UET it sophomores' English learning strategies for reading skills an exploratory research = Nghiên cứu chiến lược học tiếng Anh dành cho kỹ năng đọc của sinh vi

That is why teachers of English for Information Technology Division, English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies wish to introduce students with English learning s

HANOI - 2010

SUPERVISOR: DƯƠNG THỊ NỤ, Ph D

HANOI - 2010

I.2.1.1 Memory strategies 13 I.2.1.2 Cognitive strategies 15 I.2.1.3 Compensation strategies 19

I.2.2.1 Metacognitive strategies 19 I.2.2.2 Affective strategies 21 I.2.2.3 Social strategies 23

II.2 The study 25

II.2.1.1 Participants 25 II.2.1.2 Research approach 26 II.2.1.3 Data collection 27

II.2.2.1 Awareness and attitudes towards English learning strategies

for reading skills 28 II.2.2.2 Learning strategies for reading skills used by sophomores of IT

PART I - INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

English is a compulsory subject to students of Information Technology Faculty (IT Faculty), University of Engineering and Technology (UET), Vietnam National University (VNU) Any student who wants to earn an IT degree needs to take four English courses with 14 credits Though the required level of English courses is only pre-intermediate, a lot

of students find it hard to pass the courses, not to mention to have high grades It is even more surprising to find that the majority of students attending Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology have learnt English for at least three years at high school before going to college One of their problems with learning this language is that all they have tried to do is memorization instead of having appropriate English learning strategies These strategies are not only essential to students while learning English at college but also useful for their own self-study once they graduate It is

no doubt that Information Technology students need English for their future jobs

Among all the English skills Information Technology students learn at college, reading skills is the one that is paid much attention within the course syllabus IT students spend more than a quarter of their time in class learning reading skills among all the language skills and elements Reading skills also accounts for 50% of the grades students may get in English exams Reading skills is also the skills that IT students use the most after graduation Besides, it is widely believed among teachers that knowledge is immense (IT is

an ever-changing field) and thus, there is no point in trying to teach students everything More importantly, teachers should motivate them to learn and teach them how to learn so that they can study by themselves and for themselves Accordingly, during the teaching and learning process, special emphasis is placed on creating a positive learning environment, developing students‟ autonomy and creativity, teaching study skills, and building students‟ confidence That is why teachers of English for Information Technology Division, English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies wish to introduce students with English learning strategies for reading skills But before introducing those skills, it is necessary to investigate what IT students already know and what they do not This exploratory research is done for that intention

2 Purposes of the study

The ultimate purpose of this study is to explore the English learning strategies for reading skills that sophomores of Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology have already used It wishes to achieve the three primary aims:

(i) to know IT sophomores‟ awareness and attitude towards English learning strategies for reading skills

(ii) to explore the learning strategies that sophomores of IT Faculty have already used in their reading process

(iii) to propose some suggestions to the teachers on integrating the introduction and practice of English learning strategies for reading skills into the syllabus

3 Research questions

The exploratory research is intended to answer the following questions:

(i) Research question 1: What are the attitudes of Information Technology sophomores, University of Engineering and Technology, towards English learning strategies for reading skills?

(ii) Research question 2: What are English learning strategies for reading skills that Information Technology sophomores, University of Engineering and Technology, have already used?

4 Methods of the study

In view of the exploratory nature of the study, the source which is used to collect the data

is from a survey conducted on sophomores of Information Technology Faculty, University

of Engineering and Technology, Vietnam National University, Hanoi, who are currently in their third term of learning English at college, to investigate students‟ awareness, attitudes towards English learning strategies for reading skills, as well as the strategies they have been using so far Therefore, this exploratory takes a quantitative approach Besides, online general guide interviews are also done on some randomly selected subjects to know the underlying reasons for their attitudinal and behavioral answers in the survey

Basing on the results obtained, the researcher will propose some suggestions on integrating the introduction and practice of those strategies into the reading syllabus

5 Scope of the study

The present study operates within the following scope:

