INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

I am under no illusion that I could have accomplished this without the unwavering support of my family and I dedicate this to them.

INVESTIGATING HOW GENERAL EDUCATION MIDDLE SCHOOL TEACHERS SUPPORT THE SOCIAL INCLUSION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL NEEDS

by

Rebecca Lee Canges

A Dissertation Presented to the FACULTY OF THE USC ROSSIER SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

August 2010

UMI Number: 3418003

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To Cooper, you have served as my inspiration from the beginning Your laughter kept me going when I felt overwhelmed and watching you grow has inspired me to be a better person, a better teacher, and the best mother I can be You are everything I ever hoped for and more

To my mom, your faith in me is truly amazing Thank you for providing me with

a lifetime of encouragement and strength so that I could accomplish this goal My success

is truly a reflection of the principles you instilled in me

Finally, to my dad You are always on my mind When I began this journey it never occurred to me that you would not be here to celebrate its completion However, I know that you are watching and would, if you could, tell everyone about your

daughter the doctor

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the members of my dissertation committee; Dr Margo Pensavalle, Dr Kim Hirabayashi, and Dr Shireen Pavri, for their guidance and support throughout this process It was truly a journey a journey that led me back to what

inspired me to become a teacher in the first place; helping kids feel accepted

I would also like to thank the teachers, students, and school that participated in this study Your openness and acceptance of me was truly appreciated

I would like to acknowledge my family at California State University, Long Beach From the beginning (literally) you were all there for me Your ongoing support and guidance helped me realize that I could achieve great things Thank you for always understanding always listening and always providing me with the encouragement I needed throughout this process

Thank you to my family and friends who have stuck with me during these three years It fills my heart to know that I have such caring, supportive and loving people surrounding me

Finally, to the educators that shared this three year journey with me Thank you for the laughs and words of encouragement along the way I am proud to call you my friends and look forward to calling you doctor!

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iv

CHAPTER ONE: OVERVIEW 1

Definition of Terms 14

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 15

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 51

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 66

FIGURE 1 ……….69

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 101

REFERENCES 124

APPENDICES 136

Appendix A: Social Support Interview: Teacher 136

Appendix B: Social Support Interview: Student 137

Appendix C: Observation Field Notes Template 138

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ABSTRACT

Because of the focus on inclusion in public schools today, the interest regarding how to effectively support students with special needs in the general education

environment, both academically and socially has been ignited While we have witnessed

an increase in the academic success of students included in general education classrooms,

we have not yet successfully identified specific strategies a teacher can use to meet the social needs of students with special needs included in their classroom Because of this, the research question used to guide this study asked how general education teachers promote the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom so that effective strategies may be established for other teachers to implement

Through a combination of teacher interviews, interviews with students with special needs, and classroom observations, the findings of this study offers insight into the strategies general education teachers identify as important to promote the social acceptance of students with special needs included in their classrooms Collectively, the general education teachers that participated in this study reported that the following strategies were essential to increasing the social acceptance of students with special needs

in their classrooms (1) Arranging the Environment, (2) Establishing a Tone of Respect in

the Classroom, (3) Providing Instructional Support, (4) Providing Peer Support, and (5)

Providing Direct Instruction for Social Support However, classroom observations and results from student interviews revealed significant discrepancies between the teacher's knowledge of the strategies and their practice

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CHAPTER 1 OVERVIEW

Securing acceptance in society can be a major obstacle for individuals with

special needs Before the passage of Public Law 94-142, commonly known as the

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1975, students with special needs were educated in learning environments that were segregated from their non-disabled peers, often receiving a sub-par education within institutions and specialized schools In some cases, parents were forced to pay for private schools because public schools did not provide appropriate educational settings for their children (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010) Schools are, possibly, the most important venue for social opportunities for children and youth Yet, through their use of labeling and segregation, schools unintentionally foster the development of negative attitudes towards students with special needs More often than not, individuals with special needs are viewed as different and treated as somehow less than others making it increasingly difficult for them to be socially accepted and viewed as equal members of the school community (Swaim & Morgan, 2001)

Perhaps one of the greatest challenges faced by individuals with special needs lies

in the barriers created as a result of society’s adverse attitudes and persistent prejudice toward them Many sociologists agree that society plays a role in the development and maintenance of prejudicial attitudes (Johnson, 2006) Generally each society maintains its impermissible and permissible prejudices Impermissible prejudices are those most

people recognize as such However, permissible prejudices are those that may be inherent

and not recognized as prejudice Instead, the prejudicial views are seen as truths based on

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historical and cultural views (Johnson, 2006) According to Shapiro (1999), negative attitudes about individuals with special needs are learned early in life through cultural influences such as family, school, the media, and literature For example, many children are introduced to stereotypical images that portray people with special needs as those to

be ridiculed, feared, or dismissed when watching movies or reading classic fairy tales Examples of this can be seen in the Disney animated version of Victor Hugo’s (1831)

The Hunchback of Notre Dame where the title character is berated and ridiculed by the

townspeople who hail him as “the ugliest face in Paris” Laughter fills this scene as the Hunchback is mocked for his appearance and crowned the “King of Fools” teaching

children that those who look different from the mainstream public are different and

should be treated as such Views such as these can also be seen in other childhood tales such as Beauty and the Beast, The Frog Prince and The Ugly Duckling The

consequences of such beliefs result in segregation and avoidance of individuals with special needs and because there is no real pressure from society to think any differently, the negative attitudes become permissible prejudice

