Biên soạn nguồn tài liệu cho 3 kĩ năng nghe, nói và đọc tiếng Anh cho sinh viên năm thứ hai tại Đại học Thái Nguyên

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY Socialist Republic of Vietnam BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines Resource Materials for the Three Modalities of English Language among Sophomor

Trang 1

THAI NGUYEN UNIVERSITY

Socialist Republic of Vietnam

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines

Resource Materials for the Three Modalities of English Language

among Sophomore College Students

of Thai Nguyen University

A Dissertation Proposal Presented to The Faculty of Graduate School

Batangas State University

Batangas City, Philippines

Trang 2

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS i

LIST OF TABLES iii

LIST OF FIGURES iv

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM 5

Introduction 5

Statement of the Problem 11

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study 12

Significance of the Study 13

II REVIEW OF LITERATURE 15

Conceptual Literature 15

Synthesis 49

Theoretical Framework 52

Conceptual Framework 54

Hypothesis 55

Definition of Terms 58

III RESEARCH METHOD AND PROCEDURE 60

Research Design 60

Subjects of the Study 63

Trang 3

Data Gathering Instrument 64

Data Gathering Procedure 67

Statistical Treatment of Data 68

IV PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

OF DATA 70

V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 110

Summary 172

Conclusions 182

Recommendations 184

BIBLIOGRAPHY 185

APPENDICES 191

A Letter of Requests 192

B Questionnaire 200

C Documentation 220

CURRICULUM VITAE 228

Trang 4

LIST OF TABLES

Table Title Page

1 Gender Profile of the Student Respondents 71

2 Parent's educational attainment 72

3 Place of Origin of the Student Respondents 74

4 Type of High School Profile 76

5 Level of students’ performance in the learning modality of reading 77

6 Level of student's performance in the learning modality of listening 80

7 Level of student's performance in the learning modality of speaking 82

8 Student's Performance in the Three Language Modality Test Groups stratified according to the students’ profile variables 85

9 Student Skills Employed in teaching the Basic English course 88

10 Student skills and Their Frequency of Use 90

11 Student Skills and Their Degree of Importance 91

12 Student's Performance in Three Language Modalities and 92

13 Teacher's Assessment 92

14 Base for the design of remedial exercises on the three modalities of language 94

Trang 5

LIST OF FIGURES

Table Title Page

1 Conceptual Paradigm of the study……….…58

Trang 6

CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction

English as a versatile language is considered an amazing language Though it only ranked third in terms of the number of people using, still it becomes the global language and declared as the “lingua franca” of the world

English language is spread through the demands of the business sector, the academe, science and technology, and the diplomatic advocacy

of the espousing country There are reasons identified why foreign language learners need to learn English First to be able to do business, to

be educated, to have a political alliance with, to be able to work or migrate

in America, for it is believed that proficiency in this language offers attractive economic returns; uplifts the status of people in the third world countries and English language serves as the major bridge towards greater opportunities, understanding, academic progress and personal development

Being aware of the importance of the English language, government agencies of most countries invest on English learning process They have set goals to improve the English proficiency of their component population and impose programs through their educational system This scenario is

Trang 7

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines not new to Vietnam and in fact the government has planned long term national project in line with foreign languages They set programs to uplift the status not only of the English proficiency of its students but also the competence of language teachers from primary to tertiary schools

Learners studying the foreign language basically develop competence in speaking and writing with emphasis on grammar There are four ways in learning the English language These include visual or seeing, auditory or hearing, kinaesthetic or moving, and tactile or touching According to Bandler, R et al (1997) language learning involves stimulation of multiple areas in the brain and that English language learning

to be effective cannot be just one dimensional which means that the more faculties involved, the better and longer term is the learning Understanding

or the cognitive skills are not always involved in the learning process which explains the reason why adults tend to learn the second language slower compared to the young

English language has four modalities or skills and these include reading, writing, speaking and listening In learning the language, listening comes first, followed by speaking, then reading and finally writing There are two ways how these four language modalities are related to each other These are the direction of communication the in or out and the method of communication the spoken or the written

Trang 8

Reading as a skill that helps man discover new things around him serves as the foundation of learning of an individual One acquires knowledge and key concepts from the simplest to the most complex through reading It is considered vital in different learning situations Ability

to read well provides opportunities for personal fulfilment and job success

Further as an important skill in communication, reading is also a multifaceted process It involves word recognition, comprehension, fluency and motivation A person gets information from written letters and words through reading As a basic life skill, reading serves as a cornerstone for a student’s success in school since all subjects require this skill for smooth flow and transfer of learning Total comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading and integration of several or all subskills into a unitary skill during reading is required Reacting to authentic and real reading materials at different levels of comprehension such as literal, interpretative, evaluative critical and creative levels on the other hand are the ways integration is achieved

