Fabric Testing - tài liệu ngành dệt may - tài liệu công nghệ may

[17 Fabric Testing - J.HU ] Số trang: 408 trang Ngôn ngữ: English ---------------------------- The textile industry is becoming an increasingly competitive environment. Differentiating products by quality is particularly important. Testing can be performed both to improve product quality and achieve compliance to international, regional or retailer specific standards. Fabric testing provides a comprehensive review of the tests available for fabrics. The book begins with introductory chapters which discuss the scope, importance and statistical analysis of fabric testing. The book then reviews various types of fabric tests such as fabric composition testing, physical and mechanical tests, fabric chemical testing, how to test appearance, permeability, comfort and flammability, as well as dyeing and colouring tests and key issues in testing textile samples. With its distinguished editor and international team of contributors Fabric testing will be a valuable resource for designers, technologists, quality inspectors and testing institutes in the textile industry. It will also be relevant for academics and students within the textile field. ----------------- CODE.17.408.GS.1.3.0

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Fabric testing

Edited by Jinlian HU

Cambridge England

WPTF2005

Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, Granta Park,

Great Abington, Cambridge CB21 6AH, England

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Contributor contact details xi

J Hu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

1.2 Fabric testing for innovation and commercial needs 21.3 Need for integration of fabric testing literature 4

2 Sampling and statistical analysis in textile testing 27

KF Choi, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

2.1 Introduction: the requirement for sampling and

3 Fabric composition testing 48

Z Zhong and C Xiao, Tianjin Polytechnic University, China3.1 Introduction: the importance of testing fabric composition 483.2 Methods of testing fabric content and composition 50

7072

3.11 Fourier transform infared and thermal analysis of

80

X Wang, X Liu and C Hurren, Deakin University,

Australia

Q Fan, University of Massachusetts, USA

125127

Burning behaviour of fibres

3.7 Identification of new textile fibres

3.8 Case study: identification of ancient textile fibres

3.9 Identification of cashmere and wool fibre scale

cashmere and other animal fibres

5.1 Introduction: definition and role of tests

5.2 Chemical identification of fibers

5.11 Conclusions 144

X Binjie and J Hu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic

University, China

6.2 Appearance testing: pilling testing and evaluation 149

X Ding, Donghua University, China

7.3 Principle of different test methods for fabric

7.5 Fabric permeability testing methods: applications 204

7.6 Innovative test methods for fabric permeability 216

P Bishop, University of Alabama, USA

228

8.6 Statistical considerations in comfort measurement 247

Introduction: terms and definitions

8.1 Introduction: defining comfort

9 Dyeing and colouring tests for fabrics 255

C Hurren, Deakin University, Australia

9.1 Introduction: key issues in the testing of dyes and colours 255

J Hu and KM Babu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic

University, China

10.1 Introduction: role of intelligent textile testing 27510.2 Understanding existing materials and technologies 276

10.6 Evaluation methods for shape memory fabrics 28110.7 Thermal regulation property of phase change materials 288

11 Key issues in testing damaged textile samples 309

RVM Gowda, Bannari Amman Institute of Technology,

India and KM Babu, The Hong Kong Polytechnic

31911.6 Textile damage analysis: sample preparation 320

S Nazaré and AR Horrocks, University of Bolton, UK

11.5 Practical significance of damage analysis

(* = main contact)

Chapter 1

Professor Jinlian Hu

Institute of Textiles and Clothing

The Hong Kong Polytechnic

Institute of Textiles and Clothing

The Hong Kong Polytechnic

63, Cheng Lin RoadTianjin 300160China

E-mail: zhong_zhili@yahoo.com.cnzhongzhili@tjpu.edu.cn

Chapter 4

Professor X Wang*, Dr X Liu and

C HurrenCentre of Material and Fibre Innovation

Deakin UniversityGeelong

VictoriaAustralia 3217E-mail: xwang@deakin.edu.au

Institute of Textiles and Clothing

The Hong Kong Polytechnic

Institute of Textiles and Clothing,

The Hong Kong Polytechnic

No 1882, Yan’an West Road

(Near Yan’an Road Gate)

PO Box 870312TuscaloosaAlabama 35487-0312USA

E-mail: pbishop@bama.ua.edu

Chapter 9

C HurrenCentre for Material and Fibre Innovation

Deakin UniversityGeelong

VictoriaAustralia 3217E-mail: cjhurren@deakin.edu.au

Chapter 10

Professor Jinlian Hu*

Institute of Textiles and Clothing,The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Hung HomKowloonHong KongChinaE-mail: tchujl@inet.polyu.edu.hk

Dr K Murugesh BabuInstitute of Textiles and Clothing,The Hong Kong Polytechnic University