Though societal barriers persist, structural changes within schools have provided individuals with special needs an avenue toward equality and acceptance While many school districts continue to segregate children with disabilities by placing them in special education classrooms separate from their typically developing peers, mandates like IDEA remind us that “the education of students with disabilities can be made more effective by having high expectations for such children and ensuring their access to the general

education curriculum to the maximum extent possible” (IDEA-2007, Sec 601 (c) (5)

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(A)).As a result of legal mandates to protect the rights of individuals with special needs, the move toward full-inclusion and educating students with special needs in the Least Restrictive Environment (LRE) has become more prevalent

Full inclusion refers to providing education for students with special needs,

regardless of the severity or type of disability, in the general education classroom for the entire school day (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010) Advocates of inclusion maintain that all students have the right to be educated along-side typical peers, and believe that by being included in a general education classroom, students with special needs will experience stronger academic and social achievements (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) Simultaneously, proponents of inclusion feel that the stigma that exists about individuals with special needs can be reduced when students with special needs are educated with their typical peers (Scruggs & Mastropieri, 1996).Studies have shown that when students with special needs are included in general education classrooms they improve their test performance, have a higher rate of meeting Individualized Education Program (IEP) goals, and increase their chances of completing high school and attending college (Rea, McLaughlin, & Walther-Thomas, 2002) Family members of individuals with special needs that are included in general education classrooms have pointed out that their children have greater access to positive role models, increase their self-esteem, are more likely to form

friendships, and are better prepared for the real world (McLeskey, 2007)

While our education system continues to move toward more inclusive practices, some fear that placement in the general education classroom is neither effective nor appropriate for every student with a special need Opponents of the inclusion movement

4

express concern stating that general education teachers are not prepared to educate

students with special needs and, therefore, cannot provide them with the specialized curriculum and accommodations that they require (Dymond & Russel, 2004) Limited materials and support in addition to the large class sizes are additional reasons related to why some oppose inclusion Furthermore, parents of students with special needs have expressed concern that if placed in a general education classroom, their children will not have access to an individualized education or instruction for functional life skills Finally, studies have noted that students that are included may feel frustrated, unsupported, and isolated (Eisenman & Tascione, 2002) While many teachers often assume that the mere physical presence of students with special needs in the classroom is enough to foster the student's social acceptance research has revealed that without specific strategies to create

a socially accepting classroom environment, students with special needs struggle to develop authentic friendships with their typically developing peers (Siperstein, Parker, Norins-Bardon, & Widaman, 2007; Swaim & Morgan, 2001)

While much of the research has focused on ways general education teachers can support the academic needs of students with special needs that are included, over the last decade there has been an increased interest in the social functioning of students with special needs in inclusive settings (Anderman, 2003; Chadsey & Gun Han, 2005;

Korinek, Walther-Thomas, McLaughlin, & Toler Williams, 1999; Meadan & Amaya, 2008; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Pearl, Van Acker, Rodkin, Bost, Coe, & Henley, 1998) Although studies have found that placement in an inclusive setting can improve a student’s school experience by enhancing their self-esteem (Mastropieri& Scruggs,

Monda-5

2010), barriers hindering the social acceptance of students with special needs continue to exist Widespread implementation of inclusion programs has been paralleled by the realization that children’s attitudes about their peers with special needs are a key element

in the success of inclusive education In fact, negative attitudes held by students without disabilities about their peers with special needs are generally recognized as a key barrier

to successful social inclusion at school (McDougall, DeWitt, King, Miller, & Killip, 2004) and are often the cause behind students with special needs feeling socially isolated

Children bring a set of social interaction skills to social settings, such as a

classroom However, many children with special needs possess social difficulties which may prohibit their ability to engage a peer and establish friendships (Court & Givon, 2003) Teachers have revealed that typically developing students are unsure as to how to enter into a relationship with their peers with special needs (Colwell, Thompson, & Burke, 2001) and admit that they struggle with providing the skills and strategies to facilitate these relationships in their classroom These findings raise a variety of questions about the availability of social supports for students with special needs that are included

in general education classrooms as well as how educators can assist in promoting the social acceptance of students with special needs Since one of the principal goals of inclusion for children with special needs is to develop social acceptance and increase positive social interactions with typical peers, research is needed to identify effective skills and strategies that general education teachers can utilize to promote the social acceptance of their students with special needs

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Over the past three decades, attempts to generate increased opportunities for social inclusion and acceptance for students with special needs has focused on teaching social skills to the target student with special needs (Sapon-Shevin, Dobbelaere,

Corrigan, Goodman, & Mastin, 1998) Although appropriate social behaviors typically increase as a result of social skills interventions (McIntosh, Vaughn, & Zaragoza, 1991) studies have shown that there is little correlation between the implementation of social skills interventions and an increase in social acceptance of students with special needs (Vaughn, McIntosh, & Spencer-Rowe, 1991) School-wide programs such as Circle of Friends (Patterson, Liu, Goodvin, Hummel, & Nance, 2008) and Best Buddies (Grenot-Scheyer, Staub, Peck, & Schwartz, 1998) have also been implemented to aid in the social acceptance of students with special needs These programs center on recruiting students without disabilities in “befriending” a student with special needs While such programs continue to be implemented in schools as a way to promote social interactions between students with and without special needs, a noted concern is that the programs fail to produce true reciprocity and preservation of friendships (Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998) Without a means to foster the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs so that friendships can occur naturally within the classroom, the relationships that are formed may remain superficial and one-sided (Sapon-Shevin, et al., 1998)