(i) English learning strategies for reading skills include both direct strategies (which involve the English language in the reading process) and indirect ones (which support the business of acquiring reading skills) Therefore, this study will investigate sophomores‟ awareness, attitude and usage of both types

(ii) Even though the students in the Faculty of Information Technology, University of Engineering and Technology have to attend four semesters of English, the subjects chosen for this research are in the their third semester As the students have experienced two semesters learning English at college and have developed self-study competence, their responses will better reflect the reality The study will, therefore, have more practical implications as well as applicable suggestions

6 Significance of the study

Despite the fact that the research only explores the learning strategies for reading skills that students have been using, its significance is remarkable

Theoretically, it touches upon the issue of learning strategies which is normally overlooked

in the process of learning and teaching in Vietnam while self-study is presently having great impacts on the society, especially in education, and is currently drawing lots of attention from educators and ELT professional Particularly, it is carried out in the context

of a university – an academic institution where learners are supposed to make full use of self-study competence and teachers are increasingly encouraged to play the role of a facilitator Practically, its results are hoped to provide teachers with a picture of students‟ learning strategies, therefore, teachers of English for Information Technology Division, English Faculty, University of Languages and International Studies can base on that to integrate the introduction and practice of English learning strategies into the teaching syllabus

7 Design of the study

This study consists of three parts: introduction, development, and conclusion

The introduction presents the rationale, purpose, research questions, scope, significance, and design of the study

The development comprises three chapters:

- Chapter I reviews the theoretical background to English learning strategies for reading skills

- Chapter II details the setting, the methods, data analysis, and findings of the study

- Chapter III is centered around the author‟ suggestions on integrating the introduction and practice of English learning strategies into the learning and teaching syllabus for students

of Information Technology Faculty, University of Engineering and Technology

The conclusion, apart from summarizing the main issues so far touched upon in the study, proposes directions for future research

PART II – DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I – THEORETICAL BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

I.1 Language learning strategies

I.1.1 Definitions of language learning strategies

Over the past thirty years, there has been a growing amount of research into learning strategies What is considered by many to be the pioneering work in the field of language learning strategies was carried out in the mid seventies of the twentieth century by such researchers as Rubin (1975) or Stern (1975) However, despite the current interest in learning styles and strategies, investigations into the effect of learner strategy training are relatively uncommon, and results are rather mixed That is why, the language learning strategy field continues to be characterized by “no consensus” (O‟Malley et al., 1985:22) and the concept of language learning strategies itself remains “fuzzy” (Ellis, 1994:529) In other words, up to now, there is no consensus on the definition of the term "language learning strategies."

Early on, Tarone (1983) defined language learning strategies as "an attempt to develop

linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." (p 13) In a helpful

survey article, Weinstein and Mayer (1986) defined learning strategies broadly as

"behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning" which are "intended to

influence the learner's encoding process" (p 315) Mayer (1988) more specifically defined

learning strategies as "behaviors of a learner that are intended to influence how the learner

processes information" (p 11) Before that, Rubin (1987) wrote that language learning

strategies are "strategies which contribute to the development of the language system

which the learner constructs and affect learning directly." (p 23) They could be any sets

of operations, steps, plans or routines used by learners which affect the language learning process In other words, language learning strategies are what learners do to learn and regulate their language learning

Wenden and Rubin (1987) pointed out that language learning strategies have to consider different aspects of the language learning process She identified three areas in particular that language learning strategies refer to: the actual behavior of learners (what learners do

to learn a language), strategic knowledge (what learners know about the strategies they use), and knowledge about aspects (other than strategies) (p 6) Later, in their study on

second language acquisition, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) regarded language learning

strategies as "the special thoughts of behaviors that individuals use to help them

comprehend, learn or retain new information." (p 23) Building on work for teachers,

Oxford (1990) referred to language learning strategies as "specific actions, behaviors, steps

or techniques students use - often intentionally - to improve their progress in developing language skills These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval or use

of new language Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability." (p 7) Finally, Nunan (1999) defined that "language learning strategies are the mental and communicative processes that learners deploy to learn a second language." He stated that underlying every language learning task is at least

one strategy, but in most classrooms, learners are unaware of the strategies underlying the learning tasks they are engaged (p 55)

