Công nghệ xử lý rác MBT - CD.08 (Mechanic Bio Treatment)

Công nghệ xử lý rác MBT - CD.08 (Mechanic Bio Treatment)

demands upon it Skilful management of our water bodies is required if they are to be used for such diverse purpose as domestic and industrial supply, crop irrigation, transport, recreation , sport and commercial fisheries, power generation and waste disposal Water pollution is most commonly associated with the discharge of effluents from sewers or sewage treatment plants, drains and factories to the water body of rivers, seas and marines In the attempt to define and measure the presence and effects of pollutants epically the metals in rivers and oceans, the biological markers have attracted

a great deal of interest The principle behind the biomarker approach is the analysis of

an organism metal content and compared the metal concentration with the background metal levels In this review, the data were collected from different literatures around the world in using the aquatic organisms as biological indicator for metal pollution in aquatic system

INTRODUCATION

Water Pollution with metals

The aquatic environment with its water quality is considered the main factor controlling the state of health and disease in both man and animal Nowadays, the increasing use of the waste chemical and agricultural drainage systems represents the most dangerous chemical pollution The most important heavy metals from the point of view of water pollution are Zn, Cu, Pb, Cd, Hg, Ni and Cr Some of these metals (e.g Cu, Ni, Cr and Zn) are essential trace metals to living organisms, but become toxic at higher concentrations Others, such as Pb and Cd have no known biological function but are toxic elements

Source of pollution with

metals

Metals have many sources from which they can flow into the water body, these sources are:

I Natural Sources: Metals are found throughout the earth, in rocks, soil and

introduce into the water body through natural processes, weathering and erosion

II Industrial Sources: Industrial processes, particularly those concerned with the

mining and processing of metal ores, the finishing and plating of metals and the manufacture of metal objects Metallic compounds which are widely used in other industries as pigments in paint and dye manufacture; in the manufacture of leather,

rubber, textiles , paint, paper and chromium factories which are built close to water for shipping

III Domestic Wastewater: Domestic wastewater contains substantial quantities of

metals The prevalence of heavy metals in domestic formulations, such as cosmetic

or cleansing agents, is frequently overlooked

IV Agricultural Sources: Agricultural discharge contains residual of pesticides and

fertilizers which contains metals

V Mine runoff and solid waste disposal

areas

VI Atmospheric pollution: Acid rains containing trace metals as well as SPM input to

the water body will cause the pollution of water with metals

Biological markers (biomarkers or

bioindicators)

In the attempt to define and measure the effects and presence of pollutants on aquatic system, biomarkers have attracted a great deal of interest The principle behind the biomarker approach is the analysis of an organism to their metal contents in order to monitor the metal excess in their tissues Various aquatic organisms occur in rivers, lakes, seas and marines potentially useful as biomarkers of metal pollutants, including fish, shellfish, oyster, mussels, clams, aquatic animals and aquatic plants and algae

FISH AS BIOMARKER

Fish have been used for many years to indicate whether water are clean or polluted Fish are excellent biological markers of metals in water

Fish from Lakes: Nasser Lake

Tilapia nilotica is one of the aquatic organisms affected by heavy metals, so in many cases, Tilapia nilotica was used as metal biological marker in toxicological studies in

which it was substantiated with the highest sensitivity to toxic effect (Patin, 1984) Rashed (2001a, b) studied Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sr, Pb, Cd and Zn in different tissues

of fish (Tilapia nilotica) from Nasser lake to assess both the water pollution with these

metals and the lethal level of these metals in fish Fish samples were collected from two Kohrs in Nasser Lake ( Kohr Kalabsha and Kohr El-Ramel) The fish tissues includes muscle, gill, stomach, intestine , liver, veritable column and scales The fish ages were 1, 1.5 , 2, 2.5 and 3 years This study resulted in that fish scales exhibited the highest concentrations of Cd, Pb, Co,Cr,Ni and Sr (0.088,0.95,0.29,0.30,0.25 and 3.21 µg/g DW respectively) Whole fish contains the higher concentrations of the studied metals

compared to the previous study by Awadallah et al.(1985) in the same fish from Nasser

Lake, and this mean the increase in metal pollution in Lake water as the results of man activities (Table 1) This increasing in metal concentration was as the result of increasing pollution loads to the Lake from agricultural wastes, which include chemical pesticide and fertilizers These agricultural wastes reached the Lake body from the agricultural farms on the beach of the Lake The source of Pb in the Lake water and fish was resulted

from gasoline contains Pb from the fishery boats and tour ships travels from Aswan to

Sudan (Mohamed et al.1990).