One fundamental building block to the successful inclusion of students with special needs is to ensure that the classroom possesses essential elements of an effective inclusive program with a culture of acceptance Educators have agreed that some of the critical components required in an inclusive classroom that may facilitate a student’s

7

social development include: a) creating an environment that embraces a sense of

community where differences are valued; b) employing a range of strategies that will assist students in developing natural and ongoing social relationships; c) Implementing an array of strategies to develop students pro-social skills; and d) structuring the classroom and instruction to allow for flexible grouping and authentic learning experiences

(McLeskey, 2007) Given this, research must now focus on the skills and strategies educators can use to consistently facilitate social learning opportunities in these settings

so that students with special needs are no longer seen as an inclusion student, but as a

valued and equal member of the classroom community

Statement of the Problem

Inclusive schools and classrooms afford numerous opportunities for students with special needs to develop social relationships with their typically developing peers

However, time and time again, research reveals that students with special needs are socially rejected by their typical peers both in and outside of the inclusive classroom (Heward, 2006; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Lucas, 1999; Pearl et al., 1998; Vaughn & Haager, 1994) Being socially isolated from your peer group can result in depression that can deepen over time; eventually contributing to a negative self-image and issues with proper social functioning as an adult (Court & Givon, 2003) While schools have

recognized that peer rejection is a persistent problem for students with special needs, there have been inadequate methods implemented to prevent it

Although numerous policies and legislation for including students with special needs have been put in place during the past 30 years, currently, many schools rely on

8

increased contact through the physical act of inclusion to promote the social acceptance

of students with special needs However, research has revealed that it will take much more than physically integrating students with special needs to alter typically developing children's negative attitudes so that they will accept students with special needs into their social network (Freeman, 2000) In a study that examined the attitudes of students with varying levels of experience in inclusion programs, Krajewski and Hyde (2000)

concluded that, over time, some small positive shifts in attitude occurred among typically

developing peers when just contact was made However, a review of the data also

suggested that, by and large, the attitudes of typically developing peers stayed the same

or in some instances, became more negative toward their peers with special needs The inconsistencies observed among the student's attitudes were attributed to the schools over-reliance on contact between the peers as their primary method for breaking down stereotypes rather than utilizing strategies for creating school and classroom cultures of acceptance Findings such as these indicate that contact is not enough; promoting social acceptance needs to be intentionally facilitated by school personnel; and more

specifically, teachers

Because children spend a substantial portion of their day in classrooms, the social support they receive from their teachers could possibly play an important role in their academic and social functioning In fact, preliminary research has indicates that a

teacher's attitude toward their students with special needs is one of the most powerful factors in the students being accepted by their peers (Pavri & Luftig, 2001) Furthermore, students with special needs have reported feeling more comfortable in their inclusive

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classroom when their teacher treats them as an equal member of the classroom culture rather than segregating them by, for example, placing them in the back of the classroom with a paraprofessional (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001) There is a need to explore effective intervention strategies that a general education teacher can use to facilitate a climate of acceptance for students with special needs in the general education classroom Therefore, this study investigated the strategies general education teachers are currently using to provide a socially supportive and accepting classroom environment for students with special needs so that concrete methods for promoting the social inclusion of students with special needs in inclusive settings can be documented In addition, the findings highlight whether the teachers are implementing the strategies they deem as essential as well as if the students with special needs are receptive to the strategies their teachers use Without a common consensus based on research findings related to effective methods for promoting

a socially accepting classroom, schools will persist in their over-reliance on mere

physical inclusion to promote social acceptance of students with special needs This dependence on ineffective habitual practices will make it increasingly difficult for

students with special needs to develop social networks among their typically developing peers and, in the end, contribute to the social isolation they endure

Purpose of the Study

The role that the teacher plays in creating the social environment within which classroom peer relationships develop has received little attention in the literature

(Anderman, 2003; Ryan & Patrick, 2001) Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the strategies general education middle school teachers are implementing to

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provide a socially accepting classroom for students with special needs Furthermore, the perceptions of students with special needs regarding their teacher’s ability to socially support them in the classroom were investigated Much of the literature suggests that students with special needs have a difficult time engaging in social interactions and forming friendships with their peers with and without disabilities (Freeman, 2000;

Heward, 2006; Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010; Sapon-Shevin et al., 1998) In addition, a vast number of studies have indicated that students without special needs possess

negative attitudes about their peers with special needs (Vaughn & Haager, 1994; Pearl et al., 1998; Lucas, 1999; Krajewski & Flaherty, 2000; Heward, 2006) Though the

literature on teachers’ attitudes reveal overall positive perceptions toward the concept of inclusion, limited understanding and inadequate preparation on how to deal with the social and behavioral differences of students with special needs are frequently cited as contributors to teacher failure to provide social support for them in the classroom

(Korinek et al., 1999; Pavri & Luftig, 2001) Furthermore, scarce research on the most effective methods a teacher should employ to support the social inclusion and acceptance

of students with special needs in a general education classroom indicates a gap between research-based theory and practice To examine the current practices used to provide a socially accepting classroom for students with special needs by general education

teachers the following research question will be explored in this study:

How do middle school general education teachers promote the social inclusion of students with special needs in their classroom?