Listening as language modality is a very important area of communication There is an active involvement of individual in listening as

it involves a sender, a message and a receiver Willingness of an individual

to participate completely in a communicative situation signifies good listening A number of processes also work on various levels in order to

Trang 9

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines produce an understanding of the incoming speech when good listeners involve themselves with any type of spoken discourse

In addition, listening is also important in the development of spoken language proficiency Means of interaction for the learner is provided by spoken language likewise access to speakers of the language is essential because learners must interact to achieve understanding Good and proper listening stimulates better communication in actual speaking situation

Considered the productive skill in the oral mode is speaking As a communication skill a person is able to verbalize his thoughts and ideas through speaking A person may get involve into three kinds of speaking situations such as interactive speaking, partially interactive speaking and non- interactive speaking In interactive listening, learners are engaged in listening and speaking alternately, and through a conversation partner, request to slow down conversation, clarification and repetition can be done while in partially interactive speaking, the speaker may continue to deliver his speech without interruption from the audience Non-interactive speaking can best manifest in speech recording or a radio broadcast No actual interaction happens

Good speaking and listening as part of one process can help learners to become successful in and out of school It is believed that if learner speaks well, ideas can be expressed clearly, likewise, if the learner listens well more learning can be remembered That is why integration of

Trang 10

these language modalities is considered important in classroom activities

to ensure learners’ participation in the use of language This integration is done for reinforcement of lessons The integration of language modalities can best be illustrated for instance in writing where it helps learner improve their speaking skills, so as with reading where it facilitates learner’s writing competence

Improved competence in other modalities resulted from practice in one modality Teacher can project how learners can use language for a variety of purposes if language modalities are integrated in curriculum and instruction Modalities can be integrated in instruction through lessons and assessments more formally and informally for student’s language production scaffolding A technique that teacher can make use in integrating modalities is through cooperative learning Here learners can work together by means of speaking and listening to each other and also synthesizing information through reading and writing their ideas for possible presentation

In language modalities, learners encountered difficulties In reading, learners no longer enjoy reading as most of them are not fluent readers They have hard time understanding a given text as they have not acquired necessary competence in reading or they lack comprehension in what they are reading They also encountered problems in pronunciation and

Trang 11

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines recognition of English words as well as learners’ inability to group words into thought units

In listening on the other hand, learners’ have to cope up with the problems on vocabulary structures and rate of delivery Learners also have short attention span and lose focus due to lack of understanding of the topic when it comes to listening to a native speaker of the language Learners also encountered problem relative to sound of the English language It takes sometimes for them to identify the sounds which are unfamiliar to them

The skill of speaking is considered a more difficult one Learners might be forced to speak a language which they are not comfortable with, due to lack of understanding of its sentence structure, grammar and word order Though learners might have knowledge of words but their lack of understanding of their proper use in sentences poses another problem

As an English teacher teaching Basic English subjects among second year college students of Thai Nguyen University, the researcher has encountered the above mentioned problems in her classes, she is interested to know students’ performance in the three modalities of language namely; reading, listening and speaking to come up with a resource material designed to reinforce students learning in Basic English

Further, among Vietnamese college students in Thai Nguyen University (TNU) In fact, there has not been an attempt to assess the

Trang 12

performance of students in the three learning modalities It was clearly shown that ELL classes would greatly benefit from learner-centered English language pedagogy Thus, it is perceived that this study can be feasibly done among TNU students and would reveal basic and essential information towards the effective English language teaching at their level Moreover, it will serve as basis for the author to formulate instructional materials and pertinent student activities that would be responsive to the needs of these students

Statement of the Problem

This study determined the three modalities of learning English among sophomore college students of Thai Nguyen University, Vietnam to serve as basis for proposed resource materials

Specifically, this sought answer to the following questions:

1 What are the characteristics of sophomore students with

reference to:

1.1 gender;

1.2 parents’ educational attainment;

1.3 students’ place of origin;

1.4 type of school attended (high school)

Trang 13

2 What is the performance of students in the following language

modalities?

2.1 Reading 2.2 listening 2.3 speaking

3 Are there significant differences on the performance of students when grouped according to their profile variables?

4 How do teachers assess the performance of students in

the three language modalities?

5 Are there any significant differences between the performance of students and the teachers’ assessment on the three modalities?