Hung HomKowloonHong KongChinaE-mail: kmb6@rediffmail.com

Institute of Textiles and Clothing

The Hong Kong Polytechnic

Deane CampusBolton BL3 5ABUK

E-mail: S.Nazare@bolton.ac.uk

1 Watson’s textile design and colour Seventh edition

Edited by Z Grosicki

2 Watson’s advanced textile design

Edited by Z Grosicki

3 Weaving Second edition

P R Lord and M H Mohamed

J Gordon Cook

J Gordon Cook

6 Recycling textile and plastic waste

Edited by A R Horrocks

T Hongu and G O Phillips

J W S Hearle, B Lomas and W D Cooke

12 Handbook of technical textiles

Edited by A R Horrocks and S C Anand

13 Textiles in automotive engineering

W Fung and J M Hardcastle

4 Handbook of textile fibres Vol 1: Natural fibres

5 Handbook of textile fibres Vol 2: Man-made fibres

7 New fibers Second edition

8 Atlas of fibre fracture and damage to textiles Second edition

14 Handbook of textile design

21 Yarn texturing technology

J W S Hearle, L Hollick and D K Wilson

R H Gong and R M Wright

25 Wool: Science and technology

Edited by W S Simpson and G Crawshaw

29 Textile processing with enzymes

Edited by A Cavaco-Paulo and G Gübitz

30 The China and Hong Kong denim industry

Y Li, L Yao and K W Yeung

High-performance fibres

Smart fibres, fabrics and clothing

Encyclopedia of textile finishing

Dictionary of textile finishing

Regenerated cellulose fibres

Silk, mohair, cashmere and other luxury fibres

31 The World Trade Organization and international denim trading

Y Li, Y Shen, L Yao and E Newton

H A McKenna, J W S Hearle and N O’Hear

35 Structure and mechanics of woven fabrics

38 Analytical electrochemistry in textiles

P Westbroek, G Priniotakis and P Kiekens

42 Effect of mechanical and physical properties on fabric hand

Edited by Hassan M Behery

43

T Hongu, M Takigami and G O Phillips

44 Textiles for protection

Chemical finishing of textiles

Clothing appearance and fit

Woollen and worsted woven fabric design

Handbook of fibre rope technology

Synthetic fibres: nylon, polyester, acrylic, polyolefin

Bast and other plant fibres

New millennium fibers

Biodegradable and sustainable fibres

48 Medical textiles and biomaterials for healthcare

Edited by S C Anand, M Miraftab, S Rajendran and J F Kennedy

49 Total colour management in textiles

52 Biomechanical engineering of textiles and clothing

Edited by Y Li and D X-Q Dai

53 Digital printing of textiles

Edited by H Ujiie

54 Intelligent textiles and clothing

Edited by H Mattila

55 Innovation and technology of women’s intimate apparel

W Yu, J Fan, S C Harlock and S P Ng

56

Edited by N Pan and P Gibson

57 Geosynthetics in civil engineering

Edited by R W Sarsby

58 Handbook of nonwovens

Edited by S Russell

59 Cotton: Science and technology

Edited by S Gordon and Y-L Hsieh

60 Ecotextiles

Edited by M Miraftab and A Horrocks

61 Composite forming technologies

Edited by A C Long

62 Plasma technology for textiles

Edited by R Shishoo

63 Smart textiles for medicine and healthcare

Edited by L Van Langenhove

64 Sizing in clothing

Edited by S Ashdown

Thermal and moisture transport in fibrous materials

65 Shape memory polymers and textiles

W E Morton and J W S Hearle

69 Advances in apparel production

Edited by C Fairhurst

70

Edited by A R Horrocks and D Price (forthcoming)

71 Polyesters and polyamides

Edited by B L Deopora, R Alagirusamy, M Joshi and B S Gupta

77 Biomimetics and textiles

Edited by A Abbott and M Ellison (forthcoming)

78 Friction in textiles

Edited by B.S Gupta

79 Textile advances in the automotive industry

Edited by R Shishoo

Nanofibers and nanotechnology in textiles

Physical properties of textile fibres Fourth edition

Advances in fire retardant materials

3D fibrous assemblies: Properties, applications and modelling

Textile fabrics are manufactured for many different end uses, each of which has different performance requirements The chemical and physical struc-tures of textile fabric determine how it will perform, and ultimately whether

it is acceptable for a particular use Fabric testing plays a crucial role in gauging product quality, ensuring regulatory compliance and assessing the performance of textile materials It provides information about the physical

or structural, chemical and performance properties of the fabrics

As consumers become more aware and more demanding of products, the number of tests required for textile materials has grown As a result the testing of fabrics is increasingly varied, in constant fl ux and full of the unprecedented challenges of globalization With the onset of new types of fabrics for the apparel industry and of technical textiles for functional applications, and with the increasing number of innovations taking place in the garment sector, fabric testing procedures have undergone tremendous changes and there is a need to understand all the procedures before a testing system is adapted to investigate the performance of fabrics

It is very important to predict the textile fabric’s performance by testing Fashion merchandisers, apparel designers, interior designers and textile scientists who have an understanding of textile properties and testing are

profi ts for their businesses Knowledge of fabric testing and its performance

textile products, and to the development of products that perform

accept-apparel and textiles are among those who use the fabric testing data and results in making decisions about their products Most textile or apparel

that are published by testing organizations

A number of textile research and testing organizations have published data on fabric testing and their procedures There exists a great variety of

equipped to make decisions that will benefit their clients and enhance

manufacturers will use either test methods or performance specifications analysis can contribute to efficiency in solving consumer problems with

ably for consumers As indicated above, retail buyers and producers of

textile testing procedures for different fabrics for different end uses Researchers all over the world have been constantly involved in developing newer methods of fabric testing so as to meet the ever-growing globaliza-tion and quality requirements Their researches have resulted in an enor-mous quantity of data and testing procedures for fabrics These results should be providing the industry, fabric suppliers, apparel manufacturers, exporters, fashion designers and retailers with an enormous amount of information about the testing aspects of fabrics and apparel to meet the international standards It appears that coverage of the existing literature

there have been a great number of research achievements by scientists, researchers and industry experts in the areas of apparel, industrial fabrics such as technical fabrics, intelligent fabrics for special applications, nano-technology applications, medical textiles, etc Hence, a systematic approach towards integrating the knowledge available in the literature on fabric testing and developments in different aspects of fabric testing and the achievements of researchers and industry experts would help all those who are involved in quality assessment and evaluation of textile products to a great extent

Based on the above considerations, it was thought desirable to compile

a book on testing principles and procedures of various aspects of fabrics Hence an effort has been made in this book to include the latest procedures

of testing of fabrics for their comfort, appearance, intelligence, damage analysis, etc Wide coverage of advanced topics on composition testing, chemical testing, physical and mechanical testing, statistical testing, fl am-mability analysis, testing for colour and dye analysis, and permeability will help readers to understand these tests in detail

Finally, this book is a compilation of research works on fabric testing by experienced researchers worldwide I sincerely feel that a complete book

on fabric testing of this scope will help all those involved in the fabric, garment and fashion industries and the import and export businesses to adopt new testing procedures to meet the international standards and to

and testing procedures for new types of fabrics, including smart and gent fabrics

intelli-Professor Jinlian HuHong Kong Polytechnic University

maximize their profits In addition, research and academic organizations can benefit from this book in exploring the possibilities of new test methods

in textbooks on fabric testing procedures and results is insufficient, although

This book is a result of research contributions in the area of fabric testing

by experienced researchers all over the world I would like to take this opportunity to acknowledge my sincere thanks to various people who con-tributed in successfully making this book a reality

I am extremely grateful to Dr K Murugesh Babu for his consistent help and hard work during the editing and preparation of this book His out-standing reviewing and editing skills combined with sincere efforts have made this book a meaningful piece of work

I wish to thank all the authors of this book for their valuable

contribu-making this book a reality are greatly appreciated

tions in presenting their chapters in a befitting manner Their efforts in

Introduction to fabric testing

J H U, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, China

Abstract: Fabric testing plays a crucial role in gauging product quality,

assuring regulatory compliance and assessing the performance of textile materials It provides information about the physical or structural properties and the performance properties of the fabrics Today more and more countries and markets have a stake in the treatment and testing of fabric As consumers become more aware and more

demanding of products, the number of tests required for textile fabrics has grown As a result the testing of fabrics is increasingly varied, in This introductory chapter describes the importance, scope, current status and future trends in fabric testing.