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Importance of the Study

Historically, special education research has focused on placement,

service-delivery options, and providing support for general education teachers so that they can academically support the students with special needs in the inclusive environment

(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010) Few studies have focused on how general education teachers are providing social support for students with special needs so that the students are able to develop authentic relationships with their typical peers However,

implementation of regular practice curricula that increases the acceptance and

socialization for students with special needs has been targeted by educational researchers

as an important element to explore (Freeman, 2000; Pavri & Luftig, 2001) Far too often, educators are assuming that by simply physically including a student with special needs

in the general education classroom environment, you will see positive social interactions unfold As is evident from the number of studies that show typically developing students continue to hold negative attitudes towards their peers with special needs, even when in inclusive classroom settings, it is recognized that more needs to be done so that students with special needs are seen as equal members of the classroom Having equal status would provide students with special needs with the same opportunities to engage and be accepted into the classroom’s social networks

Because the relationships developed during childhood play a central role in life adjustment, it is imperative that schools create a culture that supports and promotes acceptance of diverse students; especially those with special needs (Anderman, 2003; Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) Significant correlations have been found between

later-12

rejection by peers and high anxiety, maladjustment, and hostility among individuals with special needs later in life (Damico & Sparks, 1986) Findings such as this highlight the urgency to explore effective intervention strategies that will facilitate a climate of

acceptance for students with special needs in the inclusive setting By providing

increased social and educational support in our schools and, more specifically, our

classrooms, we may be able to alter students’ negatives attitudes towards their peers with special needs Such support can assist with breaking down the barriers that exist between these two groups of students so that authentic friendships may develop and students with special needs are not condemned to endure the ramifications of social isolation that they experience as adolescents into their adult lives

School programs that are developed to increase contact and encourage supportive, respectful, and responsible relationships among students with and without special needs have proven to be effective in establishing a more accepting school climate (McDougall

et al., 2004) Without the efforts of a school to promote social acceptance, students tend

to associate only with other students whom they already know and who are most like themselves (Korinek et al., 1999) However, by creating a classroom and school

community of social acceptance and appreciation of diversity, schools will witness a culture that exhibits social benefits for all students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) and could subsequently, aid in the successful implementation of inclusion programs This study will contribute to the field by identifying effective strategies implemented by general education teachers to provide a socially accepting classroom environment for students with special needs

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Limitations and Delimitations

Certain limitations must be considered when reviewing this study First, the data was gathered from a relatively small sample of teachers in one school district in Southern California Future investigations that focus on larger numbers of teachers and expand data collection beyond one school district would help to provide evidence regarding generalizability to these findings

A second limitation involves the use of interviews as a source of qualitative data

As Patton (2002) notes, interviews have the possibility of containing distorted

information due to anxiety within the participant Further, interview data is subject to recall error of the researcher To account for these limitations, running field notes were included within the data to provide checks and corroboration on what is stated during the interview In addition, each interview was digitally recorded to account for any possible recall error

A noted delimitation in this study stems from the use of purposeful, rather than random sampling of the study participants Though random sampling lends itself to increased empirical generalizations, purposeful sampling can yield critical information and in-depth understandings about specific questions asked (Patton, 2002) Given that this study sought to investigate how exemplary general education middle school teachers were providing social support for their included students, it was vital to use purposeful sampling in order to select participants that would serve as high-quality examples

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Definition of Terms

Attitude Attitudes are complex and, therefore, difficult to

define However, researchers agree that attitudes consist of cognitive, affective, and behavioral intentions (Lee & Rodda, 1994) A number of

definitions regarding the term attitude exist For the

purposes of this paper, attitude is defined as, “a psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p 1, as cited in Beck & Fritz-Verticchio, 2003)

Inclusion The education of students with special needs in the

general education classroom, under the guidance of the general education classroom teacher (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2010)

Individuals with Disabilities “A law passed in 1975 that specified that all

Education Act (IDEA) children-including those with disabilities formerly

excluded from school-were entitled to a free, appropriate public education” (Mastropieri &

Scruggs, 2010, p 3)

Social Acceptance Associated with a child's acceptance level among

his/her peers; how much other children want to be with that child (Freeman, 2000)

Social Support A process by which individuals feel valued, cared

for and connected to a group of people”

(Pavri & Monda-Amaya, 2001, p 391)

Student with special needs Students served by IDEA under one of the 13

disability categories

Typically developing students Most people look, move, communicate, behave, and

learn in general patterns that we call “typical” or

“average” Therefore, students who have developed without any identifiable disabilities, as noted by IDEA, will be referred to as typically developing

15

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Introduction

Over the last 30 years, educating students with special needs in the general

education classroom environment has received considerable attention The movement toward a more inclusive education for students with special needs gained legislative recognition in the United States with the passing of Public Law 94-142, The Education for all Handicapped Children’s Act, in 1975 Although the goals of inclusion include both academic and social objectives, research has revealed that for it to be considered truly successful, the inclusive environment must support the development of authentic

relationships between students with and without special needs (Meyer, Park, Scheyer, Schwartz, & Harry, 1998) Unfortunately, studies have shown that students with special needs that are included in the general education classroom setting are frequently teased and insulted by their typically developing peers (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) resulting

Grenot-in them feelGrenot-ing socially isolated and unaccepted by their peer group Although general education teachers, on average, feel prepared to support the academic needs of their included students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008), many report that they do not feel equipped to effectively support their social inclusion (Freeman, 2000; Korinek et al., 1999)

In order to maximize the effectiveness of an inclusive placement for a student with special needs, there needs to be a clear understanding and awareness of the tools and strategies general education teachers can put into practice to create a socially accepting

16

classroom environment for students with special needs Without this, teachers may

overlook the critical need behind the implementation of social learning opportunities to promote the acceptance of students with special needs in their classrooms, leaving the students feeling socially segregated from their peers

For this literature review, the following key ideas have been identified to support the research question:

1 Inclusion: A Brief Overview

2 Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory

3 Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs

4 The Need for Social Acceptance

5 Building a Classroom Culture of Social Acceptance

Before offering a summary, a literature-based rationale for the methodologies used in the study to collect data is presented

Inclusion: A Brief Overview

“Have you ever been at sea in a dense fog, when it seemed as if a tangible white darkness shut you in and the great ship, tense and anxious, groped her way toward the shore with plummet and sounding-line, and you waited with beating heart for something to happen? I was like that ship before my education began, only I was without compass or sounding line, and no way of knowing how near the harbor was "Light! Give me light!" was the wordless cry of my soul, and the light

of love shone on me in that very hour.”