6 What resource materials may be prepared for each of the three language modalities?

Scope, Delimitation and Limitation of the Study

This study focused on determining the performance of students in the three modalities of language namely; reading, listening, oral or speaking Profiles of sophomore college students were also determined in terms of gender, parents’ educational attainment, students’ place of origin and type of school attended

Trang 14

The descriptive method of research was used in the study applying survey technique for teacher assessment of responses and teacher-made test to determine students’ performance Respondents of the study include

357 second year college English language students at some selected colleges of Thai Nguyen University in Vietnam and 60 English teachers The survey questionnaire and teacher-made test served as the sources of data for statistical analyses

The study was limited to the profile variables of the sophomore college students of TNU and the three modalities mentioned in the study as well as to the responses of their respective English language teacher which served also as other respondents of the study The study was further delimited to the year level of students indicated in the study and to the specified subject area The study did not include writing modality thus became part of the delimitation of the study

Significance of the Study

This study is significant to the following:

Students Results of the study will provide students with rich

information and knowledge as regards to how they could enrich their learning in the three modes of language They will also benefit from the resource materials developed

Trang 15

Teachers The study will benefit the teachers through the

experience gained in the utilization of the resource materials developed for language modalities to their students They would also be equipped with materials that they can use to effectively improve their students language performance

Administrator The results of the study will provide them a clear

basis for introducing the innovation that may come out of the study to their respective schools

Policy-makers They will gain insights on the typical language

modalities prevalent among the students and would initiate advocacy and policies pertinent to the findings of the study

Researcher The researcher will provide other teachers with useful

method and techniques that can improve their effectiveness in teaching lessons They can reduce disadvantages and teach students in a more effective way

Future Researcher Other researchers may be interested in this topic so they can conduct similar study

Trang 16

CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

This chapter presents the relevant conceptual and research literature which have bearing to the present study These literatures provide background to understand the present research Presented also in this chapter are the theoretical and conceptual frameworks, synthesis of the study and definition of terms

Conceptual Literature

The following concepts which focused on English language instruction, student performance evaluation, English language modalities, and instructional materials development were reviewed to substantiate the study

English Language Instruction A new method of exploring the

English language is referred to as English language instruction or education (englishlanguageinstruction.com) Lessons covered are relevant

to each student’s background and zero in on proper pronunciation, conversational English, understanding of technical terms, phrases and concepts Classes are focused on students’ aspirations and relaxed atmosphere is provided to students

Language instruction is a practice of translating language policy that has been articulated and founded in the language content standards since

Trang 17

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines the goal of a language curriculum which is a course or path that is connected or integrated that lead to learning is that of fluency and literacy and that curriculum materials should be chosen to fit on the language policy (hrd.apec.org./index.php/language-curriculum and instruction) Preparing multi-language citizens who can appreciate culture and communicate with speakers of other languages is an issue considered important in language instruction motivation for students to take other languages even in secondary schools is difficult even in English speaking economies

In the 21st century citizens are expected to be proficient in multiple languages for them to communicate in a variety of contexts The benefits

an individual can enjoy in learning other languages may include improved school performance, better problem-solving skills and higher self-esteem Learners on the other hand who have good command of their native language and desire to learn for another language develop the global language skill and may have the opportunity to work in a global context

Language instruction or education is the teaching and learning of a foreign or second language and may take place as a general school subject in a specialized language school (www.wisegeek.com/what-is-language-educationhtml) This is also referred to as the process of learning

a language, a teaching process of said language, as well learning a native language for the first time or a second language This is also commonly

Trang 18

used as an academic term as it deals with learning a second or additional language beyond one’s native language

Helping students become autonomous, independent, self- directed language acquirers it is the purpose of language instruction The two identified goals of language instruction include: instruction should help students understand how language is acquired or picked up; and language instruction should help students learn where and how to get and use comprehensible input, understandable English to read and listen to from the outside world when they leave the room (successfulenglish.com/2010/02purpose-of-language-instruction/)

The determining factors of the difference between the process of language education and language acquisition are the teaching style used, the age of students learning the language and whether the students are developing first language in-depth skills or if there is an attempt to learn the language Most language education practices begin with vocabulary words and verb conjugation principles while immersion style of teaching a language is also utilized to encourage students to speak the new language Relative to this, whole language instruction is a viable method of instruction(www.teachnology.com/theme/langarts/phonics/wholelang,

html) In this type of instruction, throughout the process instructor serves as

a guide The world of reading is the focus of the learners whom language

Trang 19

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines practitioners encouraged for learners to apply their knowledge already gained through their learning

