro u g h th ese q u e s ­

tio n s w ith th e sk ille d g u id a n c e o f s o m e o f th e

g re a t m in d s in so cial theorv

A u g u s te C o m te (1798-1857), o fte n cited a s

th e first to u s e t h e w o rd so cio lo g y to r efe r to th e

n e w d iscip lin e, s o u g h t to u s e h isto rical e v id e n c e

to e sta b lish law s o f so cial d e v e lo p m e n t H e w a s

less rig o ro u s a n d sy ste m atic in h is rese a rch th a n

co n v ic tio n th a t th e scien tific a p p ro a c h , o r p o s i­

tiv ism , w a s th e m o st a p p ro p r ia te m e th o d for

u n d e rs ta n d in g social o r d e r a n d social ch an g e By

p o sitiv ism C o m te m e a n t a s tu d v o f society b a sed

o n s e n so ry o b se rv a tio n , h isto rical c o m p a riso n ,

a n d e x p e rim e n ta tio n in th e q u e s t fo r u n iv ersa l

law s, r a th e r th a n relian ce o n a b s tra c t m o ra l p rin ­

cip les a b o u t h u m a n n a tu re a n d so cial ju stice

C o m te re p re s e n ts a v ie w p o in t th a t d is d a in s th e

u n tid in e ss o f d e m o c ra tic p o litics a n d le a d s to a n

en d o rs e m e n t o f ru le b v a k n o w le d g e elite U n like

P la to 's p h ilo so p h e r-k in g s, h o w e v e r, th e ru le rs

o f m o d e rn so ciety w o u ld b e so cio lo g ist-k in gs,

p e o p le w ith tech n ical k n o w le d g e o f th e o p e ra ­

tio ns o f so ciety a n d th e ir c o n seq u e n c e s T oday

w e refer to th is k in d o f th in k in g a s tech n o cratic,

K a rl M a rx (1818-1883), É m ile D u r k h e im (1858-1917), a n d M ax W eb er (1864-1920) a re

g e n e ra lly c o n s id e re d th e " h o ly trin ity " o f th e cla ssic tra d itio n A lth o u g h th e re a re im p o r ta n t

co n c e p tu a l sim ila ritie s b e tw e e n th em , th e re a re

c o n s id e ra b le m e th o d o lo g ic a l a n d s u b s ta n tiv e

d iffe re n c e s, s o m e o f w h ic h h a v e a lr e a d y been

a llu d e d to; v e t th e s ig n ific a n t p o in ts o f c o n tra s t

fo r w h a t fo llo w s w ill b e in th e ir o fte n irre c o n ­

c ilab le m o ra l a s s u m p tio n s , w h ic h p r o v id e th em

w ith c ritical p e rs p e c tiv e s o n m o d e rn ity , a n d in

th e d iffe re n t w a v s in w h ic h th e v c a rry o n th e

so cio lo g ical e n te rp ris e

M arx a n d C o m te w e re o n ly su p e rfic ia lly

s im ila r in th e ir a p p ro a c h B oth a re in te re s te d in

a sc ie n c e o f so ciety, b o th v ie w h isto ry a s the

s o u rc e o f e m p iric a l d a ta , a n d b o th te n d to th in k

in te rm s o f s ta g e s o f h isto ric a l d e v e lo p m e n t

a n d th e p re d ic tiv e v a lu e o f th e ir social theories

B u t M arx is a d iale c tic al th in k e r in c o n tra s t to

C o m te 's p o s itiv is m , s o th a t M arx s e e s social

e v o k e s a n a c tiv e a n d p o litic a lly c o n s c io u s p r o ­

le ta ria t w h o s e c o lle c tiv e o p p r e s s io n c o m p e ls

in d iv id u a ls a re c o m p e lle d to liv e in a social en v i­

r o n m e n t t h a t is c h a ra c te r iz e d a s anom ic, i.e,

b y fra g m e n ta tio n , e x tre m e d iffe re n tia tio n , a n d

in d iv id u a liz a tio n In " I n d iv id u a lis m a n d th e

In tellectu als" (D u rk h e im 1973), h e d istin g u is h e d

b e tw e en eg o istic in d iv id u a lism a n d a m o ra l i n d i­

v id u a lism , a rg u in g th a t th e la tte r w a s th e " c u lt o f

th e i n d iv id u a l" a n d h a d b e c o m e th e b a s is o f th e

n e w c o n s e n s u s o f m o d e rn ity A c c o rd in g to th is view , th e i n d iv id u a l is a su b je c t w ith r ig h ts a n d