Among all the definitions listed above, the one proposed by Oxford (1990) seems to be the most comprehensive Tarone's definition (1983) focused too much on the product of language learning strategies, which is linguistic and sociolinguistic competence Rubin (1987), on the other hand, with the assumption that language learning is like other kinds of learning, restricted the use of language learning strategies to vocabulary practice (p 23) In other words, when following Rubin's definition, interactional communication strategies will not be considered as she noted that "although use of communication strategies may lead to learning, the purpose for their use is better communication" (p 26) O'Malley and Chamot (1990) defined language learning strategies basing on psychological approach Nunan (1999) seemed to forget the emotional processes that learners may deploy to learn a second language Only Oxford's definition (1990) emphasized on the processes of language learning as well as the characteristics of language learning strategies To put it another way, what Oxford's definition contains is a collective description of what individual learners do

to achieve communicative competence in a language in a self-directed fashion, either consciously or unconsciously

Language learning strategies contribute to all parts of the learning acquisition continuum They are applicable to a wide variety of language learning tasks, ranging from rather discrete and isolated tasks such as vocabulary and pronunciation or grammar, to integrative tasks like oral communication and reading comprehension

I.1.2 Features of language learning strategies

As mentioned before, it can be said that language learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self -directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations According to Oxford (1990), there are twelve main features of language learning strategies (p 8)

i Language learning strategies contribute to the main goal - that is the

communicative competence

ii Language learning strategies allow learners to become more self-directed iii Language learning strategies expand the roles of teachers

iv Language learning strategies are problem-oriented

v Language learning strategies are specific actions taken by learners

vi Language learning strategies involve many aspects of the learner, not just the

cognitive

vii Language learning strategies support learning both directly and indirectly viii Language learning strategies are not always observable

ix Language learning strategies are often conscious

x Language learning strategies can be taught

xi Language learning strategies are flexible

xii Language learning strategies are influenced by a variety of factors

I.1.3 Importance of language learning strategies

Though researchers have formally discovered and named language learning strategies only recently, such strategies have actually been used for thousands of years Knowledge of language learning strategies is important Henry Adams used to say "They know enough who know how to learn." (as cited in Oxford, 1990, p 135) It means that the greater awareness learners have of what underlies their language learning process, leaning will be more effective Oxford (1990) stated two main reasons for the importance of strategies

Firstly, strategies "are tools for active, self-directed involvement, which is essential for

developing communicative competence." Secondly, “learners who have developed appropriate language learning strategies have greater self-confidence and learn more effectively” (p 1) All the main features of language learning strategies which were

presented above have clearly proved those ideas Furthermore, researches conducted by

Nunan (1999) show that learners who are taught strategies underlying their language learning are more highly motivated than those who are not He also concluded that explicit strategy training, coupled with thinking about how one goes about learning, and experimenting with different strategies, can lead to more effective learning (p 60)

A caution must also be noted though, because, as Skehan (1989) states, "there is always

the possibility that the 'good' language learning strategies are also used by bad language learners, but other reasons cause them to be unsuccessful" (p 76) In fact Vann and

Abraham (1990) found evidence that suggests that both 'good' and 'unsuccessful' language learners can be active users of similar language learning strategies, though it is important

that they also discovered that their unsuccessful learners "apparently lacked what are

often called metacognitive strategies which would enable them to assess the task and bring to bear the necessary strategies for its completion" (p 192) It appears, then, that a

number and range of language learning strategies are important if foreign language teachers are to assist students both in learning the language and in becoming good language learners

I.1.4 Types of language learning strategies

Over the years, a number of researchers have attempted to develop a classification scheme

of language learning strategies Rubin (1987) classified language learning strategies into

three major kinds: learning strategies, (interactional) communication strategies, and social

strategies Learning strategies are further categorized into cognitive and metacognitive strategies Cognitive strategies include: clarification or verification, guessing or inductive inferencing, deductive reasoning, practice, memorization, and monitoring Metacognitive strategies involve a conscious overview of the learning process and making decisions about planning, monitoring, or evaluating the best way to study Social strategies consist

of questions to fellow students/teachers/native speakers, initiating conversations, and

listening to language media (p 23)