According to Anna Searle, British Council director for English language, there is more to use English as the lingua franca of higher education globally- as the most significant current trend in internationalizing higher education As in the case of the English language instruction at Indiana University, it offers several programs for English Language Development Their Intensive English Program or EP for pre-matriculated students with academic or professional goals has seven weeks session or

20 plus hours a week of instruction with seven levels of proficiency and no credit (www indiana.edu/dsls/eli/)

Further, for matriculated students admitted into the undergraduate and graduate programs in this university, their English Language Improvement Program or ELIP is an 8 week course that is 4 hours a week composed of 5 to 6 topics and with credit units, while for students taking the TEPAIC to become student assistants, the university offers the Preparation for International Teaching Special programs for students with specific goal and English for Specific purpose programs are also offered

The director of the department of education at Oxford Ernesto Macaro added that more and more institutions across the world are using English to teach academic subjects, spurred on by a desire to internationalise their offer and their academic profile Promising

Trang 20

instructional practices that are useful for defining best practices for teaching English-language learners include: using visuals to reinforce concepts and vocabulary; utilizing cooperative learning and peer tutoring; use of students’ native language strategically when students are floundering; providing opportunities for students to practice speaking English in both formal and informal contexts throughout the day In addition, focusing on rich evocative vocabulary words during lessons so students remained engaged and challenged is also included For teaching literary concepts the words can serve as vehicle (www.ncl d.org/students-disabilities/ld-education-teachers/effective-instruction-for-Id-risk-English-language-learners)

Moreover, English language instruction offers a wide range of services to English language learners and their families particularly in Sta Cruz City Schools English language development program is provided to all English learners as well as access to the core curriculum (www.sccs,stacruz,klz.ca,us/parents/students/English-language-

instruction.html) Access also to coursework, materials and instruction are provided to learners Comprehension is also a priority in terms of methods

of instruction to ensure progress in the levels of their proficiency in both English and other core content areas

English language as a lingua franca for education instructions across the world from primary schools to universities, it is also the medium

Trang 21

of instruction utilized by university administrators It also serves as a facilitator to attracting international students as well as a way to improve institution’s position in global university ranking as English improve exchange of ideas and promote better relations between countries (www.timeshighereducation.co.uk/news/english-language-use-most

significant-internationalisation-trend-for-he/2013009article)

Learners of English as a second language in mainstream schools where English is the language of instruction has the program where the participants were advised to bring their home cultures into the classroom, involving them in language-appropriate content-area instruction from the beginning, and through integration of literature into the learning program (García, et al 2008) Further, the increasing number of English as Second Language (ESL) students in the classrooms creates a strong need for additional programs and services While other teachers think that ESL instruction requires a separate entity from standard-based instruction, most teachers believed that they are intertwined with each other as stated in the English TESOL Standards that teachers should know, understand, and use evidence based practices and strategies related to planning, implementing, and managing standards based on ESL and content instruction (www.tesol.org)

Students’ Performance Evaluation To examine, judge, appraise,

and assign value or worth refers to evaluation while performance refers to

Trang 22

the actions of carrying out or completing some functions, role, or obligation (Horejsi, et al 2002) In evaluation, the focus is on grades and may reflect classroom components other than the course content and mastery levels which include discussion, cooperation, attendance, and verbal ability (Angelo, et al 1993)

There are two types of student’s performance evaluations These are informal and formal evaluations Ongoing feedback and suggestions by instructor and takes place on a weekly and daily basis are features of informal evaluations Detailed review and comparison of the student’s performance with evaluation criteria, standards, and learning objectives, and happens at the end of each academic term which is dependent on school policy or specialized circumstances are the components of formal evaluations Through a written report, the results of the evaluation were placed into comprising of ratings assigned to the various items on the tool used by school for their evaluation with a description in a form of narrative about students’ strengths, abilities, special problems and deficiencies in performance

In order to determine if the student is making progress, to document learning, to identify strengths and areas of performance that require special attention and remediation, it is of significant importance for students’ performance to have continuous monitoring and frequent evaluations There are two purposes for the conduct of evaluation of student’s

Trang 23

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines performance The first is that of summative to measure student progress or achievement and the second is that of formative in order to provide feedback

to students to help them learn better (teaching.iub.edu./wrapper-big)

For students’ and teachers’ success, assigning grades to be part of permanent records of students as well as giving feedback to students for their improvement are needed To give better chance to monitor students’ works and to improve their study habits to have better performance, frequent tests and quizzes will be administered to them To help students also improve their learning, evaluation plans and activities should be prepared