Table 1 Metal concentrations in Tilapia nilotica and water from Nasser Lake in years

1980 to 2000

Metals Lake Water (µg//l)

1985* 2000*** Fish (µg/g)1985** 2000*** DifferenceWater Fish

(µg//l) (µg/g) Cd

Co

Cr

Cu

Fe

Pb

12

142

167

189

75

0.001

10 185 240 220 142 0.005

ND 0.095 0.082 0.099 0.104 0.095

0.034 0.25 0.29 0.27 6.45 0.33

2

43 0.155

73 0.108

11 0.171

67 6.35 0.004 0.235

* Sherief et al (1980) ** Awadallah et al (1985) *** Rashed (

2001a,b)

Lake Mariut and Lake Edku

Adham et al (1999) used fish as bioindicator for assessing metal pollution in Delta Lakes (Lake Maryut and Lake Edku ) Lake Edku is grouped 25 the site highest in metal concentrations Compared to Lakes Maryut and Edku, the Nile water displayed lower levels of metal contamination Lillo (1976) reported that bolti from Mariut Lake contained less Fe content compared to Nile bolti fish and concluded that the source was

from the factories discharge El- Nabwi et al (1987) studied the concentration of Pb in

fish, Tilapia nilotica, from Maryut Lake and found that Pb concentration was 0.42 ppm

Fish from River Nile

River Nile is the main source for potable water and as the result of man activities in and

on the river body it become loaded by metal pollution Fish in the River Nile was used as

biological marker for the River pollution by metals Mohamed et al (1990 ) used Tilapia nilotica fish as a biomarker for the Nile water pollution with metals at the

discharge Point of fertilizer factory with the Nile Ag,Au,Ca, Cr,Cu,

Fe,K,Mg,Mn,Na,Ni,Pb,Sr and Zn were determined in tilapia nilotica fish collected from

the Nile area at the point of fertilizer discharge to the Nile and south and north this point The results revealed that fish near the point of the factory discharge possess the highest levels of metals as the result of pollution with metals

Other study for using fish as biomarker for water pollution with metals was

conducted (Khallaf et al., 1994) Two species of fresh water fish (Tilapia nilotica ,named

Bolti, and Karmout ) caught from River Nile at Hawamdia and Kafer El-Zayat , at North Egypt and also from governmental fish farms (Abbassa and Barseik) were used to detect

the presence of industrial wastes especially heavy metals as environmental pollution in the river track and its accumulation in edible fish tissues The result reveals that heavy metals in different water samples except Cu and Zn were more than the recommended

permissible levels (Table2) Iron level in Hawamdia and Kafer-El-Zayat tilapia nilotica

samples (63.4 and 54.7 µg/g respectively) was more than its permissible levels, these may be due to the discharge of the adjacent chemical factories that used Fe in their processing Karmout fish from the same locations ( Kafer El-Zayat and Hawamdia ) had lower concentration of Cu,Zn,Ni,Cd and Pb than bolti, while Fe present in higher concentration in bolti than in Karmout

Comparing the fish metals from Abbassa and Barseik fish farms, where no pollution, with the same fish spices from Hawamdia and Kafer-El-Zayat river Nile, it seems that fish of farms exhibit lower concentration of Cu,Ni,Zn,Fe and Co than those from River Nile This indicates that the fish especially Bolti was highly responsible for metal pollution

Table 2 Heavy metal concentrations in different samples of water (mg/l) and fish (µg/g) from the River Nile and fish farms (Khallaf et al.,

1994)

Hawamdia (Nile)

Water

Bolti

Karmout

0.26 2.49 2.10

0.13 5.08 2.09

0.04 3.38 2.69

0.03 0.05 0.14

0.22 54.7 4.90

3.43 0.047 0.17

Kafer-El-Zayat(Nile)