In contrast to Rubin's classification (1987), according to O'Malley and Chamot (1990),

language learning strategies are differentiated into three primary categories: cognitive,

metacognitive and social mediating Cognitive strategies include inferencing, deducing, rehearsal, transfer, imagery, summarizing, organization, and elaboration Metacognitive

strategies include monitoring, selective attention, planning, and evaluation Social mediating strategies include questioning for clarification (p 33)

However, the scheme of language learning strategies provided by Oxford (1990) is the most comprehensive detailed system of six primary strategies classified as direct or indirect (p.37 & p 135) The reason is that Rubin's classifications (1987) were entirely empirically based The system she proposed was based on interviews, classroom observations, diaries which the researcher analyzed and categorized subjectively O'Malley and Chamot's classification (1990) emerged from interviews with experts and novices and theoretical analyses of reading comprehension and problem solving However, there still exist some overlaps between identified strategies Only Oxford (1990) provided a truly comprehensive overview with a (hierarchical) ordering of language learning strategies Furthermore, the experience of many teachers indicates that the strategy system which is going to be discussed below is a very useful way to examine such language learning strategies (Oxford, 1990, p 22) This is also proved by a recent research conducted by Hsiao and Oxford (2002) They conducted a comparative study of three classification systems used in the field (O‟Malley & Chamot, 1990; Oxford, 1990; Rubin, 1981) and found that the Oxford (1990) system was superior in accounting for the variety of strategies reported by language learners

Direct strategies

Language learning strategies that directly involve the target language are called direct strategies All direct strategies require mental processing of the target language They help learners store and retrieve new information in the target language, enable them to understand and produce the new language by many different means

Direct strategies are divided into three main groups: memory strategies, cognitive strategies and compensation strategies

 Memory strategies

Memory strategies are language learning strategies helping learners store and retrieve new information of the target language Memory strategies are subdivided into four main types

 Creating mental linkages strategies include "grouping," "associating or elaborating," and "placing new words into the context."

 Applying images and sounds strategies include "using imaginary," "semantic mapping," "using keywords," and "representing sounds in memory."

 Reviewing well strategy includes only the strategy of "structured reviewing."

 Employing action strategies include "using physical response or sensation," and

"using mechanical techniques."

 Cognitive strategies

Cognitive strategies are unified by a common feature: manipulation and transformation of the target language by the learners They are also typically found to be the most popular strategies with language learners Cognitive strategies can be classified into four main types

 Practicing strategies include "repeating," "formally practicing with sounds and writing systems," "recognizing and using formulas and patterns," "recombining and practicing naturalistically."

 Receiving and sending messages strategies include "getting the idea quickly," and

"using resources for receiving and sending messages."

 Analyzing and reasoning strategies include "reasoning deductively," "analyzing expressions," "analyzing contrastively," "translating," and "transferring."

 Creating structure for input and output strategies include "taking notes,"

"summarizing," and "highlighting."

 Compensation strategies

Compensation strategies enable learners to use the new language for either compensation

or production despite limitations in knowledge Compensation strategies are subdivided into two main types

 Guessing intelligently in listening and reading strategies include "using linguistic clues," and "using other clues."

 Overcoming limitations in speaking and writing strategies include "switching to the mother tongue," "getting help," "using mime or gesture," "avoiding communication

partially or totally," "selecting the topic," "adjusting and approximating the message,"

"coining words," and "using circumlocution or synonym."

Indirect strategies

Language learning strategies that indirectly involve the target language are called indirect strategies They are strategies that underpin the business of language learning, that allow learners to control their own cognition, help learners learn through interactions with others

as well as regulate their emotions, motivations and attitudes

Indirect strategies are divided into three main groups: metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies

 Arranging and planning your learning strategies include "finding out about language learning," "organizing," "setting goals and objectives," "identifying the purpose

of a language task (purposeful listening/ reading/ speaking/ writing,)" "planning for a language task," and "seeking practice opportunities."