Helen Keller

As students with special needs have gained equal access to a public education we

have witnessed a move from separate schools and institutions to special education classes

on public school campuses Further, some students with special needs are now receiving their education alongside typically developing peers in general education classroom

settings This placement option, frequently referred to as inclusion, is an educational

p 19) According to Friend and Bursuck (2009), inclusive practices have three

dimensions: a) physical integration, where students are placed in a classroom with their typical peers; b) instructional integration, where curriculum is provided with the same level of high quality instruction for all learners in the classroom; and c) social integration, where relationships between students with and without special needs are nurtured

The notion of inclusive education is based on the belief that students with special needs should be fully integrated into their school communities by participating in all facets of general education including but not limited to the classroom, cafeteria, hallways, and common social meeting areas, for example, a school quad used for lunch In addition, the instruction they receive should be based on their abilities, not their disabilities When students with special needs are selectively integrated in general education settings they

are said to be mainstreamed (Friend & Bursuck, 2009) With mainstreaming, students

continue to be pulled-out of the general education environment to a special education classroom setting for the majority of the day Whereas in inclusive models the general education teacher maintains the responsibility for the child’s education throughout the school day (Grenot-Scheyer, Jubala, Bishop, & Coots, 1996) Therefore, it is essential

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that general education teachers are prepared to support these students both academically and socially so that their inclusion experience is successful

While many educators agree that students with special needs should have access

to the general education curriculum by being included, many question the appropriateness

of placing all students with special needs in a general education classroom

Anti-inclusion attitudes are commonly found among educators and parents of students with special needs who express concern that the general education teachers are not prepared to accommodate their children (Salend & Duhaney, 1999) stating that there are few pre-service credential programs that explicitly prepare general education teachers to work with students with special needs (Pugach, Shaker, Shanley, & Yinger, 2002) In addition, with the recent reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and the onset of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) there has been a push to educate all students according to the state standards Subsequently, some parents of students with special needs are concerned that their children will not develop the functional life skills they perceive their children need to be successful in their community (Billingsley & Albertson, 1999) Finally, though advocates believe that inclusion in the general

education environment will result in increased social opportunities with typical peers; several studies have shown that students that are included are often ridiculed by students

in their classroom (Pivak, McComas & Laflamme, 2002) Subsequently, opponents of inclusion elect to keep their students in special education classrooms to “protect” them from the possibility of rejection from their typical peers

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While steeped in controversy, many educators and parents of students with special needs agree that inclusive placements are associated with positive outcomes in academics and promote social learning opportunities between students with and without special needs that would not otherwise occur in a segregated special education classroom

(Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001; Palmer Fuller, Aurora, & Nelson, 2001; Pavri & Amaya, 2001) Placement in the general education environment, even for part of the day, can provide opportunities for expanding social networks and building authentic

Monda-relationships with typical peers (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001) Further, research has shown that student’s attitudes toward them are more positive when their peers with special needs are fully included (Freeman, 2000) Not only do they benefit from the experience of being in an inclusive school environment, but they can increase their

awareness by learning about their peers with special needs (McDougall, et al., 2004) Finally, it has been recognized that students who are included are more likely to pass state-wide assessments and increase their chances of completing high school, going to college, and obtaining a job (Salend & Duhaney, 1999)

In their book The Inclusive Classroom Grenot-Scheyer, Bishop, Jubala, & Coots

(1996) sum up inclusion by stating:

Inclusion is really about school change to improve the educational system for all students

It means changes in the curriculum, changes in how teachers teach and how students learn, as well as changes in how students with and without disability labels interact with and relate to one another (p 1)

Although many battles have been waged to achieve equal access to education for

individuals with special needs they continue to be labeled as the least understood

minority Opposition towards inclusion can lead to further segregation of individuals with

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special needs Thus perpetuating the structural constraints that exist in schools for

children with special needs and making it difficult for them to develop successful social relationships with their typical peers A child’s social world is critical to their

development Classroom contexts can be fashioned to support a students’ social world by being inclusive of all learners By organizing educational programs that minimize the social interactions students have with each other, schools may be restricting essential social learning opportunities (Grenot-Scheyer et al., 1998) In fact, considerable

differences exists between students in schools with segregated settings and inclusive schools in terms of whether students develop friendships with peers with special needs and whether students with special needs had friends in general (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) In

a study conducted by Bunch and Valeo (2004) where they assessed students’ attitudes regarding their peers with special needs through interviews, a number of the students in the inclusive school settings revealed that contact with peers with special needs through inclusion had a positive effect on the development of their friendships One student stated that she wanted students with special needs in her class because “you make new friends

in a regular class” (p.66) Whereas, students in schools without inclusion commented that the students with special needs probably made friends with other kids with special needs Qualitative findings such as these underline the reality that social and academic

interaction between typically developing students and their peers with special needs are strikingly different in schools with and without contact, and that these structures have an effect on students’ attitudes

21

Research has shown that although progress has been made, we have not done enough to promote positive relationships between students with and without special needs Though inclusion has helped, students with special needs continue to be socially rejected by their typically developing peers (Freeman, 2000) It has been noted that we cannot rely on the simple act of physical inclusion itself to foster positive attitudes

(Siperstein et al., 2007) Therefore, it is essential that schools integrate other supports to facilitate the acceptance and belonging of students with special needs among their peer group (Pavri & Luftig, 2001)

Theoretical Perspective: Contact Theory

“Living a life is like constructing a building: if you start wrong, you'll end wrong.”

