An investigation into English clause patterns - advances employable for the teaching of speaking skills to Vietnamese Seamen = Nghiên cứu các mô hình câu đơn tr

Review of previous works……… 14 CHAPTER 2: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH CLAUSE ELEMENTS.. Semantic features 21 CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED METHODS OF IMPROVING SEAMEN’S SPEAKING SKI

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY,HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

kỹ năng Nói cho thuyền viên Việt Nam )

M.A Minor Thesis Field: English Teaching Methodology

Code: 60 14 10 Supervisor: Assoc Prof Dr VÕ ĐẠI QUANG

Hanoi - 2010

Table of contents

Page Table of contents

Acknowledgment

Abbreviations

List of tables

PART A: INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale 1

2 Aims and objectives 2

3 Scope of the study 2

4 Methodology 2

5 Design of the study 3

6 Significance of the study 3

PART B : DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Theoretical background 4

1.1.1 Clause patterns 4

1.1.2 Clause elements 5

1.1.2.1 Subject 6

1.1.2.2 Object 7

1.1.2.2.1 Direct object 7

1.1.2.2.2 Indirect object 7

1.1.2.3 Verb and its Classification in English 8

1.1.2.4 Complement 8

1.1.2.4.1 A subject complement 8

1.1.2.4.2 An object complement 9

1.1.2.4.3 A verb complement 9

1.1.2.5 Adverbials 9

1.1.2.6 Vocatives 10

1.1.3 Simple sentences 10

1.1.3.1 Definition of simple sentences……… 10

1.1.3.2 Intransitive Verbs in Simple Sentences……… 12

1.1.3.3 Transitive Verbs in Simple sentences ……… 12

1.1.3.4 Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences……… 12

1.1.4 Sentences classified in accordance with purposes of communication……… 13

1.1.4.1 Statements 13

1.1.4.2 Questions 13

1.1.4.3 Commands 13

1.1.4.4 Exclamations 13

1.2 Review of previous works……… 14

CHAPTER 2: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF ENGLISH CLAUSE ELEMENTS. 16 2.1 Subject……… 16

2.1.1 Syntactic features……… 16

2.1.1.1 Realization……… 16

2.1.1.2 Position……… 16

2.1.1.3 Possible transformation……… 16

2.1.2 Semantic roles……… 16

2.2 Direct object……… 17

2.2.1 Syntactic features.……… 17

2.2.1.1 Realization……… 17

2.2.1.2 Position.……… 17

2.2.1.3 Possible transformation 18

2.2.2 Semantic roles 18

2.3 Indirect object……… 19

2.3.1 Syntactic features.……… 19

2.3.1.1 Realisation 19

2.3.1.2 Position 19

2.3.1.3 Possible transformation 20

2.3.2 Semantic roles……… 20

2.4 Complement……… 20

2.4.1 Syntactic features……… 20

2.4.1.1 Realization……… 20

2.4.1.2 Position……… 20

2.4.1.3 Typical features ……… 20

2.4.2 Semantic features……… 20

2.5 Adverbial……… 21

2.5.1 Syntactic features……… 21

2.5.1.1 Realization……… 21

2.5.1.2 Position……… 21

2.5.1.3 Typical features……… 21

2.5.2 Semantic features 21 CHAPTER 3: ADVANCED METHODS OF IMPROVING SEAMEN’S SPEAKING SKILLS TO IN VOSCO VIA ENGLISH CLAUSE PATTERNS 23 3.1 The Vosco Crewing Centre and its training requirement……… 23