w ith th e m o ra l re s p o n s ib ility to a c t in a c c o r­

d a n c e w ith p rin c ip le s o f ju stic c a n d th e c o m m o n

g o o d M o ra l in d iv id u a lis m is a so cial c re a tio n

s u p p o rte d a n d e n c o u ra g e d b y so cial in s titu tio n s

a n d m o ra l p rac tic e s D u r k h e im a rg u e d th a t th e

id ea o f th e e g o istic in d iv id u a l in te n t o n self-

in te re s t is a m e ta p h y s ic a l c o n s tru c t th a t d e p ic ts

a n a tu r a l a n d a to m istic c re a tio n w h o s e p rim a c y

is ju stifie d p h ilo so p h ic a lly , n o t sociologically

id e n tify w ith th e co m m u n ity , s h a rin g its id eals

a n d its m o ra l c o n sen su s, a n d w ill ju d g e its o u t­

co m es a s ju st a n d legitim ate If, b v c o n tra st, eco­

n o m ic in stitu tio n s fav o r th e p riv ile g e d a n d risk

th e fo rm a tio n o f classes a n d class conflict, th en

th e b in d in g id ea ls o f th e c o m m u n ity w ill b e sh a t­

tered A lternatively, if econom ic policies fav o r the

least p riv ile g e d b y a tte m p tin g to e q u a liz e o u t­

com es, society ru n s th e risk o f losing s u p p o rt

fro m th e v a s t m a jo rity o f its m e m b e rs w h o

b e lie v e th a t r e w a r d s a re d u e to th o s e w h o

d e m o n s tra te ability C o n se q u e n tly , D u rk h e im

rec o m m e n d s social a n d ec o n o m ic refo rm s th at

w ill e q u a liz e c o n d itio n s a n d m a k e th e so cial

ideals o f e q u a lity of o p p o rtu n ity credible b ecause

th ese refo rm s w o u ld fo ster in te g ratio n a n d the

a c ce p ta n c e o f reg u la tiv e n o rm s a s legitim ate

p r e tin g in d u s tr ia l c a p ita lism , th ey d o s o from

th e d iffe re n t p e rs p e c tiv e s th a t a re fo rm e d fro m

statistical a n a ly sis a n d sy ste m atic d a ta g a th e rin g

th a t m a k e it e x e m p la ry fo r scien tific sociology

d u c te d , a n d h is Rules o f Sociological M ethod is

w id e ly r ec o g n iz ed a s a m ajo r c o n trib u tio n to th e

s e em s to b e in c o n flict w ith th e m o re sy ste m atic

a n d p o s itiv is tic in c lin a tio n s o f D u r k h e im 's

m eth o d o lo g y a n d th e d ialectical a p p ro a c h tak en

b v K arl M arx

W e b e r's Protestant Ethic am i the Spirit o f Cap­

italism a rg u e s th a t re lig io u s b e lie fs m a y h a v e

telos, W eber v ie w s h isto ry a s c o n tin g e n t a n d

a c c id e n ta l, a n d h u m a n a c tio n a s o fte n e n ta ilin g

M a rx 's n o tio n o f th e r u lin g class W eber s e em s to

s h a re M a rx 's d e fin itio n o f class b u t d e n ie s th e

n o m ic c lass p o s itio n , s ta tu s h o n o r, a n d p e rs u a ­siv e le a d e rs h ip o f a p a rty a re d istin c tiv e m e a n s