Water

Bolti

Karmout

0.16 0.87 1.13

0.15 3.80 1.32

0.16 4.04 0.92

0.07 0.12 0.13

0.36 63.9 8.80

2.89 0.05 0.25 Abbassa (Farm)

Water

Bolti

Karmout

0.16 0.87 1.13

0.15 0.39 1.17

0.07 1.04 ND

0.01 0.03 0.02

0.25 10.4 ND

1.9 0.046 0.18 Barseik (Farm)

Water

Bolti

Karmout

0.24 0.34 0.61

0.12 1.79 0.46

0.13 2.35 4.20

0.06 0.06 0.13

0.27 5.90 4.30

3.81 0.048 0.20 Permissible level*

Water

* Permissible level as recommended by Egyptian Organization for Standardization (1993)

Fish as Metal Biomarker for Water Pollution in

Worldwide

Arsenic as biomarker for water pollution was assessed by Takatsu and Uchiumi (1998)

in which the contents of the metal in the tissues of the fish, Tribolodon hakonsis , from

Lake Usoriko, located in Aomori Prefecture, Japan, were examined It was discovered that large amounts of As were accumulated in the eye tissues This might be partly related to the fact that the lake water contains a relatively large amount of As Mercury levels in muscle of some fish species from Dique channel, Colombia was measured to

assess the water pollution with Hg (Olivero et al.1997) The highest values of Hg (105

µg/kg) found in fish from the Dique channel were lower than those found in fish species from the Lower Gallego and Cince Rivers in Spain (Raldua and Pedrocchi, 1996) In the Tapajos River, an Amazon water body highly exploited by gold mining activities, the average value for Hg in muscle of Carnivorous fish was 690 µg/kg, almost ten times

higher than those found in the Dique channel (Malm et al., 1995) They also concluded

that, however the highest Hg concentration did not reach the limits level internationally accepted for considering a fish not acceptable for human consumption (WHO, 1990) Kalfakakon and Akrida-Demertai (2000) reported that Ca,Mg,Fe,Cu,Zn and Pb exhibited bio-accumulation from water to fish They demonstrate that metal concentrations in fish are higher than in water, which indicates the bio-accumulation They study on the transfer of Cd,Pb,Cu and Zn through the trophic chain of Ioannina Lake (Pamvotis,Greece) ecosystem and investigate the environmental pollution from heavy metals on the trophic chain of the lake The concentration of Fe,Zn,Cu and Pb were measured in water, aquatic plants , fish and lake organisms Aquatic plants show a gradual increase in their concentration in relation to the water and fish ( Table 3 ) Table 3 Heavy metal concentrations in water, aquatic plants, fish and organisms from Ioannina Lake

Items/

Water (mg/l)

Aquatic plant (µg/g)

Fish (µg/g)

Organisms (µg/g)

6.1

8.0 0.61 0.40

0.0

ND*

0.63 0.58

0.01

ND 41 25

0.2 ND 3.0 2.13

*ND, Not detected

AQUATIC PLANTS

Aquatic plants in relation to their ability to sequester heavy metals have received extensive interest This interest has focused primarily on aquatic plants as biomarkers of heavy metal pollution Aquatic plants provide a viable alternative for metals remediation

if proper disposal of spent plants can be employed (Jackson et al., 1994).

Aquatic plants from River

Nile

Ali and Soltan (1999) used free-floating (Eichhornia crassipes), non-rooted-submerged (Ceratophyllum demersum ) and rooted-submerged (Potamogeton crispus) aquatic plants

Metals Items Aswan Mansoura Damieta Ras-El-Bar

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.0010.02 0.0020.05 0.0030.35 0.0030.25

C demersum (mg/kg) 2.0369.5 0.7863.3 1.82169 0.89118

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.305527 0.294520 0.382200 0.08380

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.0364314 0.0423010 0.0921800 0.08379

Ni Water (mg/l)

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.04215.2 0.05312.1 0.12946.9 0.0814.2

Pb Water (mg/l)

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.00338.2 0.0187.1 0.00355.7 0.0091.20