Maya Angelou

Including students with special needs in general education classroom settings can provide social benefits for students with and without special needs (Friend & Bursuck, 2009; Johnson, 2006; Meadan & Monda-Amaya, 2008) The research indicates that students without special needs that participate in inclusive classrooms develop a greater knowledge and acceptance of individual differences, are less likely to believe in and contribute to stereotypical views about individuals with special needs, and become more caring individuals (Burstein, Sears, Wilcoxen, Cabello, & Spagna, 2004; Krajewski & Hyde, 2000) Despite the progress that has been made in terms of integrating students with special needs in the general education classroom environment, it is essential to recognize that the physical placement of students in general education classes is not an

end in and of itself but rather a means to an end (Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001) Inclusion

should not simply be seen as a physical space; but, rather, a condition that offers a sense

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of belonging and acceptance of the students While many schools maintain an

over-reliance on physical inclusion as a way to promote awareness and acceptance of students with special needs, for inclusion to be truly successful, appropriate programs and specific strategies must be implemented by the general education teacher to support authentic social learning opportunities (Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001)

Studies have examined the benefits of the addition of a systematic program or evidence-based practices for developing positive social learning opportunities, as

opposed to relying on the physical placement of a student with special needs, by looking through the lens of Gordon Allport’s Contact Theory Gordon Allport first presented his

Contact Theory in the book entitled The Nature of Prejudice (1954), which explored how

prejudice and discrimination can be reduced through contact Contact Theory maintains that prejudice and discrimination toward a minority group will only be reduced when the contact between the different groups of individuals is specifically designed and executed

so that four conditions are met: a) equal status among the groups, b) common goals, c) inter-group cooperation supportive of change, and d) the association must be genuine (Maxwell & Shammas, 2007; Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000) Though this theory

is commonly used when designing school and community practices that reduce prejudice and discrimination among people (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000) much of the research is beset with the lack of a clear definition of “contact” (Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001) Therefore, because of an inattentiveness in the research to describe the factors associated with the nature of the contact between students, school administrators work under the false assumption that contact without the addition of systematic programs

professionals to implement the program without a detailed course of action to ensure effective results Their study, which surveyed 1,328 students on their attitudes towards students with special needs found that 61% of those surveyed stated that they had either

"positive" or "very positive" attitudes towards their peers with special needs (McDougall

et al., 2004, p 302) While their study concluded that these high school students had more positive attitudes towards their peers with special needs as a result of mere contact, the study did not document the type of contact the students had or if any specific

programs or strategies were used by their teachers to support the contact that occurred (Siperstein et al., 2007) Without this guiding evidence, inconsistencies regarding the effectiveness of programs based in Contact Theory may arise

Allport (1954) suggested that stereotypes could be altered through contact if the contact is both recurrent and of high quality However, he also stressed that the elements

of contact will only be successful “if the contact works in such a manner that it breaks down existing stereotypes rather than reinforces them” (Allport, 1954-cited in Siperstein

et al., 2007, p.436) Though Allport’s (1954) ideas on contact were not used in research

to change attitudes toward children with special needs until the 1970s a number of studies have been conducted since that time (Slininger, Sherrill, & Jankowski, 2000) These

McDougall et al., 2004; Siperstein et al., 2007) This is why it is critical to ensure the components proposed by Allport are all established when implementing inclusive

models In fact, some research has shown that negative attitudes may actually increase if physical inclusion occurs without pedagogical practices to promote social learning

opportunities and endeavor to dispel the stereotypes held by typical peers that may be contributing to their views (Shapiro, 1999)

Access to the general education classroom environment does not automatically guarantee equal outcomes, full participation or social acceptance for students with special needs (McDougall et al., 2004) If inclusion is to be realized as it is intended; it will require a focus on educating students without special needs about disabilities and their peers that possess them while, also, providing a classroom culture of social acceptance and equality for all learners Because students with special needs require additional support and guidance to establish friendships and engage in positive social interactions, schools should abandon the act of mere physical inclusion as their method for promoting

a more accepting school culture and seek out practices supported by research that will aid

in the social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs

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Barriers to the Social Acceptance of Students with Special Needs

“Attitude is a little thing that makes a big difference.”

Winston Churchill

With the passing of time, the number of students with special needs placed in the general education classroom setting is rising During the 1984-1985 school year, the U.S Department of Education reported that only 24.6% of students with special needs were included in a general education classroom In the 2002-2003 school year, 47% of students with special needs were reported to be included (Vaughn & Bos, 2009) Though we have witnessed an increase in inclusive placements, researchers have begun to note the

variables that may impede the success of students when included Specifically the social acceptance of students with special needs by their typical peers has been identified as an area of concern (McDougall et al., 2004; Pavri & Luftig, 2001; Westein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984) Therefore, the common variables recognized as barriers to the successful social inclusion and acceptance of students with special needs will be explored in the following sections

Societies Views on Individuals with Disabilities

Although it has been established through legislation that individuals with special needs are guaranteed equal rights and opportunities for a free and appropriate public education, laws do not necessarily change the negative attitudes held about them by the greater part of society Despite federal acknowledgments, individuals with special needs continually endure the negative ramifications of persistent stereotypical beliefs and prejudicial views held about them