to p o w e r T h e y m ay o v e rla p , b u t th e y a re n o t

id en tica l a n d a rc n o t a lw a y s fo u n d to g e th e r in

th e s a m e in d iv id u a l

E x c e rp ts fro m W e b e r's e s s a y o n m e th o d o l­

s u r r o u n d i n g th e id e a o f o b jec tiv ity a n d d e ta il

W e b e r 's c o n tr ib u tio n s to a d is tin c tiv e ly so c io ­

lo g ic a l m e th o d W e b er e m p lo y s a n in te r p re tiv e

m e th o d o lo g y , u s in g r a tio n a l m o d e ls o r id ea l

ty p e s to d e v e lo p th e m e s o r g e n e ra liz a tio n s fro m

a p a in s ta k in g e x a m in a tio n o f th e h isto ric a l d a ta

H e a p p r o a c h e s h isto ric a l in fo r m a tio n fro m th e

fu lly d e fin e d c o n d itio n s H e rec o g n iz es th e in flu ­

e n c e o f m o ra l v a lu e s in so cial rese a rch b u t claim s

to N ie tz s c h e In o t h e r r e s p e c ts a s w e ll, th e r e a re

a ffin itie s b e tw e e n th e s e tw o th in k e rs W e b e r's

b e lie f th a t c h a ris m a tic p o litic s c a n o v e rc o m e

th e o s s ifie d b u r e a u c r a tic s y s te m r e s o n a te s w ith

th e d a r k e r s id e o f s c ie n tific r a tio n a lity a n d w h o

p o in te d to th e e n d u rin g r e s is ta n c e s to p o litic a lly

c u ltu r e h a v e e m e r g e d th a t te n d to w a rd

a n o n v m itv a n d im p e rso n a lity in so cial in te ra c ­

tions A lth o u g h it is tru e th a t m o d e rn so ciety

p ro v id e s m an ifo ld o p p o rtu n itie s fo r in d iv id u a ls

to e x p re ss th e m s e lv e s fre e ly a n d to a d o p t d if­

fere n t ro le s a n d to in te ra c t in d iffe re n t social

a re n a s , S im m e l's d iale c tic al v ie w rev e a ls th e

th a n c o n sid e rin g th e self a s a n object d e te rm in e d

b v e x te rn a l forces o r a s a fixed e n tity th a t s o m e ­

s c io u s n e s s a n d c o lle c tiv e a c tio n P e r h a p s

life a n d th e id eo lo g y o f A m e ric a n in d iv id u a lism led h im to d e v e lo p a th e o r y th a t m in im iz e s

as a so cio lo g ist w ith a s tro n g c o m m itm e n t to

ob jectiv ity a n d tru th in scien tific in q u iry H is

c la ssic s tu d v , The Philadelphia Negro: A Social

Stu d y (1899), r e p re s e n ts a c arefu l a n d sy ste m atic

s tu d y o f th e c o n d itio n s o f A fric a n -A m erica n s in

P h ila d e lp h ia , o n e o f th e e a rlie st u r b a n so cio lo g ­ical s tu d ie s th a t h a s b eco m e a p a ra d ig m for later

g en eratio n s It w a s D u B ois's belief th at sociology

s h o u ld c o m b in e th e o ry a n d e m p iric a l s tu d v ; that

a b s tra c t th e o riz in g w ith o u t e m p iric a l g r o u n d in g

w a s a s e m p ty a s fac tu a l s tu d y w ith o u t so m e

g u id in g g e n e ra liz a tio n s D u B o is's reflec tiv e

e ssa y s in The Souls o f Black Folk a n d else w h e re

d r a w o n h is p e rs o n a l e x p e rie n ce s a n d s itu a te

th ese in a h isto rical a n d c u ltu ra l co n tex t T hev

g iv e e x p re ssio n to th e u n iq u e v isio n o f a black

m a n in w h ite A m erica, c a p tu re d in th e id ea of

" d o u b le co n scio u sn e ss." A p a rt fro m h is sin g u la r

e fforts in e s ta b lish in g th e leg itim ac y of a n e m p ir­ical socio lo g y o f th e A fric a n -A m erica n , D u Bois

e m b ra c e d th e ro le o f a c tiv ist a n d p u b lic in tellec­

tu al, th ere b y u n itin g h is in te lle c tu a l gifts in the

se rv ic e o f th e c a u se fo r e q u a l justice In b rin g in g

to g e th e r th e o ry a n d ac tio n , D u Bois a b a n d o n e d

th e tea c h in g s o f M ax W eb er a n d ca m e clo ser to

th e praxis o f K arl M arx H is life a s a n em p irical

so cio lo g ist a n d p u b lic in te lle c tu a l c a p tu re s the

d ile m m a o f b e in g a b lack a c ad e m ic , a t on ce c o m ­

m itte d to ob jectiv ity a n d social justice

K arl M a n n h e im (1893-1947) r e p r e s e n ts a

fu sio n o f c e rta in a s p e c ts o f M a rx 's t h o u g h t w ith

a W e b erian o rie n ta tio n M a n n h e im tu rn s to a

tru e In e s ta b lis h in g th e r e la tiv ity o f p e rs p e c ­

tiv e s, a n d a p p ly in g it to t h e p ro le ta ria t a s w ell a s

to th e b o u r g e o is ie , M a n n h e im 's s o c io lo g y o f

k n o w le d g e d e p a r ts fro m M arx a n d e m b ra c e s a

W e b e ria n p o s itio n T h u s , M a n n h e im 's Ideology

a n d Utopia r e p r e s e n ts b o th a c o n tin u a tio n o f

M a rx is t t h o u g h t a n d a c ritic a l d e p a r tu r e fro m it

a b o u t th e re la tio n s h ip o f th e in d iv id u a l to so ci­

e ty p r o v id e th e f ra m e w o rk w ith in w h ic h th e facts a re in te r p re te d , q u e s tio n s f o rm u la te d , a n d