Key words: scope of fabric testing, importance of fabric testing, future of

fabric testing, standards for tests.

1.1 Introduction

linear density and twist and fabric weight, thickness, strength, abrasion resistance, colour fastness, wrinkle resistance and stiffness It is the applica-tion of engineering knowledge and science to the measurement of the

terials It involves the use of techniques, tools, instruments and machines in the laboratory for the evaluation of the properties of the textiles (Grover and Hamby, 1960) Textile testing has become more important in recent years as a result of the new demands placed upon the products of textile manufacturers Advances in textile technology, combined with the rise in

performance behaviour, have made it essential that the properties of a material must be well understood and must be maintained over a long period of time (Slater, 1993) An understanding of the principles of these procedures, a certain degree of skill in carrying them out and the expertise

to interpret reported results are important steps in developing the ability

to correlate structure with performance

The main reasons for testing of textiles are control of product, control of raw materials, process control and analytical information Testing is actually

Testing of textiles refers to numerous procedures for assessing myriad fibre,

properties and characteristics of, and the conditions affecting, textile yarn and fabric characteristics such as fibre strength and fineness, yarn

ma-the number of knowledgeable consumers with firm demands for specific

constant flux and full of the unprecedented challenges of globalization

a two-way process, in which the incoming raw materials that will be needed

to manufacture the company’s products will be scrutinized to ensure that

minimized while also ensuring that the textile item thus made will not result

in problems for the customers; namely, that the item being manufactured is

a quality product (Adanur et al., 1995).

Testing is important, mainly for customer satisfaction of the textile product as well as to ensure product quality for the market in which the textile manufacturer competes Testing is also important in order to control the manufacturing process and cost In the textile industry, it is very impor-tant to use testing to control the manufacturing process for cost and other reasons The importance of testing cannot be disregarded for product sat-isfaction and control of manufacturing cost There are additional reasons such as customer relations, reputation, employee satisfaction and sales

manufacturing business Testing informs us whether the product will be saleable or not (McCullough, 1978)

Quick response and just-in-time delivery have become increasingly important as textile suppliers and purchasers like to shorten the supply-side pipeline Quality considerations, mandated by the International Organi-zation for Standardization (ISO), have forced suppliers to update testing methods, explore opportunities for more rapid testing and develop entirely new test methods One of the most compelling reasons for the rise of rapid testing of textile products is the increasing globalization of the textile industry (Mock, 2000) Materials for an individual garment or fabric are often sourced today from a variety of suppliers, literally from around the globe This necessitates the testing procedures to be highly competitive and accurate to analyse the textile product’s characteristics to meet a particular end use The test procedures today need to be more objective than subjec-

modern testing is to understand the complexity of the instruments and their

commercial needs

Textile fabrics are manufactured for many different end uses, each of which has different performance requirements The chemical and physical struc-tures of textile fabric determine how it will perform, and ultimately whether

it is acceptable for a particular use Fabric testing plays a crucial role in gauging product quality, assuring regulatory compliance and assessing the performance of textile materials It provides information about the physical

or structural properties and the performance properties of the fabrics

they meet the specifications That is, any manufacturing problems will be

Proper testing programmes are a very important ingredient of the efficient

tive Instrumentation may definitely help in this regard A key issue in

working principles and finally to interpret the results in a systematic and scientific way

Physical properties include those that characterize the physical structure of the fabric and tests that measure these properties are sometimes called characterization tests Physical properties include fabric thickness, width, weight and the number of yarns per unit fabric area (i.e fabric count) Performance properties are those properties that typically represent the fabric’s response to some type of force, exposure or treatment These include properties such as strength, abrasion resistance, pilling and colour fastness

Although performance properties are often the primary factors in product development, aesthetic properties are equally important such as the way a fabric feels or drapes in design and development decisions In some cases, trade-offs occur between performance characteristics and aesthetics, while

in others, decisions based on aesthetic factors can also enhance product performance (Collier and Epps, 1999)

Throughout the textile supply chain, from distributors and textile mills

Today, more and more countries and markets have a stake in the treatment and testing of fabric (Hildebrandt, 2006) As consumers become more aware and more demanding of products, the number of tests required for textile materials has grown As a result the testing of fabrics is increasingly varied,

With the onset of new types of fabrics for the apparel industry, the ment of technical textiles for functional applications, and the increasing number of innovations taking place in the garment sector, fabric testing procedures have undergone tremendous changes and there is a need to understand all the procedures before a testing system is adopted to inves-tigate the performance of fabrics For example, photochromic textiles change colour when exposed to UV light and revert to their original colour in the absence of UV Ultraviolet radiation, with wavelengths ranging from 280 to

develop-tary and law enforcement personnel The new fabric testing programmes must include techniques that determine the fabric’s quick photochromic response, colour fastness and impact resistance properties It is required to develop improved ways for UV protection of a range of fabric substrates

mance’ One may say that it has to do with how well the fabric ‘holds up’ in its intended end use, or we often use another equally ambiguous

there is seldom any doubt in describing poor performance A fabric may

be deemed unacceptable because it fades, wrinkles, tears or shrinks or

to dyers and finishers, speciality textiles continue to grow in complexity

400 nm, has significant detrimental effects on both synthetic and natural

police, soldiers, prison correction officers and other types of security,

mili-and their evaluation, through systematic approaches to analyse the efficacy

of such a finish

It is difficult generally to describe what is meant by the term

‘perfor-term, ‘durability’ Although ‘performance’ is not easily defined directly, fibre fabrics Also, various stab and ballistic resistant garments are worn by Performance properties are mostly influenced by their physical properties