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While most of the problems faced by individuals with special needs are either brought on or exacerbated by society, these views are not readily seen as discriminatory

or prejudicial Instead, society’s views about individuals with special needs are

commonly accepted as permissible prejudices Nancy Chodorow, a psychoanalyst whose

studies focus on unconscious beliefs and their contribution to the development of an individual’s personality, describes permissible prejudices as views no one recognizes as

prejudice (Johnson, 2006) Commonly referred to as rational prejudices, permissible

prejudices are those that are seen as assumptions based on beliefs passed on from culture

to culture or generation to generation that have, over the years, become “true” (Johnson, 2006) For example, some cultures instill the attitude that those with special needs must have sinned in a former life and are now being punished by having a disability (Shapiro, 1999) While there is no scientific evidence to support such a claim, cultures pass on this belief as truth

People who hold permissible prejudices do not feel that their beliefs are wrong, therefore, they see no need for changing their views Having a permissible prejudice may lead a person to laugh at an individual who stutters without realizing the detriment to that person’s self esteem Or, a person could assume that all individuals with special needs

require assistance from more capable people What’s more, having a permissible

prejudice may direct a person to believe that if you are in a wheelchair, you must have a mental challenge as well

While cultural beliefs and attitudes are recognized as a common contributor to prejudicial views (Shapiro, 1999) attention has also been paid to the influential means

lacking skills necessary to function without the support of a non-disabled person Further research which analyzed comic books available at local convenience stores revealed that characters with physical impairments were overwhelming cast at the evil villain,

perpetuating the stereotype that those who possess special needs are often angry,

malicious, and deviant (Westein-Kroft & Vargo, 1984) Finally, as Shapiro (1999) notes, many fairy tales impress upon children that having a special need is a punishment for

wrong doing An example of this can be seen in Grimm’s (1945) version of Cinderella

where her stepsisters are blinded when birds peck their eyes out as punishment for being wicked

Whether the influences stem from family or cultural beliefs, children's books or the media, the negative views about individuals with special needs frequently held by members of society adds to the stigma that exists about them These faulty beliefs may be passed down and replicated by younger generations and may, in the end, result in

typically developing students socially rejecting their peers with special needs

Typical Peers Attitudes about Students with Special Needs

During the past 50 years, a number of studies have focused on the public’s

attitudes toward people with varying disabilities; most focusing on the attitudes of

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children and youth (Bunch & Valeo, 2004; Lee & Rodda, 1994; Morrison & Ursprung, 1987; Rapier, Adelson, Carey, & Croke, 1971; Royal & Roberts, 1987; Trent, 1993; Siperstein, Bak, & Gottlieb, 1977; Siperstein, et al., 2007; Swaim & Morgan, 2001) The consistent findings have been, with few exceptions, that student attitudes toward their peers with special needs are extremely negative and reflect a lack of social acceptance (Lucas, 1999; Ochoa & Olivarez, 1995; Pearl, 2004; Manetti, Schneider, & Siperstein, 2001; Royal & Roberts, 1987; Siperstein et al., 2007)

In 2007, Siperstein et al gathered data on the multiple aspects of student’s

attitudes about their peers with special needs, specifically those with identified

Intellectual Disabilities (also known as Mental Retardation) through the dissemination of

a national survey to 6,000 middle school students in 47 school districts across 26 states The researchers reasoned that contact with and exposure to individuals with special needs would influence how youth viewed their peers with special needs They assessed and compared the results and found that only 10% reported having students with special needs included or mainstreamed in their classrooms

While some students in the study reported that including students with special needs would have a positive impact on them and would make them more accepting of differences, the majority reported that they would not develop friendships with students with special needs outside of school (Siperstein et al., 2007) Although some students reported that they would engage in basic social activities with students with special needs, such as saying hello in the hall, it is not surprising that only 10% of the students that responded stated that they had a friend with a special need This finding led the

Negative attitudes held by typically developing students about their peers with special needs are generally recognized as a key barrier to successful social inclusion at school (McDougall et al., 2004).Studies have shown that overall, typically developing students are reluctant to engage in “friend-type” activities with students with special needs (e.g inviting the student to their birthday party or going to the movies with them) (Siperstein et al., 2007); oftentimes stating that students with special needs should be friends with other students with special needs (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) Because students with special needs are frequently segregated, typically developing students may develop negative attitudes toward them due to limited exposure, lack of awareness, and

misunderstanding about disabilities (Colwell, Thompson, & Berke, 2001) In addition, because they do not have an example to show them otherwise, a common perception held

by typically developing students is that students with special needs are less able

academically and socially (Siperstein et al., 2007) To examine the perceptions of

students with special needs about their social acceptance at school, Pivak, McComas, and Laflamme (2002), interviewed fifteen students (ages 9 to 15 years-old) with orthopedic impairments (either spina bifida or cerebral palsy) at eight different schools and asked

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them to identify aspects of school they considered to be barriers to their successful

inclusion All of the students interviewed identified instances of bullying by their typical peers as a key barrier; stating that students at their school frequently called them

derogatory names, labeled them as stupid, and would often stare One student

commented: “the students just stare and point then whisper to each other…all they have

to do is ask me about my disability, but they don’t” (Pivak, McComas, & Laflamme (2002, p 102)