 Evaluating your learning strategies include monitoring," and evaluating."

"self- Affective strategies

Affective strategies are strategies through which language learners can gain control over their emotions, attitudes, motivations, and values Affective strategies are classified into three main types

 Lowering your anxiety strategies include "using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation," "using music," and "using laughter."

 Encouraging yourself strategies include "making positive statements," "taking risks wisely," and "rewarding yourself."

 Taking your emotional temperature strategies include "listening to your body,"

"using a checklist," "writing a language learning diary," and "discussing your feelings with someone else."

 Social strategies

Social strategies are those activities in which learners deliberately seek opportunities to be exposed to and practice their knowledge Social strategies are subdivided into three main types

 Asking questions strategies include "asking for clarification or verification," and

"asking for correction."

 Cooperating with others strategies include "cooperating with peers," and

"cooperating with proficient users of new language."

 Empathizing with others strategies include "developing cultural understanding," and "becoming aware of others' thoughts and feelings."

Relationship between direct and indirect strategies

Direct and indirect language learning strategies are said to support and interact with each other Oxford (1990) compared the relationship between direct and indirect strategies to that between the performer and the director in the theater (p 14) Direct strategies are like the performers in a stage play, working with the language themselves in a variety of specific tasks and situations Indirect strategies for general management of learning can be likened to the director of the play The performer works closely with the director for the best possible outcome Likewise, the director is an internal guide and support to the performer The functions of both the performer and the director gradually become part of the learners since they accept increased responsibility for learning Moreover, it is essential

to note that the direct strategies work best when supported by indirect strategies and vice versa, indirect strategies work best when used in combination with direct strategies

To sum up, it is important to remember that any current understanding of language learning strategies is in its infancy, and any existing system of strategies is only a proposal

to be tested through practical classroom use and through research At this stage in the short history of language learning strategy research, there is no complete agreement on exactly what language learning strategies are; how many strategies exist; how they should be

defined, demarcated and categorized; and whether it is - or ever will be - possible to create

a real, scientifically validated hierarchy of language learning strategies Therefore,

classification conflicts are inevitable

I.2 Language learning strategies for reading skills

As mentioned above, in all classification of language learning strategies, the one that Oxford (1990) proposed is the most comprehensive That is why the English learning strategies for reading skills used in this study follow Oxford‟s points of view

I.2.1 Direct learning strategies

I.2.1.1 Memory strategies

Creating mental linkages

Oxford claimed that creating mental linkages is the basic step to help English learners in particular, and language learners in general, store in memory “the important things they hear or read in the new language, thus enlarging their knowledge base” (Oxford, 1990: 58) The three strategies which aim at creating mental linkages in language learners‟ minds are the most basic ones; therefore, they directly assist learners in expanding their vocabulary, and indirectly help them make progress in their reading

Grouping

Grouping involves classifying or reclassifying what language learners read into meaningful groups to reduce the number of unrelated elements For instance, students can group the words by conceptual similarities (like hot, warm or fire…), or by their functions (like negative prefixes such as un-, in-, dis-, mis-, non-…) This grouping may help language learners better understand their reading However, this strategy is often employed in combination with other strategies such as “labeling the groups”, “paying attention”, or

“taking notes.”