c e rn to ta l s o c ie tie s, th e ir tra n s fo r m a tio n s ,

II C ontem porary Sociological Theory

P a r t T w o o f th is c o lle c tio n a tte m p ts to c a p tu r e

th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f so c io lo g ic a l th e o r y in th e

p o st-W o rld W ar II p e rio d D u r in g th e 1950s th e field o f so c io lo g y w a s d o m in a te d b y T alco tt P a r ­

s o n s a n d h is in te g r a tiv e th e o re tic a l e ffo rts in th e

tim e, th e d isc ip lin e se e m e d to b e c o m m itte d to

a p o sitiv istic m o d e l o f scien tific k n o w le d g e , so

th a t fo r th e d u r a tio n o f th e d e c a d e , so c io lo g y

a p p e a r e d to b e w e ll o n th e ro a d to e s ta b lis h in g

its s c ie n tific leg itim a c y By th e e n d o f th e

d e c a d e , f u n c tio n a lis m a n d th e p o s itiv is tic

m o d e l w e re u n d e r attack , c W rig h t M ills (1959)

d e c a d e w ith a n e n o rm o u s ly in flu e n tia l c ritical

a n a ly s is o f f u n c tio n a lism a n d p o sitiv ism

T h e d e b a te w ith in s o cio lo g y w a s s u p p o rte d

b y d e v e lo p m e n ts o u ts id e th e fie ld a s w e ll

T h o m a s K u h n 's The Structure o f Scientific Revo­

lutions (1962) c h a lle n g e d th e o ld o rth o d o x ie s

w ith resp e c t to t h e e v o lu tio n a ry c h a ra c te r o f sci­

en tific d isc ip lin e s In d isc u s s in g t h e a m b ig u o u s

a r y " P ra c titio n e rs c o n fro n te d w ith a n o m a lie s

a n d u n a b le to fin d a r e s o lu tio n o fte n e x p e rie n c e

W h e re a s f u n c tio n a lism s tre s se d h a rm o n y , in te ­

g ra tio n , c o n s e n s u s , a n d o rd e r, th e civ il rig h ts

m o v e m e n t, th e a n ti- w a r m o v e m e n t, a n d th e

a c id -ro c k c o u n te r c u ltu ra l m o v e m e n t g e n e ra te d

c o n flict, c ritiq u e , d iso rd e r, a n d c o n fro n ta tio n

F u n c tio n a l th e o ry w a s o u t o f s te p w ith reality,

a n d K u h n h a d m a d e it p o s s ib le f o r so cial s c ie n ­tis ts to see h o w a rb itra r y th e p re v a ilin g p a r a ­

d ig m s w e re , a n d h o w m u c h th e ir c o n tin u e d

d o m in a n c e d e p e n d e d o n th e u n q u e s tio n in g

a c c e p ta n c e b y p ra c titio n e rs T h e re fo llo w e d a

p e rio d o f tw o d e c a d e s o f th e o re tic a l d iv e rs ifi­

c a tio n a n d p ro life ra tio n in sociology, le a d in g

G e o rg e R itz e r (1975) to lab el so c io lo g v a " m u l­tip le p a ra d ig m scien ce."

P a r t T w o b e g in s w ith a n e s sa y b v K in g sley

D a v is a n d W ilb e rt E M o o re , w h ic h p re s e n ts th e

fu n c tio n a list a n a ly s is o f so c ia l s tra tific a tio n It is

fo llo w e d b y a n e s s a y b v T alcott P a rso n s o n a g e

a n d sex in A m e ric a , a n d a n e x tra c t fro m R o bert

K M e rto n 's e s s a y o n m a n ife s t a n d la te n t fu n c ­tio n s T h e s tu d e n t w ill r e c o g n iz e sim ila ritie s

w i t h D u r k h e im 's t h e o r y o f s o c ie ty a n d h is

a p p ro a c h to it C e n tra l to th e f u n c tio n a list p e r­

s p e c tiv e is th e n o tio n th a t a so c ie ty is a sv ste m

o f in te r re la te d a n d d iffe re n tia te d p a rts , all of

O u r p r e s e n ta tio n o f c o n te m p o ra r y th e o ry

c o n tin u e s w ith a re a d in g in "c o n flic t th e o ry "