There are suggested ways considered to have a fair and relevant evaluation of student’s performance (www.washburn.edu/academics

College-schools/applied-studies/ departments/ social-work/sw-files evaluating-students-performance-37pdf) These include: areas of performance or competency that are truly important to the kind of task as well as carrying out institution’s mission and goals are addressed; clear criteria for student’s evaluation and objectives is possible to the degree; students’ awareness of the evaluation criteria, standards and preferred practices and outcomes at the beginning of the period of evaluation; and compatibility of student’s performance to written standards and criteria, rather than to some standards that are unstated or implied

Trang 24

about-Providing continuous feedback and warnings or performance to students prior to formal evaluation as well as providing realistic performance criteria and standards fitted to students’ levels are also included to have fair and relevant evaluation Further, citing and describing examples of performance through evaluation which form as basis for ratings as well as giving consideration to the extenuating circumstances that may influence the evaluation are also included Level of performance among students who demonstrated differences in motivation, competency, knowledge, and specific skills are being identified and recorded in the evaluative process likewise the nature and complexity of the assignments given to students are taken into consideration in evaluation Students’ growth and performance as well as students’ problems regarding need for continued learning is also recognized in evaluation

Green (1975) pointed out teachers need several types of learning assessments as guide posts for instruction when instructing pupils and these include initial assessments to determine the beginning level of instruction, interim assessments to pace instruction and to provide feedback to the learners and terminal assessment to determine the ultimate achievement of the learners Classified as formative evaluation are initial and interim assessments as their major objective is that of helping the learner Instruction and learner are provided by formative evaluation

Trang 25

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines with feedback on his errors, his rate of progress and his level of achievement related to the acceptable level of competence

As an aid to students acquiring the necessary subject matter competence and the requisite behaviours for each unit of learning, formative evaluation is considered as the most important Pupil’s progress

in terms of formative evaluation is often criterion-referenced indicating minimum performances required before proceeding to new units of instruction which is considered specific level of competence In formative evaluation, the norm- referenced approach may be utilized for the pupil’s relative performance within the group is used rather than an established competence level for assessment

Under summative evaluation, terminal assessment is classified A general assessment of students’ achievement over an entire course or a large unit of a course is its purpose Uses of summative evaluation which is either criterion or norm referenced include major basis for the course mark and for determining the final level of students’ attainment Considered essential to good instruction is formative and summative evaluation of which focus is given to summative evaluation by teachers rather than formative evaluation

Recognized as comprehensive, systematic and purposeful process, that is an integral part of teaching and learning, evaluation must be based

on outcomes which represent goals for students which can also provide a

Trang 26

basis for student evaluation Evaluation procedures must be based on the prescribed learning outcomes and evolve from the instructional strategies implemented to realize these outcomes and must enable a teacher to provide an accurate reliable, and justifiable evaluation which reflects students’ progress and achievement (www.ed Gov,nl.ca/edu/k12/

curriculum/guided/music/music220/section2,pdf)

There are policies for evaluating students in the classroom These include: the basis for evaluating student practices is on the philosophy of education relative to the uniqueness of each child; pre-instructional, formative, and summative activities comprised evaluation; and performance in terms of stated outcomes such as affective, cognitive, and psychomotor domains is represented by evaluation Students must understand clearly outcomes and evaluation procedures

Evaluations of process and product objectives are also important as well as accommodation of students with special needs must undergo differentiated evaluation To indicate performance in relation to the stated outcomes grades are needed for summative evaluation A pre-instructional evaluation in terms of awareness of the strengths and weaknesses that students bring in the classroom is required in a comprehensive evaluation

A comprehensive picture of student’s achievement in progress can be provided through evaluation data gathered from varied sources like formative evaluation wherein the focus is more on the process and the

Trang 27

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines products of learning as well as summative evaluation where assessment and report of students’ achievement are the main concern

Assessment performance or skill attainment and knowledge learned

in the educational program are the main purpose of student evaluation Variety of testing and measurement methods are the mode of evaluation for students’ performance Measuring students growth serves several purposes in the educational process (class.missouri- edu/aged/resources /handbook/chapter 6.pdf.) The purposes include: monitoring student progress; reinforce desired outcomes and behaviours; a review to provide structure for students; an aid in career guidance; classification and placement of students; an aid for curriculum/ instruction improvement, and

an assessment of teacher effectiveness

According to Go, et al (2010) the following are the principles intended to assist teachers in planning for student assessment and evaluation These include: assessment and learning are essential components of the teaching and learning process and that they should be planned, continuous activities should be derived from curriculum objectives and should be consistent with the instructional and learning strategies; and there should be utilization of various assessment and evaluation techniques selected for the appropriateness to student’s learning styles and intended purposes Opportunities to demonstrate the extent of their