Associating or elaborating

Associating new language information with familiar concepts that are already in memory is the second basic strategy to create mental linkages Language learners can use these associations to strengthen their reading comprehension as well as their memorization One thing which should be noticed here is that the associations language learners make are

personally significant to themselves Even though the associations may not make sense to other people, as long as they are meaningful to language learners, they are considered useful

Placing new words into the context

Although this strategy may be seen as the most beneficial to vocabulary building, it indirectly assists the reading process because the more vocabulary language learners have, the better they comprehend the readings As suggested in the name of the strategy, it involves putting new words or expressions into a meaningful context One common way of doing so is creating a little story

Applying images and sounds

The four learning strategies in this category are extremely helpful in remembering new expressions, thus, they are normally considered good strategies for vocabulary learning As mentioned before, vocabulary expansion is useful for improving reading; therefore, these strategies are supportive for developing reading comprehension

Using imagery

This strategy involves creating a mental image of what should be remembered Language learners can remember a written item in reading by picturing a place where it is located This can be useful when the learners employ scanning skills in reading If it is desired, drawings can be used to make mental images more concrete

Semantic mapping

When semantic mapping is employed, concepts and relationships are arranged on paper to create a semantic map, “a diagram in which the key concepts (stated in words) are highlighted and linked with related concepts via arrows or lines” (Oxford, 1990: 61-62) This strategy is not only good for vocabulary learning but also for reading comprehension because it is valuable for improving both memory and comprehension of new expressions

or ideas conveyed in a reading Such a diagram personally created by language learners is beneficial in showing visually how ideas fit together This strategy is of great use in combination with other memory strategies such as grouping, using imagery and associating/elaborating

Using keywords

Combining similar sounds of their mother tongue and images is another way to help learners remember a language item in the target language The only notice once employing this strategy is that the sounds from their mother tongue do not have to be exact as the sounds from the target language, and the interacting images used only have to be personally meaningful

Representing sounds in memory

Similar to the previous strategy, representing sounds in memory involves linking the sounds of the new language items with familiar words or sounds from any language known

to learners Rhymes are the most common example of using this strategy

Reviewing well

Reviewing is essential in language learning, which any language learner is aware of This strategy is also known as structured reviewing, which means reviewing at different intervals, at first close together and then increasingly far apart

Employing action

Using physical response or sensation

In reading skills, the strategy of using physical response or sensation can be applied for remembering written material English learners can act out physically what they read or associate physical sensations with specific words or expressions found in reading passages

Using mechanical techniques

Mechanical techniques with the popular use of flashcards and separate sections of notebooks are helpful to learners in remembering what has been read In reading skills, this strategy is used particularly for remembering useful words and new expressions

I.2.1.2 Cognitive strategies

Practicing strategies

Repeating

Meaningful repetition in reading skills involves reading a passage several times, each time for different purposes in order to understand that passage more thoroughly English

learners can read to predict something, read for main ideas, read for specific details or for further questions Note-taking can also be integrated into this reading process

Recognizing and using formulas and patterns

“Formulas” are defined as “unanalyzed expressions” while “patterns have at least one slot that can be filled with an alternative word” (Oxford, 1990: 72) The recognition and understanding of those English formulas and patterns which appear in reading passages and tasks help improve learners‟ reading comprehension As a result, the earlier English learners can recognize and understand those routine expressions, the more self-confident in English learning they can feel Their understanding and fluency are also enhanced

Practicing naturalistically

The ultimate goal of language learning is the ability to actually use the language in actual communication The strategy of practicing naturalistically in reading skills involves reading various authentic materials including newspapers, magazines, books in English either in print or online Students can also read menus, advertisements, brochures, catalogues, and pamphlets Sharing those materials with other students is also a beneficial way to get a larger variety for practice

Receiving and sending messages

Getting the idea quickly

The purpose of this strategy is to enable students read exactly what they need and take no notice of the rest or regard it as background information The two techniques which are used to get the ideas of a reading include skimming (“searching for the main ideas” (Oxford, 1990: 80)) and scanning (“searching for specific details of interest” (Oxford, 1990: 80)) The effectiveness of this strategy is further increased if it is used in combination with note-taking strategy However, the overuse of either skimming or scanning may hinder the reading comprehension in the sense that learners might focus too much on finding ideas or details without fully understanding the reading For example, such components as irony, or humor in poems or stories might be overlooked if readers use only this strategy in their reading process

Using resources for receiving and sending messages

English learners can use numerous resources including language learning ones like dictionaries, word lists, grammar and phrase books and other resources like encyclopedias, historical and cultural books to explore the meaning of what they read or to get background information to further understand their readings Those resources may be printed or non-print