w h ic h a tte m p ts to h ig h lig h t th e lim ita tio n s of

fu n c tio n a lis m R alf D a h r e n d o rf d e m o n s tra te s

h o w a c o n flict m o d e l r e s tru c tu re s o u r p e rc e p tio n

o f th e so c ia l w o rld b y r e c o g n iz in g th a t co n flict is

a n e c e s s a ry fe a tu re o f so cial life C o n flic t th e o ry

d r a w s o n M a rx ist a n d W eb erian fo rm u la tio n s

a b o u t th e b a s is o f so cial o rd er, p o sitin g th a t o rd e r

is u ltim a te ly b a s e d o n fo rce r a th e r t h a n c o n s e n t

a s th e f u n c tio n a lists w o u ld h a v e it, a n d th a t th e

d o m in a n t in te re s ts a re t h e b e n e fic ia rie s o f social

o rd e r T h e e s s a y b y c W rig h t M ills, w h ic h fol­

lo w s th e D a h r e n d o rf s e le c tio n , illu stra te s th e

s t r u c tu r e o f p o w e r in A m e ric a n s o c ie ty a n d

r a is e s q u e s tio n s a b o u t th e fea sib ility o f d e m o ­

c ra tic c o n tro l C o n flic t th e o rists p la c e c o n s id e r­

a b le e m p h a s is o n t h e d y n a m ic s o f so c ia l c h a n g e,

th e s o u rc e s o f c o n flict a n d d is s e n t in society, a n d

th e d iffe re n c e s in th e p o w e r re s o u rc e s o f th o se a t

th e to p o f t h e so c ia l o r d e r a s a g a in s t th o se a t th e

b o tto m T h e se e m p h a s e s c le a rly d is tin g u is h c o n ­

flict t h e o r y fro m f u n c tio n a lism a n d its c o n s e n ­

s ta n d in g o r r a tio n a l r e c o n s tru c tio n a n d to g u a rd

a g a in s t th e im p o s itio n o f m e a n in g s a s th e y a re

d e d u c e d f ro m a b s tr a c t s c ie n tif ic t h e o r i e s o r

m o d e ls o f t h e r e a l w o r ld T h e s h a re d life -w o rld

o f c o m m o n s e n se m e a n in g s is t h e e v e ry d a y re a l­ity o f o r d in a r y p e o p le , a n d it is th e p u r p o s e o f

so c io lo g ic a l in q u ir y to u n d e r s t a n d th a t so c ia l reality T h is is th e b u r d e n o f t h e w o r k o f A lfre d

S c h u tz (1967) a n d o f P e te r B e rg e r a n d T h o m a s

L u c k m a n n (1967) a n d H a r o ld G a r f in k e l (1967), ( C h a p te r 10)

re a lity a n d th e ir fragility O n lv a s a resu lt of

sh a re d m ea n in g s is so cial in te ra c tio n p o ssib le ,

w ak e T h e a p p ro a c h p laces co n sid e rab le e m p h a ­

sis o n th e self a s a social co n stru c tio n , o n th e

in te rac tiv e p ro cesses a s cen tral to u n d e rs ta n d in g

th eir f u tu re b e h a v io r b a sed o n th eir u n d e rs ta n d ­

ing M ead pio n eered this v iew of the reflexive self

w ith th e in te rn al d ialo g u e b e tw e e n the "I" an d

For B lu m er social reality is d e fin e d b y in teractiv e

p ro cesses a n d less im p o rta n tly by o b jective stru c ­

tu re s ex tern al to the in d iv id u a l W h a t w e o b serv e

in e v e ry d a y life are p e o p le a c tin g jointly, fittin g

in te ra c tio n is ts s h ift th e fo cu s o f th e ir a tte n tio n

a w a v fro m so cial s tru c tu re s s u c h a s class, a n d plac e far g re a te r sig n ific a n c e o n th e e x p e rie n ce d rea lity o f e v e ry d a y life a n d th e se lf a s th e a g e n t

o f r eflec tiv e actio n Fem in ist social th eo ry a s it h a s e m e rg e d o v e r the p a s t tw e n ty -fiv e v e a rs d r a w s from d ifferen t

p e rsp e c tiv e s o f th e sociological tra d itio n Libera] fem in ism , M arx ian fem in ism , rad ical fem inism ,

a n d so cialist fem in ism a re a m o n g th e v a rie tie s of fem in ist th e o ry t h a t p ro v id e critical p ersp ectiv es

o n m a in stre a m th eo rizin g in sociology D o ro th y

S m ith 's w o rk , (C h a p te r 12) e x te n d s th e p h e n o m ­

en o logical in sig h ts a s it m ak e s th e cla im th a t n o t

o n ly d o e s th e o b jective science to w h ic h m an v

m a in s tre a m s o c io lo g is ts s u b s c rib e im p o s e an

a b stra ct m ea n in g s tru c tu re o n to th e activities of

e v e rv d a v life, b u t th a t th e im p o sitio n is linked to larg e r socio eco n o m ic s tru c tu re s o f m ale d o m in a ­tion T h e d a n g e r in th e scientific a p p ro a c h to tru th is th at it ig n o re s th e su b jectiv e o r e x p e rie n ­tial m ea n in g th at a c to rs b rin g to in te rac tio n s itu ­