C demersum (mg/kg) 0.095100 0.137118 0.448160 0.12867.2

for assessing heavy metals

(Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb and Zn) in River Nile water at four main station, Aswan (at south),

Mansoura, Damieta and Ras-El-Bar (at North) The results reveal that Ceratophyllum demersum accumulate most of the metls and so, it may be useful for monitoring these

metals (Table 4)

The increase of Fe concentration in aquatic plants from Aswan is mainly due to the great quantity of hematite (Fe2O3) that fall into the Nile during shipping process Aswan Nile water contains Fe of 0.30 mg/l higher than in the other

stations

Ceratophyllum demersum collected from the River Nile at Aswan exhibited greater

concentration of Fe (5527 mg/kg DW) than that detected in the same plant from Mansoura, Dameitta and Ras-El-Bar and also, higher than in the same plant collected

from other parts of the world e.g Ceratophyllum demersum collected from the River Pinios in Greece (Fe,53.8 mg/kg DW , Sawidis et al.,1991) and from Kpong Head pond

and Lower Volta River, Ghana (2579 mg/kg DW, Biney,1991)

Table 4 Heavy metal concentrations in River Nile water and aquatic plants from four stations along the River Nile (Ali and Soltan, 1999)

worldwide

Aquatic plants from worldwide had received extensive interest as biomarkers for water pollution with metals Gupta and Chandra (1994) found 2.4% Pb was adsorbed in aquatic liverworts when it was exposed to 20 ppb metal solution

Aquatic bryophytes (mosses and liverworts) were used as biomonitors of heavy metals

pollution (Mouvet et al., 1993) Aquatic biota, Earthworms (Allolophora molleri) was

used as bioindicator for heavy metal pollution in water from Ebro River, Spain The primary sources of heavy metals in the river are the industrial activities along the basin The results (Table 5 ) show that mean metal Hg, Pb, Cd,, Cu and Zn in all water samples

from Ebro River (Banos, Mendavia, Gallur and Eixs ) did not vary significantly from

one site to another (Ramos et al.,1999).

Table 5 Heavy metals in water (mg/l) and aquatic plants (mg/kg) from different sites in Ebro River, Spain

Mendavia W

E ND0.13 1.7ND 0.400.23 2.282.09 11.8484.1

E ND0.84 0.701.53 0.160.83 1.991.08 59.6313.13

W, Water E, aquatic plant

ND, not determined NA, not allowed

Algal Bioassay

Toxic heavy metals are available to biota from various sources of industrial effluents Algae play an important role as removers of some polluting metals from aquatic environment and so as biomarkers for water pollution with heavy metals (Gamila and Naglaa, 1999)

Shehata and Lasheen (1981) studied the toxicity effects of some Cd on Nile water algae and recorded the occurrence of Cd in the Nile water at less than 1 ug/l

Heavy metals accumulation by two algal species, Synechococcus leopoliensis (green algae) and Dunaliella salina (blue algae) from pollulated water had been shown their

uses as a good bioindicatores (Noaman, 2000) A higher efficiency for different metal accumulation was shown by green algae than the blue one The order of metal affinity to algal cell surface revealed that Ni was the highest cation taken by both algae at the concentration 2 ppm and 4 ppm followed by Cu Mercury represents the least one

SEABIRDS

Seabirds have been used extensively as monitors of heavy metals Concentrations of heavy metals are often reported for adult birds but less often for chicks or fledglings However, chicks have been proposed as particularly useful indicators for both baseline pollution studies and monitoring programs, as they concentrate heavy metals during a specific period of time and from a local and definable foraging area (Walsh, 1990) The

Cory’s shearwater, Calonectris diomedea , is a long- lived pelagic seabird found in

warm marine waters from temperate to sub-tropical zones of the North Atlantic and Mediterranean (Cramp and Simmons, 1977) High concentrations of heavy metals have been reported in tissues of adult Cory’s shearwater from Mediterranean and Salvage

islands which were attributed to accumulation from prey items ( Renzoni et al.,1986).