3.1.1 Vosco Crewing Centre (VCC)……… 23

3.1.2 Training requirement……… 23

3.1.2.1 Seamen……… 24

3.1.2.1.1 Seamen’s background of English before entering VCC 24

3.1.2.1.2 Seamen’s attitudes towards learning English ………… 24

3.1.2.1.3 Current speaking activities done by Seamen in class… 26 3.1.2.2 Teachers ……… 27

3.1.2.2.1 The role of teachers in speaking activities……… 27

3.1.2.2.2 Teachers’ teaching experiences ……… 27

3.1.2.2.3 Teachers’ opinion on teaching speaking skills……… 29

3.1.2.3 Difficulties that lead to seamen’s mistakes……… 29

3.1.2.3.1 Psychological difficulties ……… 30

3.1.2.3.2 Cultural difficulties……… 31

3.1.2.3.3 Difficulties in linguistic competence……… 33

3.2 Common mistakes made by Vietnamese seamen in Vosco and possible solutions……… 33

3.2.1 SVC and SVA clauses types……… 34

3.2.2 SVOC clauses type……… 35

3.2.3 SV clauses type……… 36

3.2.4 SVO clauses type……… 38

3.2.5 SVOO clauses type……… 39

PART C: CONCLUSION 40 1 Recapitulation……… 40

2 Limitations of the study and suggestions for further research ……… 42

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS, FIGURES AND CHARTS

Page ABBREVIATIONS

Vosco: Vietnam Ocean Shipping Company

VCC: Vosco Crewing Centre

IMO: International Marine Organization

EFL : English functional language

FIGURES

Figure 1: Verbs classified according to the functions performed by the

elements in the verb phrase

7

Figure 2: Verbs classified in accordance with the types of complementation 7

Figure 3: Verbs classified according to the number of constituents 8

CHARTS

Chart 1 Seamen’s English experiences before entering Vosco ……… 23

Chart 2: The frequency of interaction with foreigners……… 24

Chart 3: Seamen’s attitude towards learning English ……… 24

Chart 4: Current speaking activities done by seamen in VOSCO……… 25

Chart 5: Teachers’ teaching experiences ……… 27

Chart 6: Psychological difficulties faced by seamen of VCC……… 29

Chart 7: The difficulties in linguistic competence ……… 30

The English language program at the VCC is aimed at enabling the Vietnamese seamen to use basic English successfully in their job However, these seamen, who often work in the international environment, find it is very difficult to communicate in other countries because of different culture and religion In such situations, English is a unique mean which can help them to express their ideas In order to meet the need of many international shipping agencies, they need to have good speaking skills for their work purposes These oral skills are quite basic, but they contain many different genres After years of conversation practice and experiences, many Vietnamese seamen are still unable

to engage in genuine conversations in target language Many of them satisfied themselves with “Yes / No answers” or use body language to express their ideas during the conversation In fact, if they had taken the initiative to say a bit more, they would have fulfilled their task better than they did

For all the reasons I have mentioned above, speaking English fluently and accurately is an urgent task for both English teachers and seamen in VCC How to teach and learn speaking skills in most effective methods is our big question Understanding students‟ need and goal help teachers to classify and lead students gain their purpose In the real state of some Vietnamese Ocean Shipping companies, at the moment, using English clause patterns to improve conversational skills is one of the most effective ways

to make seamen get progression in English And finding out the advanced methods employable for teaching speaking skills for Vietnamese Seamen is indispensable

2 Aims and objectives

My specific objectives are:

 To investigate the syntactic and semantic features of English clause patterns

 To suggest advanced methods of improving seamen‟s speaking skills via English clause patterns

3 Scope of the study

The study focuses on the advanced methods of improving seamen‟s speaking skills in Vietnam Ocean Shipping Joint- Stock Company via English clause patterns

- The informants were asked to give feed back to each question mostly by sticking and choice With the seamen‟s serious working attitude, the questionnaire was successfully done without any discussion or cribbing The survey was carried out in the classroom context to ensure the truthfulness of the feedback

- The fingers and charts were used to analyze the data

- Through the analysis and discussion of the finding, some possible applications would

be made towards the improvement speaking skills of the Seamen of VCC at Vosco

The research questions

The objectives of the research can be elaborated via the following research questions:

 What are the syntactic and semantic features of English clause patterns?

 What are the viable ways of improving seamen‟s speaking skills via English clause patterns?

5 Design of the study

The minor thesis is composed of three parts: Introduction, Development and Conclusion

Part one introduces the rationale, aims and objectives, the research questions, scope of the

study, methodology, and design of the study as well as the significance of the study

Part two contains four chapters:

- Chapter one reviews the literature related to the English Clause Patterns This

chapter includes: (1) Theoretical background; (2) Review of previous works

- Chapter two describes syntactic and semantic features of English clause elements

- Chapter three is an investigation into the current situation of teaching and learning

speaking at VCC It also shows the survey questionnaire administered to one hundred seamen The settings, the participants, the results and analysis of the findings are also mentioned in this chapter

- Chapter four shows some viable implications for teaching English clause patterns

to Vietnamese seamen in VCC In this chapter, the common mistakes made by Vietnamese seamen and possible solutions are mentioned

Part three includes the conclusions on the objectives, implications and suggestions for

further research

6 Significance of the study

This study plays a crucial role for enhancing teaching method of speaking to Vietnamese seamen at Vosco Its implemented recommendations will make the application of CLT at VCC successful and effective

PART B : DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER 1: LITERATURE REVIEW

The main aim in this chapter is to present some theories related to English clause patterns The first section overviews the theoretical background of English clause patterns, then comes clause elements Next step is the analysis of simple sentences vs complex sentences Then, the sentence types are mentioned The chapter ends with the review of previous works which related to clause patterns in English language

1.1 Theoretical background

1.1.1 Clause patterns

According to David Crystal (The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English

Language, p 221) there are only seven basic types of English clause patterns

(i) S-V-O (ii) S-V-C (iii) S-V-A (iv) S-V-O-O (v) S-V-O-C (vi) S-V-O-A (vii) S-V

S: Subject

V: Verb

Oi: Indirect Object

Od: Direct Object Co: Object Compliment Ca: Adverbial Compliment

Cs: Subject Compliment

Some Examples of the Seven Clause Patterns in English

SVOO My father will send my sister his money

SV Tom is eating

1.1.2 Clause elements

These are well worth learning about, as we will certainly want to use them to explain the syntax of language data, we are studying in exams or investigations If we are not able to describe or identify clause types, it is usually acceptable and always helpful to consider how these elements work together We may use them to explain how sentences work, also From our discussion of the phrase rank, we also know that we can categorize the constituents of that clause into the appropriate phrase type

Furthermore, we also know that each phrase can be subcategorized into its constituent parts.