a tio n s In p a rticu la r, S m ith claim s, th is pro cess lead s to ''b ifu rc a tio n o f conscio u sn ess" in w o m en ,

w h o m u s t a t o n c e s u p p re s s th e ir e x p e rie n tia l

u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th eir life-w o rld in o r d e r to p a r­ticip ate in th e a b stra ct, v e t so cially c o n stru c te d ,

w o rld o f m ale d o m in a tio n To th e d e g re e th at

m a in s tre a m so cio lo g y a d h e re s to a n objectiv e

v iew o f k n o w le d g e a n d e sch e w s th e p h e n o m e ­

n o logical a p p ro a c h , it s im p ly a p p e n d s w o m e n s issu e s to its m ale -o rien te d rese a rch p ro g ra m a n d

e x c lu d e s th e e x p e rie n tia l m o d e of k n o w in g the

essay , " W o rd s a n d T h in g s " (c h a p te r 12) raise s

a n im p o r ta n t c a u tio n a ry n o te in resp e c t to th e

p a ra d ig m sh ift in fem in ist theory, p a rtic u la rly

th e e m b ra c e o f "p o st-stru c tu ra lism " a n d its im p li­

c W rig h t M ills (1959, 1960) c ritic iz e d so ci­

o lo g y fo r its h y p e rf a c tu a lis m , its n a rro w n e s s ,

c e n tra l iss u e o f th e f u tu r e v iab ility o f d e m o c ra tic

in itia tiv e a n d c o n tro l u n d e r c o n d itio n s th a t fav o r

n a rr o w e x p e rtis e a n d in s tr u m e n ta l r a tio n a lity in

p ro b le m so lv in g In a o n e -d im e n s io n a l so c ie ty (M a rc u se 1966), w h e re th e tra d itio n a l so u rc e s o f

n e g a tiv ity h a v e b e e n a b s o rb e d , p o litic a l in itia ­tiv e s reflectin g c o m m u n ity n e e d s g iv e w a y to th e

fo rm u la tio n s o f e x p e rts in th e p o lic y p ro cess

H a b e rm a s , (1970) s p e a k s o f a p ro c e s s o f d is e n ­fra n c h is e m e n t th a t d e v e lo p s a s o r d in a r y c itize n s

th e in m a te b u t a lso a b o u t h is fam ily a n d frie n d s,

h is c h ild h o o d , h is s e cre t lo n g in g s, a n d s o forth

a n o b jectiv e a n d v a lu e -n e u tra l scien ce o f society

T h e im p a c t o f L y o ta rd 's w o r k h a s b e e n to c h a l­

le n g e all t r u t h c la im s a n d to e x p o s e th e m a s a

fu n c tio n o f p o w e r S cien tific k n o w le d g e d e v e l­

o p s u n e v e n ly , o fte n a c c id e n ta lly a n d c o n tin ­gently T h e m y th o f e v o lu tio n a r y d e v e lo p m e n t

th ro u g h te s ts a n d e x p e rim e n ta tio n is ch a lle n g ed

in th e w a y in w h ic h T h o m a s K u h n (1962) e a rlie r

w r o te a b o u t r e v o lu tio n a r y scien ce

L y o ta rd 's a rg u m e n t c e n te rs o n h is v ie w of

m e ta n a rra tiv e s a n d th e ir ro le in th e le g itim atio n

o f scien ce By m e ta n a rra tiv e s , L y o ta rd m ea n s

h is to ry a n d ju stify c u rr e n t s c ie n tific a n d p o liti­

cal p ra c tic e s in lig h t o f th e p ro m is e d telos T h ese

m e ta n a rr a tiv e s a im to a c h ie v e a tru e a n d ju st

s o c ia l o rd e r, o n e th a t is n o t su b je c t to th e c o n ­tin g e n c ie s o f p o w e r a n d in te re s t A p u r e re a so n

is a b le to id e n tify th e g o o d , th e t ru e , a n d th e ju st

b e v o n d th e d isto rtio n s o f e v e ry d a y p o litic a l a n d

c u ltu r a l p rac tic e

P o s t-m o d e rn is m sig n ifie s th e e n d o f th ese

m o d ern ists, b y co n tra st, n o t o n ly d e n v H a b e rm a s '

b asic a s s u m p tio n s a b o u t rea so n , c o m m u n ic a tio n ,

a n d actio n ; th e v fea r th a t h is p ro g ra m m a tic criti­cal th e o ry m a y b e c o m e v e t a n o th e r le g itim a tin g