Analyzing and reasoning strategies

Reasoning deductively

Applying already learnt general rules to obtain the meaning of what is read is one common logical thinking strategy One example of using this strategy is the case when English learners apply their knowledge on affixes to understand word meanings However, reasoning deductively can also lead to overgeneralization

Translating

Translating is helpful to language learners at the beginning stage The use of translating strategy in reading skills should be done with great care Though language learners can use their native language as a base in understanding readings in target language, translating

strategy slows down learners‟ reading speed Moreover, if students are accustomed to word-by-word translation, they may get wrong interpretation of their readings

Transferring

This strategy involves “directly applying previous knowledge to facilitate new knowledge

in the target language" (Oxford, 1990: 85) The previous knowledge can be that of learners‟ native language, that of target language which students have already learnt, or the knowledge from one aspect of target language to another aspect However, if the knowledge is not parallel, learners may transfer irrelevant knowledge, which may lead to inaccuracy

Creating structure for input and output strategies

Taking notes

Note-taking strategy is important in reading skills as it helps learners understand thoroughly the content as well as remember what is read Note taking can be done in learners‟ native language at the beginning stage of learning, in both native and target language or in only the target language for advanced levels Students can take notes in the form of raw notes, shopping list, T-formation or semantic maps

Summarizing

The strategy of summarizing involves the process of creating a “condensed, shorter version” (Oxford, 1990:88) of what is read This not only helps students understand better but also be able to structure their readings It can be done as simple as summarizing in learners‟ native language or as complicated as writing complete sentences or paragraphs in the target language

Highlighting

Learners can use various elements as color, underlining, capital letters, initial capitals, big writing, bold writing, stars, boxes or circles to highlight important information in their readings

The three strategies of creating structure for input and output should be used in combination to make the best use of them

I.2.1.3 Compensation strategies

Guessing intelligently

Systematic guessing helps language learners improve their reading comprehension without having to understand every single word

Using linguistic clues

Learners can use their linguistic knowledge of either their native or target language to guess the meaning of what they read The best linguistic clues that learners can rely on are affixes and word order

Using other clues

Apart from linguistic clues, language learners can use other clues from other sources, either related or unrelated to languages Those sources can be text structures, general background knowledge, graphs, pictures, tables or appendices They all help learners get some ideas of the meaning of what is read

I.2.2 Indirect learning strategies

I.2.2.1 Metacognitive strategies

Centering your learning strategies

Overviewing and linking with already known material

In this strategy, learners are supposed to overview what they are going to read (topics), and associate it with what they already know (background knowledge and vocabulary) Once the purpose of their reading is worked out and the associations are made, learners‟ reading

is better oriented for performance enhancement

Paying attention

Learners are advised to choose where to focus their attention at the beginning of their reading process They can either concentrate on the general ideas of the readings (which is called “directed attention” (Oxford, 1990: 138)) or the details (“selective attention”

(Oxford, 1990:138)) This will provide a focus for their reading, which is helpful in

improving their reading competence

Arranging and planning your learning

Finding out about language learning

Learners can improve their reading skills by knowing how it works in general through books and other language learners and apply this knowledge to their own situations

Organizing

Learners should make full use of their conditions to organize their reading schedule, physical environment (like reading space or lighting system) and other materials for learning reading

Setting goals and objectives

Setting long-term goals and short-term objectives are also suggested once students want to improve their reading performance in English

Identifying the purpose of a language task

When learners want to use the strategy of paying attention, they need to identify the purpose of their reading before hand, as this normally makes their reading process more meaningful and more oriented

Planning for a language task

Planning for a reading task which includes such four steps as describing the task, finding out its requirements, checking the language learners already know and anticipating what more is needed is necessary for a successful reading process

Seeking practice opportunities

Practice makes perfect, therefore, learners should either seek or create as many opportunities for reading practice as possible, especially reading authentic materials