in constant flux and full of the unprecedented challenges of globalization

because it is too stretchy, or for numerous other reasons that are ously important factors in the fabric’s performance The desirable level of

obvi-by the user

It is very important to predict a textile fabric’s performance by testing Fashion merchandisers, apparel designers, interior designers and textile scientists who have an understanding of textile properties and testing are

textile products, and to the development of products that perform ably for consumers As indicated above, retail buyers and producers of apparel and textiles are among those who use the fabric testing data and results in making decisions about their products Most textile or apparel

accept-that are published by testing organizations

Innovations in fabric development have taken a new path The tions of high performance and functional fabrics have been expanding rapidly These fabrics have enhanced performance attributes and function-alities over commodity fabrics, and are used in areas such as:

applica-• Protective garments (e.g ballistic and stab resistant fabrics, UV tive wear)

protec-• Functional fabrics (e.g photochromic textiles)

• Textiles for acoustic applications (e.g in automotives)

• Smart and electronic textiles (e.g fabric sensors and actuators)

According to textile intelligence, ‘performance textiles’ represent one of the fastest growing sectors of the international textile and clothing industry It has been estimated that in the European Union, the sports market alone is worth over 37 billion euros In the USA it is worth around US$46 billion

A number of textile research and testing organizations have published data

on fabric testing and their procedures There is a wide range of textile testing procedures for different fabrics for different end uses The current literature on fabric testing is available in the form of textbooks and pub-lished articles Researchers all over the world have been constantly involved

in developing newer methods of fabric testing so as to meet the ever growing globalization and quality requirements Their researches have resulted in extensive quality data and testing procedures for fabrics These results should provide industries, fabric suppliers, apparel manufacturers, exporters, fashion designers and retailers with an enormous amount of

fabric performance is defined in terms of the intended end use, ultimately

equipped to make decisions that will benefit their clients and enhance profits for their businesses Knowledge of fabric testing and its performance analysis can contribute to efficiency in solving consumer problems with

manufacturers will use either test methods or performance specifications

information about the testing aspects of fabrics and apparel to meet the international standards It appears that coverage of the existing literature

there have been many research achievements by scientists, researchers and industry experts in the areas of apparel, industrial fabrics such as technical fabrics, intelligent fabrics for special applications, nanotechnology applica-tions, medical textiles, etc Hence, a systematic approach towards integrating the knowledge available in the literature on fabric testing and develop-ments in different aspects of fabric testing and the achievements of research-

assessment and evaluation of textile products

The performance of a fabric is ultimately related to the end-use conditions

on fabrics affect their end-use performance (Saville, 1999) Although all

sis is generally given to fabrics since they represent the largest class of textile structures in a variety of applications

Thus, a fabric is usually the most complex and representative form of a

uses Testing of fabrics and quality control is broad in its scope (Fig 1.1) It

Physical testing

Chemical testing

Biological testing

Visual examination

Physiological

testing

Scope of fabric testing

Intelligence

testing

1.1 Scope of fabric testing.

in textbooks on fabric testing procedures and results is insufficient, although

ers and industry veterans would greatly benefit all those involved in quality

agents affect textile performance at the fibre, yarn and fabric levels,

empha-of a material The physical, chemical, physiological and biological influences

textile structure that is subjected to these agents and influences in most end

can include, for instance, the means for determining and controlling the quality of a manufactured product It can be used to measure the outside

ences of a physical, chemical and biological nature would be of great help

to manufacturers in adjusting their process control parameters to produce the right material An understanding of the visual examination of fabrics for their surface characteristics, shape, texture, etc., would be useful to designers in making proper selection of fabrics for a particular end use

in various industrial applications These fabrics incorporate wearable

elec-tance, breathability, protection against external conditions, biomimicry, etc The testing of the intelligent properties of these fabrics is increasingly important in the modern textile world

1.4.1 Physical testing

mechanical deformation and degradation, tactile and associated visual properties of fabrics (such as wrinkling, buckling, drape and hand) after their use and manufacture, and their response to heat, liquids and static charge The testing of fabrics to mechanical deformation is very important and refers to fabrics that are subjected to variable and complex modes of deformation They include tensile behaviour, compression, bending or

and shear Fabrics with special features or constructions require either

characterize adequately their mechanical and related properties Coated fabrics must be evaluated not only for their mechanical integrity and behav-iour but also for their bonding integrity of the coating to the fabric (Vigo, 1994)

The development of new fabrics for industrial and functional purposes has introduced a new set of physical testing procedures for these fabrics Conductive fabrics used in conjunction with metals for detecting electro-magnetic signals need to be tested for their electromagnetic behaviour High performance clothing demands the testing of parameters such as impact resistance, thermal resistance, moisture vapour transmission, etc Comfort and aesthetic properties of speciality fabrics is another area that needs to be addressed Wear resistance of protective fabrics has to be con-sidered in physical testing

These days, a number of fabrics are being modified to act as ‘smart fabrics’

tronic devices and gadgets to serve a specific function such as heat

resis-The first broad class of factors that affect the performance of fabrics are

additional tests or modification of existing tests for conventional fabrics to

factors that influence the test results Testing of fabrics to the above

influ-physical agents and influences These may be further subdivided into

flexing, shrinkage, abrasion resistance, frictional rubbing, torsion or twisting,

1.4.2 Chemical testing

Chemical and photochemical exposure of textiles may lead to yellowing or discolouration of undyed fabrics, to fading of dyed fabrics, and/or to degra-dation of dyed and undyed fabrics These adverse results are due to depo-

oxidative processes and/or crosslinking Textile fabrics have varying degrees

of resistance to chemical agents such as water and other solvents, to acids, bases and bleaches, to air pollutants and to the photochemical action of

assessing the performance of the fabrics for various end uses (Jones, 1981) The development of chemically resistant protective clothing and textile