id eo lo g y , a n o th e r m e ta n a rra tiv e

F o u c a u lt's r e s p o n s e to th e n e w fo rm s o f

p o w e r /k n o w le d g e d o m in a tio n a n d th e p o te n ­tia l fo r t h e c re a tio n o f n e w s ta n d a r d s o f p o litic a l

a n d so c ia l " n o r m a lity " is a ra d ic a l a ffirm a tio n

o f th e N ie tz s c h e a n i n d iv id u a l w h o s e c re a tiv e

a n d u n iq u e c a p a b ilitie s a re s o u rc e s o f t r u t h a n d fre e d o m T h e s o c ia l n a tu r e o f e x is te n c e is n o

p e r v a s i v e s y s te m o f k n o w l e d g e / p o w e r a n d

te c h n o c ra tic d o m in a tio n

W ith in th e c la ssic t r a d itio n , W e b e r's c h a l­

le n g e to M a rx is t t h o u g h t a n d to th e m e ta n a r r a ­tiv e s th a t h a v e h is to ric a lly p re c e d e d it a n tic i­

lem s M o st p a rtic u la rly , I w a n t to a rg u e th a t if

so c io lo g y is to m a in ta in its v ita lity in th e f u tu r e

it m u s t re c o u p le w ith p h ilo s o p h y in o r d e r to

c h a rt n e w d ire c tio n s a n d d e v e lo p th e c ritical

c o n s tru c ts n e c essa ry to a n e w a g e o r ris k th e fate

o f b e c o m in g a s o u rc e o f id eo lo g ica l leg itim atio n

fo r a lib e ral tech n o cracy

R ecent d e b a te s o v e r th e m e a n in g a n d p u r ­

p o s e o f so cio lo g ical th e o ry p o in t to a p e rv a s iv e

d is a g re e m e n t o v e r t h e c u rr e n t s ta te o f t h e field

In Frontiers o f Social Theory (R itzer 1990), a col­

lectio n o f e ssa y s o n th e c u rr e n t s ta te o f so cio ­

logical th eo ry , G e o rg e R itzer, J o n a th a n T u rn er,

p ro life ra tio n o f th e o ry s u b fie ld s a s s y m p to m a tic

o f th e c o lla p se o f sociology H is u n re c o n s tru c te d

and Self-Identity (1991) a rg u e s th a t m o d e rn ity

e n ta ils a c o n s ta n t c h a lle n g e to t ra d itio n a l

b e lie fs, c u s to m s , a n d in stitu tio n s T h is is n o th ­

in g n ew , b u t w h a t is n o v e l h e re is th e w a v in

w h ic h G id d e n s tie s th e s e d e v e lo p m e n ts to the self a n d th e fo rm a tio n o f id en tity W e m ig h t

o ry a tte m p ts to g ro u n d a c ritical socio lo g y in the

u n iv e r s a l e m a n c ip a to r y id e a ls o f M a rx ism A

v a lu e -fre e so c io lo g y is, fo r H a b e rm a s , a n in stru ­

m e n ta lis t so c io lo g y th a t fu n c tio n s to s u p p o rt

th e lib e r a l id e o lo g y o f m o d e r n s o c ie ty b u t

d e v e lo p s n o f u n d a m e n ta l c ritiq u e o f it R ather,

it f u n c tio n s a s a re fo rm is t a n d a m e lia to rv soci­

a b o u t th e p u b lic g o o d a n d q u e s tio n s o f id e n tity

fo rm a tio n th a t p o in t to a n e w sty le o f politic* to r

th e fu tu re

F o u c a u lt's e a rlie r w o r k , a s w e h a v e se en , i?

a n e x te n s io n o f W e b e r's v ie w s o f m o d e r n ity

a n d th e a d m in is te re d society H is L iter w o rk

a n d F o u c a u lt, fro m ra d ic a lly d iffe re n t p e rs p e c ­

tiv e s , a re a tte m p tin g to fo c u s th e ir so c ia l a n a ly ­

A l e x a n d e r , J e ffre y , 1987: " T h e C e n tra lity o f th e C la s­

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G id d e n s , a n d J o n a th a n T u rn e r S ta n fo rd : S ta n fo rd

U n iv e r s ity P ress

B e c k e r, C a r l L., 1959: The Heavenly City of the Eigh­

teenth Centurụ Philosophers. N e w H a v en : Yale U ni­

v e r s ity P ress

Bercier, Petek L., a n d T hom as Luckm ann, 1967: The

Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociol­

ogy of Knowledge G arden City: Anchor.