Stewart et al (1997) used Cory’s shearwater as biomarker for sea water pollution with

heavy metals from different costal (Salvage, Majorca, Linosa and Crete) Azores, Portugal The cadmium concentration in kidney were 214.17 ug/g in the Salvage , 42.82 ug/g in Majorca , 106 µg/g in Linosa and 187 µg/g in Crete Zinc concentrations were similar for adult values recorded in Majorca and Linosa, but lower in the Salvage and Crete

The seabird, Red-billed Gulls Larus novaehollandiae scopulinus , was used for

monitoring of Hg levels in the sea from New Zealand (Furness and Lewis, 1990) In this study plumage of Red-billed Gulls was as bioindicator of Hg levels in the sea Analysis

of total Hg in the feather samples showed that Hg levels were independent of sex and age in adults Mean Hg in fresh weight adult body feathers was 2.4 µg/g Mercury levels

in chick feathers were about 80% of levels in adult feather

AQUATIC MAMMALS

Many aquatic mammals were used as a good biomarker of metal pollution in marine and seas water; of these mammals oyster, mussels, clams, barnacles, river otter, wild mink, shrimp, mullus barbatus , mytilus and others

Shrimp, Oyster and

Crabs

In recent years heavy metal pollution has increased in coastal water of the Gulf of

Mexico mainly in Lagunar-Estuarine ecosystem (Vanegas et al., 1997) These systems are essential environment for shrimp production Shrimp Juvenile P.setiferus was less sensitive to Cd than other shrimps such as Crangon septemspinosa and Palaemonetes vulagaris White shrimps were less susceptible to the toxic effect of Zn than Daphina magna and Ceriodaphina dubia ( Magliette et al.,1995).

Szefer et al (1997) used Pacific oyster (Crassostrea gigas ) and crabs, Goetice depressa (de Haan) Grapsidae and Leptodius exaratus (H.Milne Edwards, Xanthidae) as

trace metals bioindicators of the East Coast water of Kyusha Island , Japan The Oyster and craps were collected from three areas of Urashiro , Akamizu and Saganoseki along the east coast of Kyushu

The concentrations of Fe, Cd, Zn, Mn, Cu, Ni, and Pb in oysters from Elcho Island , Northern Territory (Australia) were Fe 13.07-273, Cd 0.29-10.63, Zn 2.39-8.51, Mn 0.25-4.84, Cu 0.45-8.76, Ni 0.16-0.59 and Pb 2.59-9.38 µg/g FW In clam from the same area Fe 94.8-419, Cd 6-20.3, Zn 1.09-6.28, Mn 2515-6256 ,Cu 0.47-3.18, Ni 1.71-5.64 and Pb 0.45-2.17 µg/g Manganese in clam was highest , therefore it could be used as a

bioindicator of Mn in a tropical environment (Peerzada et al.,1992).

Striped dolphins

Many studies have been carried out concerning metal accumulation in dolphins from

different areas of the world, various dolphins from Mediterranean Sea (Viale et al.,1978), New Zealand (Koeman et al.,1973), the Japanese costs (Honda et al., 1983; Itano et al.,

1984a), Argentina (Marcovecchio et al , 1990), French Atlantic coasts and French Mediterranean coasts (Andra et al., 1991), British Isles (Law et al.,1991), Itslian Mediterranean coasts (Tyrrhenian coasts)(Leonzio et al., 1992), Apulian coasts

Species Locality Tissue Hg Pb Cd Cr Fe Cu Zn Source Various

sea

Liver Kidney Various tissue

14-604 1.20-2.20

0.1-10

1.2-2.22

0.1-2.5

80-380

Delphinu

s delphis NewZealand Liver 35-72 0.21-1.55 30-40 Koeman et al.,1972 Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

Japanese

Kindney

20.7 7 8.7

6.3 25

8.1 2 3.1

44.5 11.4 30.1

Honda et al.,1983

Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

Japanese

Kidney

205 14.7

Itano et al.,1984 a

Tursiops

Gephyreu

s

Argentin

Kidney

86 13.4

0.8 28.4

77.7 29.5

196.2 93.6

Marcovecch

io et al.,

1990

Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

French

Atlantic

coasts

al.,1991 Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

British

Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

Italin

Mediterra

nean

coasts

(Tyrrheni

an coasts)