Trang 28

knowledge, abilities, and attitudes in various ways should be provided to students

Moreover, assessment, evaluation strategies and plan should be communicated by teachers in advance to inform students of the objectives and procedures of assessment and they should be provided with opportunity for input into the evaluation process There should be fair and equitable assessment and evaluation and these should help students Likewise, parents or guardians as well as students should be aware of the assessment and evaluation data and results in meaningful ways Finally, varied tools and techniques should be used in conducting assessment and evaluation

English Language Modalities Learning English language has

been divided into different skill areas including listening, speaking, reading and writing, based on the purpose of analysis and instruction Speaking and writing are productive skills and listening and reading are receptive skills (Byrne, 1988) Regarding the manners by which they are formed, language skills are divided into oral skills relating to articulate organs, which are listening and speaking and literacy skills in connection with manual script including reading and writing

Reading as an English language modality is a multifaceted process including word recognition, comprehension, fluency and motivation (www.reading rockets org article/352/) Reading involves the reader, the

Trang 29

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines text, and the interaction between the writer and the reader using texts which widen the reader’s knowledge to make sense of print the information constructed by the reader which is then transferred through written symbols

by the writer (Rumelhart, 1977) This interaction contributes to the schemata

in understanding the text Reading is a complex activity where good readers engage in a variety of activities as they comprehend the selection as pointed out by Caldwell (2008) Making inferences and predictions on the person’s knowledge and cues comprise the reading process

According to Goodman (1971) reading is a psycholinguistic process

by which the reader, a language user, reconstructs a message encoded by

a writer as a graphic display, and the act of reconstruction is viewed as a cyclical process of sampling, predicting, testing and confirming In the same vein, Harmer (1989) considers reading as a mechanical process wherein the eyes receive the message and the brain has to work out the significance of the message Reading comprehension is the process of understanding and constructing meaning from a piece of text It requires motivation, mental frameworks for holding ideas, concentration and good study techniques (Donald, 2004) Any written materials involving multiple words that form coherent thoughts such as phrases, sentences, paragraphs are connected texts that can be read with comprehension

Trang 30

In teaching and learning a foreign language reading comprehension plays a key role It can be understood as the ability to obtain the information as required in the reading lessons as efficiently as possible Thus, three elements that are involved in the reading process include the reading text, the background knowledge of the reader, and the contextual aspects relevant for the interpretation of the text Swam (1975) stated that

a student is good at comprehension if he can read accurately and efficiently so as to get the maximum information of a text with the minimum

of understanding

Reading comprehension or understanding a written text means extracting the required information from it as effectively as possible (Grellet, 1981) The graphic forms of the reading texts as well as what are implied behind these forms can be recognized and understood by the readers when they read with comprehension Richard, (1987) points out that reading comprehension is best described as an understanding between the author and the reader

The process which reader undergoes through to learn how to read is termed a reading process and the models of an ideal reader reading which tell what reader does is referred to as models of the reading process There are three models of the reading process and these include bottom-

up model, top down model and the interactive model

Trang 31

In bottom-up model, Nunan, (1991) explained that the reader begins with the written text from the bottom, and constructs meaning from letters, words, phrases, and sentences found within, and then processes the text

in a linear fashion while in the process of meaning interpretation, the language is translated from one form of symbolic representation to another Bottom-up model is a text-driven model The reader plays a relatively passive role in building comprehension through moving eyes from letters to letters, words to words, phrases to phrases, and sentence to sentence to identify their exact meaning

The reading process that moves from the top, the higher level of mental stages down to the text itself is known as top-down model Stanovich, (1980) expounded that this approach emphasized the reconstruction of meaning rather than the decoding of form, the interaction between the reader and the text rather than the graphic forms of the printed pages The readers proves his active role in the reading process by bringing to the interaction his/her available knowledge of the subject, knowledge of and expectations about how language works, motivation, interest and attitudes towards the content of the text

Hayes (1991) emphasized that in interactive models, different processes are thought to be responsible for providing information that is shared with other processes The information obtained from each type of

Trang 32

processing is combined to determine the most appropriate interpretation of the printed pages Interactive models can maximize the strengths and minimizes the weaknesses of the separate use of either bottom-up or top-down models