D u k k h e im , Ém ile, 1973: " In d iv id u a lis m a n d th e In tel­

le c tu a ls." In Émile Durkhciin Oil Morality and Society

Edited bv Robert N Bellah Chicago: The U niver­

sity o f Chicago Press

F o u c a u lt, M ichel, 1^77: Discipline and Punish: The

Birth of the Prison. T ra n s, b y A la n S h e rid a n N e w

York: P a n th e o n Books.; 1988: The Care o f the Self: The

History of Sexuality. Vol 3 T ra n s, b v R o b e rt H urley

N e w York: R a n d o m H o u se

Frasj;r, Na n o, and Linda Nicholson, 1988: "Social

C ri t ic i s m W ith o u t P h ilo s o p h y : A n E n c o u n te r

Between Fem inism an d Post-M odernism " Theory,

Culture and Socicty 3(2-31:373-394

G a k r x k e l, H aro i.d , 1%7: Studies in Etlnnmu'tiwdol-

G id d e n s , A n t h o n y , 1991: Modernity and Self-Identity: Self and Society ill the Late Modern Age, S ta n fo rd :

S ta n fo rd U n iv e rs ity P ress

Giddens, Anthony, and Jonathan Turner, EDS., 1987:

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B oston: B eaco n P ress

M i ll s , c W r ig h t , 1959: The Sociological Imagination

N ew York: Oxford University Press; 1%0: linages of

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a n d W ilbert E M o o re, N e w York: T h e P hilo so p h ica l

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Sociological Theory E nglewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

J l PART 1

lii The Classic Tradition

a v ic to r io u s W est is a b le to e s ta b lis h a lib e ral,

c a p ita lis t, a n d d e m o c ra tic w o r ld o rd er Yet M arx

b e c o m m itte d to a sc ie n tific s tu d y o f society, h is

u n iq u e d iale c tic al a p p ro a c h a llo w e d h im to fu se

p e o p le to a f u lle r re a liz a tio n o f th e ir f re e a n d

c re a tiv e p o te n tia litie s

a n d E n g e ls w o r k e d to g e th e r o n The G erm an Ide­

ology L a ter, in 1847, a s o c ia lis t g r o u p c a lle d

o u t a n a u d ie n c e fo r h is w o r k Yet h e c o n tin u e d

t o w r i t e h i s m a s t e r p i e c e , Capital, e n c o u r a g e d b y

E n g els a n d d r iv e n b v h is v isio n o f h isto rical

w o rk e d tire le ssly to forge a u n ite d fro n t o u t of

th e v a rio u s id e o lo g ica l v ie w p o in ts th a t w ere

M arx b e lie v e d th a t, th ro u g h labor, h u m a n ­

k in d w o u ld b e ab le to rea liz e its "species-b ein g ,"

i.e., its p o te n tia l fo r c re a tiv e a n d p u r p o s e f u l

a c tiv ity th ro u g h w o rk H u m a n la b o r w a s n o t

s im p ly e n e rg y e x p e n d e d f o r s u b s is te n c e ,

a lth o u g h it w a s clearly th at u n d e r ca p ita lism

W h a t M arx e n v isio n e d w a s th e u s e o f la b o r for

e n h a n c e m e n t o f h u m a n life b e y o n d m a te ria l

necessity, fo r th e c re a tio n o f a so c ie tv in w h ic h

a e sth e tic a s w ell a s m a te ria l n e e d s c o u ld b e f u l­

fille d L ab o r c o u ld p o te n tia lly p ro v id e s u c h a n

o p p o rtu n ity , fo r it a llo w e d p e rs o n s to d isp la y

c re a tiv e a n d p u rp o se fu l a c tiv ity t h ro u g h th eir

A s a m o d e o f p ro d u c tio n , c a p ita lism e n t a il s

s t r u c t u r e d r e l a t io n s h i p s b e t w e e n l a b o r a n d c a p ­ita l w h i c h r e s u lt in t h e a l i e n a t io n o f w o r k e r s fr o m

th e m o st im p o rta n t a s p e c ts o f th e ir labor T hey

a re a lie n a te d first from th e ir p ro d u c tiv e activity

T h e i n d u s t r i a l l a b o r fo r c e is o r g a n i z e d o n th e

a sse m b ly line, in w h ic h specific, rep e titiv e, a n d

te d io u s task s m u s t b e p e rfo rm e d W ork b ecom es

a m ech an ical m e a n s to a n e n d , r e q u irin g n e ith e r

e rs th a t th ev w ill n o t b e a b le to s u rv iv e if th eir

jo b s a re ta k e n from th em T h e rese rv e a rm v of lab o r, a s M a rx c a lle d th e m a s s o f th e u n e m ­

u p p e r c la s s c s w e r e a b le to e x p lo it th o se in th e

lo w e r c la sse s H o w e v e r, h is to ry is a lso p r o g re s ­