1.4.3 Biological testing

Textile fabrics may be adversely affected by various microorganisms and insects The effect of biological agents on textile fabrics is important for enhancing their end-use performance in many areas Fabrics will have desir-able aesthetic qualities if they can suppress odour-causing bacteria and other types of odour-causing microorganisms The hygienic and medical effectiveness of fabrics is required to prevent the growth of dermatophytic fungi (those that cause skin disease), pathogenic and potentially lethal microorganisms on fabrics and to prevent their infestation by insects Finally,

insects, prolongs the useful life of the material Testing of fabrics and

evolu-manufacturers, retailers and users of fabrics to develop strategic ways to maintain and protect their fabrics in storage and transportation These tests

fabrics for their ability to withstand biological attack

1.4.4 Visual examination

Fabrics can be evaluated for a variety of attributes to assess their mance by visual assessment either manually (subjective assessment) or by objective evaluation techniques Visual examination of fabrics includes evaluating the texture, surface characteristics, dye shade variations, design details, weave patterns, construction particulars, pilling assessment, etc

perfor-lymerization of the polymer chain in the fibre that may occur by hydrolysis,

ultraviolet light Resistance to chemical agents is dependent on fibre type, chemical nature of the dyes, additives, impurities, finishes present in the

prevention of fibre discolouration and degradation, usually by fungi and

would be useful for rapid screening of various modified and unmodified

fibre, and to a lesser extent on the construction and geometry of the fabric

filtration media has led to test methods relevant to these end uses

The testing of fabrics towards the above influences is very important in

tion of specific test methods for the above biological influences would help

Subjective or objective measurement techniques may be employed to determine the above properties of fabrics New types of fabrics and gar-ments require careful examination of their surfaces for change in functional

or plasma treatments Detailed microscopic examination can reveal tive microscopic and macroscopic features of fabrics SEM, TEM and other microscopic tests may be used to identify the details Objective measure-ment using image analysis is a new area in which a fabric’s surface is anal-

distinc-colour aspects of a dyed and printed fabric, and distinc-colour coordinates can be measured using advanced colour physics principles

Defect analysis is another major area today and is widely discussed in the textile industry Defects are bound to occur in fabric during manufac-

on the minimum number of defects present in it Visual examination is a preliminary tool to detect faults in the fabric before they are being pro-cessed further A good visual examination technique would help identify the faults and ensure that necessary corrective measures are undertaken by the respective departments to reduce the incidence of faults Computerized image processing techniques are now widely used in the textile industry The complex problem of fabric quality control through defect analysis may

be solved by means of computer vision using advanced digital signal and image processing tools Many of these image processing applications aim at detecting textural characteristics and textural defects of fabrics, including colour detection and dye shade variations

produced from them They can be described as textile materials that think for themselves This means that they may keep us warm in cold environ-ments or cool in hot environments or provide us with considerable conve-nience and even fun in our normal day-to-day lives, for example through the incorporation of electronic devices or special colour effects The most

groups due to the application of finishes such as shape memory polymers

ysed for texture, change in colour and surface modification due to a special

ture for a number of reasons The quality of the final fabric is assessed based

Intelligent textiles are fibres and fabrics with a significant and

reproduc-ences They represent the next generation of fibres, fabrics and articles finish application High performance scanning can be used to visualize the

ible automatic change of properties due to defined environmental

influ-important intelligent materials at present are phase change materials, shape memory materials, chromic materials and conductive materials Many intel-ligent textiles already feature in advanced types of clothing, principally for protection and safety and for added fashion or convenience The testing programmes must include the testing of these fabrics to meet the ever growing demand for hi-tech fabrics and garments.

natural materials, people look at the engineered beauty, innovative design and intelligent aspects of products Working closely with the clothing indus-try will develop the base that is needed to offer developments in intelligent clothing with huge commercial potential at minimum risk At a later stage

of development, such cooperation is likely to create more solid product assortments Veterans expect that smart clothing technologies will be

an absolute necessity to understand these new fabrics and their gies Testing of fabrics hitherto limited to traditional fabrics such as apparel, home furnishings and some varieties of technical textiles may not help in the long run to understand the properties of these new fabrics New methods

technolo-of testing and evaluation for intelligent and smart fabrics will become extremely important in the industry as the future relies more and more on these textiles

We are still far from taking full advantage of the potential of information technology services, but the future for fully soft electronic products is very attractive and requires a different, but interesting, design approach The

strongly from those of conventional electronics and can create new puter designs and architectures

com-1.4.6 Physiological testing

Fabric physiology deals with the physiological characteristics of fabrics that are expressed in the well-being, performance and health of the wearer It covers the areas of physics, chemistry, medicine, physiology, psychology and textile technology Three important physical parameters that are instrumen-tal in the physiological processes of fabrics are heat transmission, moisture transport and air permeability (Welfers, 1978) The physiological properties

of fabrics relate to what the fabric or garment feels like when it is worn next to the skin, such as too warm, too cold, sweaty, allergic, prickly, etc The psychological properties include mainly the aesthetics of the fabric such as colour, fashion, prejudice, suitability for an occasion, garment style, fabric

Clothing is designed to maintain a hygienic and comfortable zone about

A shift in consumer values has occurred; instead of wanting the finest

launched in the market within the next five to ten years Hence there exists

finish, etc (Smith, 1986)

geometric and mechanical properties of textiles (large flexible area) differ

the human body in which one feels well, even if inner or outer influences

change rapidly The zone in which the temperature, moisture and air tion are properly matched is called the ‘comfort zone’ The so-called micro-

circula-conditions There are physiological and psychological positive comfort sations but these tend to be more individualistic and less frequently noticed

sen-in the wearer of the garment Therefore, sen-in the assessment of a fabric or garment for a particular end use, the comfort of that product is considered

to be very important Fabric testing therefore needs to address the comfort properties of fabrics

Globalization of the clothing industry and increased competition in the world market have encouraged consumers to expect high-quality garments

at affordable prices The quality of a garment, as normally perceived by a customer, depends on its aesthetic appeal, its ability to drape gracefully, its

‘handle’ and durability These depend largely on the quality of the fabrics

used and the making-up process (Potluri et al., 1995) However, a more

expensive fabric does not necessarily result in a better-quality garment The colour and design of a fabric, along with drape, contribute to the aesthetic appeal of a garment