Concerns with teasing and insulting of students with special needs are often cited

as the reason to place the students in segregated settings (Bunch & Valeo, 2004) Though they may be protected from such unpleasant encounters, segregating students with special needs from their typical peers will, no doubt, limit their opportunities to establish

friendships with them and break the stereotypes that typical peers hold about them

(Bunch & Valeo, 2004) Ultimately, without increasing opportunities for authentic social interactions, students with special needs will continue to be socially rejected

General Education Teacher Perceptions about their Students with Special Needs

Looking at the characteristics and elements that play a role in teacher-student compatibility is important as the teacher's characteristics, attitudes, and perceptions may contribute to the success or problems students with special needs experience in their classroom Successful inclusion is contingent upon positive attitudes and social

acceptance Attitudes held by general education teachers about the students with special needs that are included in their classroom provide meaningful insights as to the success or failure of the inclusive placement (Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007) While some

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research reveals that general education teachers involved in inclusive environments have better attitudes toward the concept of inclusion when compared to general education teachers who are not working in such environments (McLeskey, Waldron, So, Swanson,

& Loveland, 2001), it has been noted that many teachers continue to oppose the concept

of inclusion and hold negative attitudes toward the included students even when the inclusive programs they are involved in are well designed (Pivak, McComas, &

Laflamme, 2002; Waldron, 2007)

Since the onset of inclusion, there have been a number of studies related to

teacher’s attitudes about students with special needs and their placement in the general education classroom environment Concerns highlighted by general education teachers regarding the students with special needs included in their classrooms typically revolve around procedural issues, such as how well their school was prepared for inclusion or how many resources they would be allotted to effectively manage an inclusive classroom (McLeskey et al., 2001; Waldron, 2007) Many teachers indicate that the specific skills and strategies needed for providing a successful inclusive environment would interfere with their ability to manage the classroom and address the curriculum to a high degree (Mastropieri & Scruggs, 2001) Added fears stem from the belief that students with special needs will take away instructional time from the rest of the students due to the individualized education they often receive (Siperstein et al., 2007)

Though teachers’ negative reaction to inclusion and inclusive students are often attributed to bureaucratic issues, additional explanations for their negative attitudes relate

to how well prepared the teachers felt they were to support the students academically and

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socially According to a study done by Cook (2004), teachers who are under-prepared (e.g less experience in the classroom or limited training in working with students with special needs) may, more frequently, hold a biased attitude towards their students with special needs In a later study, Cook, Cameron, and Tankersley (2007) sought to replicate and extend his initial investigation of general education teacher’s attitudes toward their included students by utilizing a rating scale to measure the teachers’ level of “attachment, concern, indifference, or rejection” (p 232) The findings revealed that teachers typically nominated students with special needs in the “indifference” or “rejection” category

because they “did not feel knowledgeable about them or responsible for their instruction” (Cook, Cameron, & Tankersley, 2007)

In order for students both with and without special needs to feel psychologically secure in their school environment, they must feel accepted by both their teachers and peers (Voltz, Brazil, & Ford, 2001) Many students with special needs experience stress when they enter middle school (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998) During this time, it is not uncommon for them to feel less supported socially as they begin to adjust to this new phase in their life Social support from family, friends, and adults outside the home, such

as teachers, has been found to be a significant feature of how students deal with the stress they may experience (Wenz-Gross & Siperstein, 1998) Therefore, it is essential that teachers maintain positive attitudes and perceptions towards their students with special needs By fostering negative attitudes toward a specific population of students, teachers may, inadvertently, aid in their social rejection Without a positive sense of self efficacy

in their ability to support students with special needs in an inclusive setting, teachers may

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persist in their negative attitudes; causing barriers to the successful inclusion of students with special needs In the end, additional teacher education and training on sensitivity to the needs of students with special needs may be advantageous

General Education Teacher Preparation for Working with Students with Special Needs

Critical to successful social integration is the pre-service and in-service

preparation of general education teachers A commitment to be successful with all

children requires that educators have both the knowledge and skills to serve the diverse population that encompasses their classroom The last two decades has witnessed an increase in the diversity of students served in public schools The composition of school populations reveal a broad range of cultures, socioeconomic backgrounds, languages, family structures, and include a wide range of abilities General and special educators are faced with the challenge of creating school environments that support and promote both the academic and social success of all of their students (Meadan & Monda-Amaya,

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standards is more prevalent Therefore, general education teachers must have a command

of strategies to support and educate students with special needs

While it is understandable that not everything can be learned during formal service preparation teacher candidates must be taught to “conceptualize their practice and develop their pedagogy with a vision that all students, including those with disabilities, will learn to high standards in their classrooms” (Pugach et al., 2002, p 4) Frequently, in

pre-an effort to meet the individual needs of their included students, general education

teachers overemphasize teacher-directed, one-on-one instruction (Jordan & Stanovich, 2001) While this type of instruction may support a student with special needs learning style, it results in less student-led exploration, little cooperative learning, and restricted opportunities for social interactions that could otherwise occur (Meyer, 2001) Without proper preparation on how to provide effective instruction without relying on direct instruction or the assistance of a paraprofessional to deliver one-on-one support, a teacher may, unintentionally, play into the stigma that students with special needs cannot be an integrated part of the general education classroom This view impinges upon the student’s ability to feel like an equal member of the classroom culture, and may, as a result,

demonstrate to typical peers that students with special needs are different

There is a high level of need for general education teachers to receive training on appropriate instructional techniques and social support strategies that they can implement

in their classroom so that they will feel adequately prepared to work with students in an inclusive setting Teachers can set the stage and play a major role in peer acceptance of students with special needs if they are prepared and willing to treat them as equal