Liver Muscle Kindney Brain

324 36.8 64.7 15

0.05 0.66 0.1 0.1

7.33 0.18 44.8 0.11

225 46.2 114 66.9

Leonzio et al.,1992

Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

Apulia

coasts ,

southern

Italy

Liver Muscle Kindney Brain

189 10.87 10.3 13.9

1.05 0.41 0.44 0.33

1.75 0.04 7.02 0.03

0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03

307 293 190 113

7.73 0.85 1.45 1.13

24.65 7.13 15.22 9.04

Cardellicchi

o et al.,

2000

Stenella

coeruleoa

lba

French

Mediterra

nean

coasts

Liver Kindney Brain

668 87.2 33.3

Andre et al.,1991

Tursiops

truncatus SouthCarolina

coasts

(Cardellicchio et al., 2000) and south Carolina coasts (Beck et al., 1993) In these

studies, concentrations of Hg in dolphins from the Mediterranean are generally higher than those found in the same species from the Atlantic (Table 6)

Table 6 Metal concentrations (µg/g) in dolphins in different

locations

Considering the high mobility of cetaceans, these levels reflect the general contamination of the broad and poorly defined area In the Mediterranean the highest element concentrations are found in dolphins from French, Tyrrhenian coasts and Apulian coasts Dolphins from Apulian coasts exhibit high levels of Pb (1.05 µg/g) in liver than from other localities Mediterranean dolphins have the higher Fe level (80-669 µg/g) Dolphins assimilate metals both through water and food Metal assimilation from water occurs mainly through passive diffusion of the metal as soluble compound (Gaskin,

1986)

REFERENCES

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to metals in the Nile and Delta Lakes on the Catfish , Clarias Lazera Environ Monit Asses 54(1):107-124

[2] Ali,M.M.and Soltan,M.E.(1999): Heavy metals in aquatic macrophytes ,water and hydrosoils from the river Nile,Egypt J.Union Arab.Biol, Cairo 9(B), 99-115 [3] Andre,J.;Boudou,A.;Ribeyre,F.;Bernhard,M.(1991): Comparative study of mercury accumulation in dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) from French Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts Sci.Total Environ 104: 191-209

[4] Anil,A.G.;Wagh,A.B.(1988): Accumulation of copper and zinc by Balanus amphitrite in a tropical estuary.Mar.Pollut.Bull.19:177-180

[5] Awdallah R.M.,Mohamed A.E.,Gaber S.A.(1985): Determination of trace elements

in fish by instrumental neutron activation analysis J.Radioanal Nucl.Chem Lett 95(3), 145-154

[6] Beck,K.M.;Fair,P.;McFee,W.;Wolf,D.(1993): Heavy metals in livers of Bottlenose Dolphins standed along the South Carolina Coast Mar.Pollt.Bull.,34(9): 59-63 [7] Biney,C.(1991): The distribution of trace metals in Kpong Headpond and Lower Volta River,Ghana.In: N.K.Shastree (ed) Perspective in aquatic ecotoxicology Narendra Publishing House.Delhi.India

[8] Cardellicchio,N.;Giandomenico,P.;Ragone,P.;Di Leo,A.(2000): Tissue distribution

of metals in striped dolphins (Stenella coeruleoalba) from the Apulian coasts, Southern Italy Marine Environ research 49:55-66

[9] Cramp,S.;Simmons,K.E.L.(1977): Handbook of the birds of Europe, the Middle East and North Africa: The birds of the Western Palearctic Vol.1:136-140

[10] Egyptian Organization for Standardization (1993): Egyptian standard , maximum levels for heavy metal concentrations in food ES 2360-1993,UDC: 546.19:815.Egypt

[11] El-Nabawi, A.;Heinzow,B.and Kiruse,H.(1987): As,Cd,Cu,Pb,Hg and Zn in fish from Alexandria region, Egypt.Bull.Environ.Contam.Toxico.,39,889-897

[12] Furness,R.W.;Lewis,S.A.(1990): Mercury levels in the plumage of Red-billed Gulls Larus novaehollandiae scopulinus of known sex and age Environm.Pollt.63:33-39