During the past few years, the demand for quality textiles has increased globally, with the steady growth in population and income resulting in a rise

compete, especially in the world market now, there is greater demand for consistency in quality rather than for quantity of products This implies production processes that guarantee overall quality – ‘built-in’ instead of merely ‘inspected-on’ Today, quality assurance programmes have become necessary for survival not only in textiles but in every branch of industry.Testing of fabrics has attained an important position in the textile indus-try due to the development of new types of fabrics for various apparel, furnishing and industrial applications It has become almost mandatory for any textile manufacturing activity to carry out testing and evaluation of their textile products such as yarns and fabrics to meet international stand-ards and the customer’s satisfaction Fabrics undergo a number of deforma-tions during their use and a systematic analysis of the defects occurring in the fabrics is a key role played by the testing department

The importance of fabric testing lies in the fact that in order to control the product and its cost, testing the performance of the goods becomes

those involved in the export business Professionals developing new fabrics use results from testing in selecting the right raw materials (Shaw, 1985) Decisions based on the accurate results of testing result in fewer rejections

climate that prevails there is defined by definite physical and physiological

in production and usage of different types of fibres, yarns and fabrics To

absolutely necessary Fabric testing would benefit many in the industry and

and customer complaints Designers who create new fashions for the fashion industry are sometimes confronted with the problem of selection

high-of the right quality high-of fabric for their garments Fabric testing results would help them to understand the construction, properties and behaviour of fabrics for a particular end use The textile scientist also stands to gain from

a thorough understanding of fabric testing and analysis Although one may

be a specialist in textile chemistry or textile engineering, an understanding

of how physical tests relate to fabric performance and consumer tions is a necessary prerequisite to successful development of new textile fabrics There are various stages in which fabric has to undergo quality inspection and this would reduce the burden on management to supply a fabric consignment with minimum defects Proper testing on a regular basis can make the difference in the success or failure of a product and indeed the whole business

expecta-There are a number of points in the production cycle at which testing may be carried out to improve the product or to prevent sub-standard fabric progressing further in the cycle Fabric testing becomes important from the point of view of the following considerations

1.5.1 Quality control for manufacturing

The meaning of the term quality is elusive: everybody has their own idea

form However, in order to produce a quality product, manufacturers need

dimensions: perceived quality and functional quality The perceived quality supports the corporate image, creates interest and generates an initial pur-chase The buying is done on the basis of three basic parameters – the item looks good, feels good and offers good value for money – whereas the functional quality is related to the supplier and involves make, size and performance

The buyer is responsible for selecting the best product on the basis of perceived quality (Garner, 1977) The supplier must produce this product and also achieve the functional aspects of quality The key to all quality is the need for a ‘standard’ A customer (buyer) in total expectation of quality

agreed’ standard between the customer and the supplier

Quality control refers to the performance on a periodic basis of certain tests designed to measure the characteristics of the raw or processed mate-rial Regular controls on the quality of fabric produced at every stage of manufacture become most important for the fabric to live up to interna-tional standards Such controls must conform with the following:

of what is meant by it, but it is difficult to express the idea in a concrete

to have a definition of quality which will allow them to measure how far their products meet the requirements Quality can be defined in two broad

demands a ‘standard’ quality and therefore this must be defined as ‘an

• The testing standards established by an individual organization, for example most of the big importers and retail store-chains have their

items

AATCC, ISO, etc., and by other authorities of various countries

• Market requirements or standards, such as meeting the requirements for width, ends/picks and weight for certain staple fabrics listed periodi-cally in trade journals

• Consumer needs or demands, for example to forecast the effectiveness

of a material to meet consumer needs for wear or dye-fastness or to assess its satisfactory performance for the end use of the fabric

1.5.2 Selection of fabrics

The production cycle as far as testing is concerned starts with the delivery

of raw material If the material is incorrect or sub-standard then it is

impos-fabrics becomes highly important for fashion designers, retailers, exporters and scientists and a thorough checking of fabrics for defects and construc-

Fabric manufacture consists of a number of separate processes such as

Knitted and non-woven fabrics form a separate section and all these cesses demand the checking of quality at every stage of their production

pro-unsuitable material can be rejected or appropriate adjustments made to the production conditions

Online production monitoring systems monitor fabric quality and raise

information on the fabric rolls to optimize packing, to give access to all

own standard specifications and test methods for various clothing

• Established scientific specifications, such as those laid down by ASTM,

sible to produce the required quality of final fabric Proper selection of

tion particulars is a key step in preventing rejection of final consignments

winding, warping, sizing and weaving before the final fabric is produced

The final product has to be checked for the required properties so that

known tolerances, certain specified properties of the product at the level at which they have been set A quality fabric for these purposes is defined as one whose properties meet or exceed the set specifications Besides the

product packing efficiency Using these systems it is possible to inspect the final product and collect all fabric defect data This data provides precise

fabric defect data which gives the true picture of fabric quality, and to make snap cost-saving decisions in the manufacturing In addition, online pro-duction monitoring tools provide an organization with a complete inven-tory of defects, while the fabric is being inspected on the folding table They record all the defects, their location on the roll and their severity Based on

mending master plan

In this process the bulk production is examined before delivery to the

cus-the fabric has been produced It is cus-therefore too late to alter cus-the production conditions In some cases selected samples are tested and in other cases all the material is checked and steps are taken to rectify faults For instance, some qualities of fabric are inspected for faulty places which are then mended by skilled operatives; this is a normal part of the process and the

1.5.5 Investigation of faulty material

customer complaint, it is important that the cause is isolated This enables steps to be taken to eliminate faulty production in future and so provide a better quality product Investigations of faults can also involve the deter-mination of which party is responsible for faulty material in the case of a dispute between a supplier and a user, especially where processes such as

is often contracted out to independent laboratories that are then able to give an unbiased opinion

1.5.6 Product development and research

Product development is an important aspect in any manufacturing activity The need for new product development arises from aggressive global com-petition, rapidly changing technologies, increasing complexity of markets and diversifying consumer trends Today’s consumer in the textile industry wants more variety in fabrics and garments, and better quality products at

a lower price Before the 1980s, competition in the business was in facturing capacity, whereas during the 1980s competition arose in product development and since the 1990s product development has been the battle-ground in any textile and garment business The product development process converts ideas (inputs) into products (outputs) using the company’s

manu-1.5.4 Assessing the quality of the final fabric

tomer to see if it meets the specifications By its nature this takes place after the final product specifications, it is possible to present an optimal cutting–

material would be dispatched as first quality

If a faulty material is discovered either at final inspection or through a

finishing have been undertaken by outside companies Work of this nature

workforce of designers, marketers, production personnel and accountants

A product development cycle can be represented as shown in Fig 1.2.Textile fabrics are evaluated during the development process This helps textile scientists determine how to proceed at each stage of development

reaches the marketplace it is necessary to test the material to check that the properties have been improved or have not been degraded by faster production methods In this way an improved product or a lower-cost product with the same properties can be provided for the customer