Listening on the other hand, as a modality of language is vital in the language classroom because it provides input for the learner as pointed out by Rost (1994) Without understanding input at the right level, learning cannot begin Listening is important to the development of spoken language proficiency for three reasons First, the means of interaction for the learner is provided by spoken language and the access to speakers of the language is essential because learners must interact to achieve understanding Considered an impetus to interaction and learning is the failure of learners to understand the language heard Second, a challenge for the learner to attempt to understand language as native speakers actually use it is presented by authentic spoken language and third is that teachers with the means for drawing learners’ attention to new forms in language is provided by listening exercises

Brown (1978) stated that listening is the natural precursor to speaking; the early stages of language development in a person’s first language are dependent on listening In first language education both oral and literacy development needed ongoing attention Gary et al (1981)

Trang 33

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines described the many benefits of delaying speaking and concentrating on listening These benefits include: the learner is not overloaded by having to focus on two or more skills at the same time-a cognitive benefit; speed of coverage-receptive knowledge grows faster than productive knowledge It

is possible to experience and learn much more of the language by just concentrating in listening If learners had to be able to say all the material

in the lessons, progress would be very slow

Moving quickly to realistic communicative listening activities is easy

as this have strong effect on motivation In language classes, learners no longer feel shy or worried as listening activities reduce the stress involved

in language learning which is a psychological benefit and language activities are well suited to independent learning through listening to recordings

In normal daily life, listening is far more than any other single skill River (1981) stated that on average an individual can expect to listen twice

as much as one speaks, four times more when one reads, and five times more when one writes In listening interactions, there are three identified communicative listening modes These are bidirectional, unidirectional and auto directional

In bidirectional listening mode, Denes et al (1963) pointed out that the speech chain of speaker/listener is easily observed Two or more

Trang 34

participants take turns exchanging speaker role and listener role in their face to face or telephone verbal interaction As regards to unidirectional listening mode, the following are the sources of its input: overheard conversations, public address announcements, recorded messages, the media, instructional situations of all kinds, and public performances

As for auto directional listening mode, it is synonymous to dialogue communication in which the individual has no awareness of his internal roles as both speaker and listener or reactor in his own thought processes Listening modes is not a passive experience as each listening mode is a highly active, clearly participatory and verbal experience

self-Lynch, et al (2002) explained that more recent models view listening

as a much more active and interpretive process in which the message is not fixed but is created in the interpretational space between participants and that meanings are shaped by context and constructed by the listener through the act on interpreting meaning rather than receiving it intact Two broad types of listening are distinguished These are one-way listening which is typically associated with the transfer of information or transactional listening, and two-way listening which are associated with maintaining social relations or interactional listening

Speaking as a language modality, it plays a role of great important skill when communicating It is an interactive process of constructing

Trang 35

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information (Burns et al 1997) Its form and meaning are dependent on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving Learners’ knowledge on how to use language in terms of grammar, pronunciation or vocabulary as well as understanding when, why, and in what ways to produce language is required in speaking

Speaking can either be informal or formal Informal speaking involves tasks where conveying information is not as important as maintaining friendly relationships Brown et al (1999) termed this as interactional speaking and can be supported by the following which enables learners to produce what they would not normally be able to produce Conversational strategies can be taught to learners like this technique, question (Q), short answer (SA), and extra information (EI), that can help keep the conversation going (Holmes, 1976)

This kind of strategy deserves a lot of practice in class, particularly in guiding learners in the kinds of extra information that they can provide Speaking can be easier if there is a supportive partner in conversation and

to support other speakers Learners can be trained for that through supplying unknown words, completing sentences that the speaker has

Trang 36

begun, and asking helpful questions to provide language and content support Another good way to provide support is through repeated tasks At the start speaking maybe difficult, but through repetition it becomes easier

Informal speaking can be prepared informally like writing a diary to describe what the learners did each day and many multi word units were utilized in spoken language compared to written language As pointed out

by McCarthy et al (2003) it is worthwhile memorizing some of the more useful sentence stems like I see, That’s right, Are you sure?, Really?, I haven’t seen you for ages, What have you been up to?