Evaluating your learning strategies

Self-monitoring

This strategy is helpful to language learners in checking their reading performance It aims

at self-identifying errors learners make in their reading process, determining the errors which cause serious confusion The core of this strategy is for learners to find out themselves

how those errors are made and how they should be eliminated

Self-evaluating

If the previous strategy focuses on monitoring the reading performance by correcting errors, this strategy is good for learners to evaluate their overall progress themselves Learners can evaluate their reading competence in terms of their reading speed, their reading comprehension or their fulfillment of their reading tasks

self-I.2.2.2 Affective strategies

Lowering your anxiety

Anxiety is not always bad for language learners A certain amount of anxiety can help learners reach their potentials, however, too much anxiety in the form of worry, frustration, fear and so on blocks language learners from making progress Therefore, knowing how to control their anxiety in learning reading skills is necessary

Using progressive relaxation, deep breathing and meditation

Learners can overcome their anxiety during the reading process by “alternately tensing and relaxing all of the major muscle groups in the body” (Oxford, 1990:143), especially those

in the neck and face Furthermore, deep breathing and meditating by concentrating on a certain mental image or sound are also helpful in preventing their anxiety

Using music

Music has been used as a popular way to relax in mankind‟s history Learners are advised

to use music, especially soothing one like classical music in order to ease their mind and increase their concentrating competence before their reading process

Using laughter

Another popular way for mind relaxation is using laughter Learners can use funny movies, stories, books and so on to relax themselves, thus, reduce anxiety they may encounter during their reading process

Encouraging yourself

Making positive statements

Learners normally expect to get encouragement from other people; therefore, they may

forget that making positive statements to themselves can help them cope with ambiguity in language learning Consequently, learners are advised to say or write positive statements to gain more self-confidence, which is necessary in dealing with unclear factors they encounter during their reading process

Taking risks wisely

Risk-taking actions such as guessing meanings or inferring are necessary in reading comprehension Therefore, learners are supposed to push themselves to take reasonable risks in their reading process

Rewarding yourself

Rewards of different kinds can be used by learners to encourage themselves once they have made good performance in reading skills

Taking your emotional temperature

Listening to your body

Learners‟ emotions can influence their language learning as well as their reading performance Therefore, if learners are not aware of their own feelings and the reason why they have those feelings, they are unlikely to be able to control their affections Noticing all the signals given by their bodies is the first step in controlling their affective side in learning reading skills

Using a checklist

When learners want to take notice of their affections, it is advisable to use a checklist “to discover feelings, attitudes, and motivations” (Oxford, 1990:144) concerning reading skills,

in general, and specific reading tasks, in particular

Writing a language learning diary

Diary or journal can be used to self-monitor learners‟ events and feelings during the time they learn reading skills This helps them better understand themselves as well as their reading process

Discussing your feelings with someone else

Learners may discuss their feelings about learning reading skills with someone else to

know more about their affections as well as their reading process

I.2.2.3 Social strategies

Asking questions

Asking for clarification or verification

During the time learners read, they may encounter things they are not clear about Therefore, asking questions helps them get closer to the intended meanings as well as aids their reading comprehension In the reading process, learners can ask questions for clarification (when something is not understood), or verification (when learners need to check if something is correct) The questions can be posed to their teachers, their friends or others who are more proficient in English

Cooperating with others

Cooperating with peers

Cooperating in language learning is essential due to the social nature of language Learners can learn from their peers by cooperating in numerous reading tasks done in groups through the process of questioning and negotiating

Cooperating with proficient users of the new language

This strategy is slightly hard to apply in comparison with other strategies as proficient users of the new language are needed In the case of learners, teachers are the most easily accessible proficient users Learners can get advice on numerous aspects of their readings such as vocabulary, grammar, comprehension

Empathizing with others

Developing cultural understanding

Language and culture are closely connected Therefore, the background knowledge of the target language‟s culture can assist learners in understanding more thoroughly their readings Learners can pick up knowledge of English-speaking countries‟ culture through lectures in classes, discussions with native speakers, books, travel brochures, articles from newspapers, magazines and the Internet, programs on television, and their own travel to those countries