A large organization will often have a separate department to carry out research and development; otherwise it is part of the normal duties of the testing department This section also includes testing in order to study

velopment, new products and processes may require testing procedures that are not provided through standard test methods Test methodologies

gain wider acceptance and eventually are developed into industry-wide standard test methods

1.2 Product development cycle.

In the textile industry technology is changing all the time, bringing modified materials or different methods of production Before any modified product

theories of fabric or fibre behaviour With advances in research and

de-developed for a specific research application within one laboratory often

1.5.7 Ecological considerations

In the past, the quality requirement of consumers for textile and garment products has concentrated on the comfort and performance of fabrics Accordingly, regular testing usually focuses on the dimensional stability test, colour fastness, fabric construction and composition analysis, fabric

this perception is changing and a new element, ecological concern, is also becoming important Especially in northern Europe, there is an increased awareness of environmental protection and the potentially harmful effects

to human health from chemical processes and ingredients in food and clothing (Chan, 2007) This has resulted in an extra demand on testing and

manufacturers to make their products safer by minimizing the use of cals with hazardous substances and heavy metals such as cadmium, azo dye, chromium, lead and arsenic While improving the quality of textile fabrics, ecological factors cannot be overlooked The textile industry uses many chemical pollutants, allergens and carcinogens These have to be severely restricted by laying down ecological requirements (Bhattacharya and Varadarajan, 1993) Only limited use of various chemicals such as azo dyes, heavy metals, harmful odours, etc., should be permitted The textile industry also needs to address the problem of indiscriminate disposal of waste water loaded with toxic chemicals Added quality control not only covers the materials purchased, but also includes all stages of production, quality

chemi-agement It thus provides much greater assurance and peace of mind From the point of view of ecological requirements, testing of parameters such as prohibited azoic dyestuffs, carcinogenic and allergy-inducing dyestuffs, formaldehyde, pesticides, chlorinated phenols, chloro-organic carriers, extractable heavy metals, nickel, phthalates in baby articles, butyltin com-pounds (TBT and DBT), emission of volatile components, odours, etc., becomes extremely important

A large number of technical and fashion institutes and universities are today offering quality education in textile engineering, technology and fashion-related subjects Textile testing is a major subject of study in their courses The testing of fabrics needs to become a regular subject in the cur-riculum, as fabrics play the major role in the textile and garment industry Textile fabric testing should include laboratory experience for students, although there is hardly time in one semester of laboratory work for a student to perform all or even most of the tests that are included in fabric

performance test, fibre and yarn tests, etc In developed Western countries,

product certification of textile products New laws and directions require

control, final processing, garment wash, even the packaging and stock

man-1.5.8 Teaching and scientific institutions

ratory work A systematic approach towards teaching of testing of fabrics using subjective and objective techniques will help the students and the faculty to understand the newer methods of testing.

Today’s textile industry is in the transition zone between traditional textile production and the realization of highly focused design and produc-

fabrics is becoming increasingly popular and commercially successful because it combines product use with new material properties More and more instrumental analysis techniques and the evolution of new test methods for testing intelligent textiles, for example testing the thermoregu-latory response of a phase change material, or the shape memory effect of

a shape memory garment, photo-responsive testing of fabrics, self-cleaning tests, testing of medical textiles and implants, and testing of technical tex-tiles, would really help both students and the faculty to enrich their knowl-edge of testing procedures and standards It is necessary to introduce future-oriented design concepts and textiles with high quality and added value that are focused on people’s needs and that integrate high technology and design in a sensible manner It is important to educate fashion and textile designers within the area of advanced fabrics and state-of-the-art technologies to prepare students for situations they will face once they have entered the job market In addition, interaction between academic institu-tions and the industry needs to be improved by coordinating the testing activities, and they need to help each other in developing new testing procedures and standards for establishing constant quality standards for the industry

Concern about product quality is universal in business and industry Everyone in the industry needs his product to be tested according to the international standards so as to ensure quality in all respects This will largely depend on the testing programme adopted by the testing house to evaluate the quality of the fabrics Currently, fabrics are tested at different testing houses for their quality particulars before being exported or sold in the market There are large commercial organizations that have set up their own laboratories and standards to assess the quality of their products to satisfy their customers On the other hand, there exist a vast majority of private testing organizations that take up testing of fabrics on a commercial basis for the industries, testing their products as per the standards In addition, there are a number of governmental and approved research organizations throughout the world that test and certify the fabric testing results to meet the standards Hence, the whole scenario of fabric testing is

performance specifications Students need to become comfortable reading actual standard specifications and test methods as they carry out their labo-

tion of added-value textiles The innovative field of smart and intelligent

not integrated to a particular area and the testing is not completely standardized and integrated.

1.6.1 Commercial testing

Globalization has clearly led more and more companies to produce newer products to meet the ever-growing demands of the textile industry A company in the USA buying products from Asia and Europe may use a number of external testing laboratories and these companies are looking for more testing methods that will satisfy everyone Today there are many laboratories for testing fabrics They include in-house company or manu-facturers’ laboratories for testing Thorough testing of fabrics is carried out in these in-house laboratories before being released to the market

On the other side, the buyers who buy the products may have their own testing laboratories for testing the incoming goods for their quality and standards

Commercial testing of fabrics by private and governmental nodal cies has made tremendous progress as these agencies have set up their labo-ratories throughout the world to undertake testing of fabrics according to the international standards Laboratories such as AATCC, SGS, TRI, the Atlas Material Testing Laboratory in the USA, the Hohenstein Institutes

agen-in Germany, the Centro Controllo Tessile agen-in Italy, the Korea Textile Inspection and Testing Institute in Korea, Covitex in Europe, Contexbel in Belgium, Inotex in the Czech Republic, BTTG in the UK, the Textiles Committee and SGS in India, etc., have been continuously catering to the needs of the industry and the exporters The laboratories set up by the research organizations also cannot be ignored The contribution of these

testing standards and procedures for various types of fabrics These tories incorporate advanced testing instruments and objective techniques

labora-to carry out testing of fabrics labora-to meet cuslabora-tomer requirements