Formal speaking on the other hand as explained by Biber (1989) helps language learning as it represents a new use of English for most learners and thus requires them to focus on language items that are not as well represented in other uses of the language Control of content, awareness of a largely passive audience, and being the focus of attention are required in formal speaking as well as the use of the language by the learners under difficult and demanding circumstances, which will stretch the boundaries of skill development

Speaking as a part of work or academic study may involve presenting reports or presenting viewpoint on a particular topic Several important features comprised this type of speaking According to Brown (1981) formal speaking is transactional and its purpose is to communicate

Trang 37

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines information rather than to maintain social contact as in the case with most interactional speaking It involves taking a long turn and it is not usually presented as a dialogue but requires speaking for several minutes in a comprehensible and organized way

Formal speaking is influenced by written language and often involves speaking from notes and involves academic vocabulary Speaking is done through a careful style of the learner in a clear and deliberate way with opportunity for the speaker to monitor the production and formal speaking needs teaching as it is not a part of typical language use but rather a skill

For purposes of speaking, Bygate (1987) stated that conversations can be analyzed in terms of routines Routines are conversational ways of presenting information Routines are conventional ways of presenting information and there are two types of routines These are information routines and interactional routines Information structures comprise information routines and are expository in nature like telling a story, describing something or giving set of directions as well as those that are evaluative like giving explanation, making justification or predicting In the interaction routines, it consists of service encounters like job interview, or the social such as a dinner party or coffee break

Writing as language modality and communicative activity according

to Murcia (2006) needs to be encouraged and nurtured during language

Trang 38

learner’s course of study Viewing writing as an act of communication suggests an interactive process which takes place between the writer and the reader via the text Value is placed on the goal of writing as well as on the perceived reader audience by such kind of approach Greater demands on the text are demanded in the writing process since written interaction lacks immediate feedback as a guide

White et al (1991) view writing as a complex, cognitive process that requires sustained intellectual effort over a considerable period of time Six recursive procedures were involved in producing a text These procedures include discussion, brainstorming, fast writing, rough drafting, preliminary self-evaluation, arranging information, first draft, group or peer evaluation, conference, second draft, self-evaluation, finished draft, and final responding to draft Process approach is pointed out with an aim at helping the learner to develop a set of skills

Writing emerged in societies as a result of cultural changes that created new communicative needs (Halliday, 1985) The following are the purposes of the use of written language such as for action, for information, and for entertainment In the characteristics of the texts themselves will reflect these different purposes for language Hadfield, et al (2008), however, view writing skill of student to be a difficult skill because it has to

be learned Linguistic difficulties include knowing the conventions of a

Trang 39

BATANGAS STATE UNIVERSITY Republic of the Philippines particular type of text as well as organizing and sequencing of ideas More than putting sentences together in language that is grammatically correct and appropriate is involved in writing Organization of ideas is needed in a logical way to make text coherent for reader to follow easily Students develop the skills of linking ideas between sentences choosing suitable language as well as improving grammatical accuracy through accurate activities provided which involved a range of writing exercises

Furthermore, Johnstone, et al (2002) stated that writing as one of the basic skills of the English language is generally considered one of the most difficult than other skills of foreign language students Native speakers also feel difficulty in showing good command of writing Nunan (2003) expound that the nature of writing involved both physical and mental ability that is aimed to express and impress Writing is a physical activity in the sense that a writer is required to do or performed the act of communicating through words or ideas It is a mental work as the activities

of writing focus more on the act of inventing ideas, thinking about how to express and organize them into clear statements and paragraphs that enable a reader in understanding the ideas of the written work

Instructional Material Development The materials used by teachers

in improving students’ performance are referred to as instructional materials

In the learning processes, these are very important These comprised

Trang 40

projected, non- projected, printed and locally produced materials such as realia and three- dimensional objects Instructional materials according to Richards (2001) are key component in language programs It serves as basis for language input learners receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom Teacher’s instructional materials designed for use include includes manuals, test questions, skill books, worksheets, transparencies, reinforcement activities, enrichment exercises, bulletin board displays, graphs, charts, maps, and video cassettes

Calfee (1985) stated that high achieving students, especially those at the secondary level are able to cope with large doses of verbal symbolism but it is with slow learners and younger students that the advantages of audiovisual and tactile experiences become apparent It is easier for students to learn if more senses are involved in the learning process Instructional aids as explained by Orstein, et al.(1992) can affect students

in many ways by motivating students, contributing to understanding, providing varied learning experiences, reinforcing learning, allowing for different interests, encouraging participation, providing experiences that might not otherwise be had, and changing attitudes and feelings

To vary learning experiences, variety of materials in a multimedia approach can be used by an experienced teacher Varied interests and abilities of students serve as a guide in determining their learning With the

Định dạng
Số trang	229
Dung lượng	2,61 MB

Biên soạn nguồn tài liệu cho 3 kĩ năng nghe, nói và đọc tiếng Anh cho sinh viên năm thứ hai tại Đại học Thái Nguyên

Demographic Profile of the Student Respondents

Student's Performance in the Three Learning Modalities