Most competent fabric manufacturers have their own test procedures in addition to the recommendations of the above professional organizations New and innovative fabrics that are coming on to the market, such as intel-ligent fabrics, nano-textiles, medical implants and various technical fabrics, must be watched carefully and new testing schemes must be introduced in order to ensure performance of these fabrics and their acceptance by customers It is most important to test the fabrics in order to control their cost

1.6.2 Research and development

The role of the research organizations involved in testing of fabrics and non-profit testing organizations is tremendous in developing new sets of

other products is to collect relevant data or facts and invent falsifiable

hypotheses about relationships among these facts Experiments or tests are then conducted to verify the predictions of the hypotheses In addition, the organizations set up standards for the testing of fabrics and garments to be eventually followed by the industries A great amount of time and effort has been spent by researchers and scientists to develop new fabrics to cater

to the needs of the industry The direction of research suggests that these new fabrics will make headway in the coming years and a revolutionary change might be expected in areas such as industrial textiles, intelligent fabrics and medical textiles The credit goes to the scientists and researchers

of various textile institutes of great repute and the research community in the industry and several other nodal organizations A wealth of information

is available on their research and it is time for industries, exporters and

to incorporate them into their manufacturing and testing programmes Such

an effort to integrate the results of researchers and scientists with the test procedures followed by the industry would go a long way towards under-standing the procedures for testing new types of fabrics and their charac-teristics in order to alleviate the problems of misunderstanding among manufacturers, retailers and exporters The integration of industry practices

existing as well as newer types of fabrics in the long run

The term ‘standard’ is used often in regard to testing of products It may be ambiguous at times as it can have several different meanings It can refer

to the actual test methods or to the minimum acceptable level of mance on a particular test Any testing which is to be done on a product will need to be done by employing standard test methods In this way, every possible variable within the test method will be precisely controlled The reason for this is that reproducibility must be absolutely assured That is, the test results in a plant or laboratory will need to be the same as those obtained within the customer’s laboratory; otherwise, lawsuits would abound

perfor-Test methods are developed for textiles and textile products by several different organizations They are typically developed in response to a need expressed by an individual manufacturer, a product user, or occasionally by

a consumer group In most organizations that develop standard test methods,

goes interlaboratory trials Interlaboratory testing can reveal problems with procedures that must be corrected and they can also be used to determine whether the test method is applicable to a particular type of product; for example, does the method work only on woven fabrics, or can it also be

buying houses to borrow their scientific findings and research results and

and the scientific results would help standardize the testing practice for

once the test procedure is clearly defined, the proposed method then

under-used to determine the precision of the test? Precision indicates whether the tests will repeatedly produce the same results on the same fabric specimen Interlaboratory tests determine the reproducibility of the test from one lab

to another and from one operator to another A test which has a high level

of precision has good interlaboratory reproducibility and good operator reproducibility

between-Throughout the world there are numerous organizations that develop standard test methods and performance standards for textiles Because of the increasing global market in textiles and apparel, a growing need exists for uniformity of standards on an international basis This would alleviate some of the problems faced by manufacturers that export, and countries that import from foreign manufacturers For example, products that are imported to the United States must meet standards set by the United States, regardless of the standards or methods that exist in the country where the products are manufactured

1.7.1 International organization for standardization

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO), based in Geneva, Switzerland is an organization that serves member organizations through-out the world There are three categories of membership in ISO These are member body, correspondent member and subscriber member A member body is the national organization that is most representative of standardiza-tion in its country The member body which represents the United States is the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Other countries have comparable organizations that are member bodies, such as the Standards Council of Canada (SCC), the British Standards Institution (BSI), Standards Australia (SAA), the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), the China State Bureau of Technical Supervision (CSBTS) and Ente Nazionale Italiano di

for informing potentially interested parties in their respective countries of relevant international standardization initiatives and assuring that a con-certed view of each country’s interest is represented during international negotiations leading to standards agreements

1.7.2 Major American organizations

American National Standards Institute

ANSI represents the United States member body in the ISO The purpose

of ANSI is to coordinate voluntary standards development and use in the United States and to serve as liaison between standards organizations in this and other countries, through the ISO

Unificazione (UNI), which represents Italy Member bodies are responsible

American Society for Testing and Materials

The purpose of this organization is to develop standards on characteristics and performance of materials, products, systems and services The standards

and usually deal with physical properties of materials ASTM writes ard tests not only for textiles but also for virtually every other product such

stand-as steel, plstand-astics, lumber, etc For textiles, ASTM writes primarily physical-type tests such as methods for testing the tensile strength,

count, among many others

American Association of Textile Chemists and Colourists

AATCC was founded to promote greater knowledge of textile dyes and

organization works very closely with ASTM but writes chemical-type tests

meetings and promotes textile education The activities are concerned primarily with the chemical properties of textiles in contrast to ASTM’s emphasis on physical properties

1.7.3 Other national organizations

Apart from international organizations and major American standards organizations, many countries have their own national standards organi-zations, for example BSI (Britain), BIS (India), JIS (Japan) and DIN (Germany) standards The same arguments that are used to justify national standards can also be applied to the need for international standards to assist worldwide trade, hence the existence of International Organization for Standardization (ISO) test methods and, within the European Union, the drive to European standards

Japanese Industrial Standards

trial activities in Japan The standardization process is coordinated by the Japanese Industrial Standards Committee and published through the Japanese Standards Association The JIS in many ways has been Japan’s answer to ISO The JIS is extremely sophisticated and complex and goes beyond the requirements of the ISO 9000 series but essentially performs the same quality management function The JIS is more rigorous and comprehensive in standards, making it extremely challenging for an

developed by ASTM include test methods, specifications and definitions

abrasion resistance, twist determination, fibre maturity, denier and yarn

chemicals and therefore is concerned specifically with textile products This

In addition to the development of test methods, AATCC sponsors scientific

Japanese Industrial Standards (JIS) specifies the standards used for