The diagram above, however, looks at the constituents of the clause only from the perspective of the constituents' forms We should remember that those forms also serve functions, just as the forms at the phrase rank can also be described according to the functions they served within their phrases Essentially the clause can be divided into eight functional constituents, grouped into five categories:

Functional Categories Nine Clause Functions

(1) Subject [1] Subject

(3) Objects [3] Direct Object

be) depending on the number and person of its subject For instance, if a subject is singular

and is a third person, i e it is neither the speaker nor the listeners, one chooses the form

has of the verb have; otherwise one chooses have

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia, the subject is one of the two main constituents of a clause, according to a tradition that can be tracked back to Aristotle The other constituent is the predicate In English, subjects govern agreement on the verb or auxiliary verb that carries the main tense of the sentence, as exemplified by the difference

in verb forms between he eats and they eat

Form Cultural Dictionary, the subject is a part of every sentence The subject tells

what the sentence is about; it contains the main noun or noun phrase: “The car crashed into the railing”; “Judy and two of her friends were elected to the National Honor Society.”

In some cases the subject is implied: you is the implied subject in “Get me some orange

juice.” (Compare predicate.)

Form Computing Dictionary, in subject-oriented programming, a subject is a collection of classes or class fragments whose class hierarchy models its domain in its own, subjective way A subject may be a complete application in itself, or it may be an incomplete fragment that must be composed with other subjects to produce a complete

application Subject composition combines class hierarchies to produce new subjects that

incorporate functionality from existing subjects

1.1.2.2 Direct object

The object of a sentence is usually a noun phrase (which can be just a pronoun) It

is usually the element that is 'on the receiving end' of whatever action is being described

by the verb, and usually appears after the subject and verb in a sentence

We drank lots of beer last night

Anything which directly receives the action of the verb is a direct object (Od): 'lots

of beer' above is a direct object - It is the 'thing' that was drunk

1.1.2.3 Indirect object

My Mum gave my sister an apple

Anything that does not directly receive the action of the verb but is still somehow

'on the receiving end' is an indirect object (Oi) In the example, 'my sister' is an indirect

object, since she was not the thing that was given, but is, in a way, on the receiving end of

the action of giving

1.1.2.4 Verb and its classification in English

(1) Verbs classified according to the functions performed by the elements in the verb

Semi- auxiliaries

Need, dare, used to

Primary

Do, have, be

Modal: will, would, shall, should, may,

might, ought to, must, can, could

Send- sent Show(ed)- shown Leave- left Eat-ate- eaten Cut- cut - cut Find - found Begin-began- begun

(2) Verbs classified in accordance with the types of complementation

(3) Verbs classified according to the number of constituents

Verbs

One-word verbs

Eg: we learn English every day

Multi-word verbs

Phrase verbs: verb + particle

Eg: she turned on the radio

Prepositional verb: verb+ preposition

Eg: she looked at the radio

Phrase- prepositional verb:

verb+ particle + preposition

Eg : They put up with the noise

Verbs

Intensive (SVC/ SVA)

Extensive

Current: be, seem, remain, keep,…

Eg: she is clever

Resulting: become, turn, go, get…

Eg: Her face went red

Tom made me angry

1.1.2.5 Complement

Since this study is about the completers of thoughts, it is appropriate to include a brief description of complements A complement (notice the spelling of the word) is any word or phrase that completes the sense of a subject, an object, or a verb As you will see, the terminology describing predicates and complements can overlap and be a bit

confusing Students are probably wise to learn one set of terms, not both

1.1.2.5.1 A subject complement

A subject complement follows a linking verb; it is normally an adjective or a noun that renames or defines in some way the subject

Eg: She is a doctor That smells heavenly The students are feeling dazed and confused

Adjective complements are also called predicate adjectives; noun complements are also

called predicate nouns or predicate nominatives

1.1.2.5.2 An object complement

An object complement follows and modifies or refers to a direct object It can be a

noun or adjective or any word acting as a noun or adjective

The convention named „Dogbreath‟ to keep him happy

(The adjective "happy" complements the object "him.")

The clown got the children too excited

(The participle "excited" complements the object "children.")

1.1.2.5.3 A verb complement

A verb complement is a direct or indirect object of a verb

Granny left Tom all her money (Both "money" [the direct object] and "Tom" [the indirect

object] are said to be the verb complements of this sentence.)

1.1.2.6 Adverbials

A sentence can have one, or many, adverbial elements Adverbials can be used in several different positions within the sentence, and express a range of meanings (time, place, manner, degree - like adverbs) Adverbials can be adverb phrases, prepositional phrases or even nouns and noun phrases They can add information to a sentence, make a

link between two parts of a sentence, or add a comment about what is being expressed

 These clause elements add to or complete the meaning of the verb element They may be single adverbs But they also include nouns, noun or verb phrases

and subordinate clauses:

Eg: They ran quickly He went home twice nightly We walked on the playground

My friend phoned me this morning I was happy when I saw her again

 Adverbials may appear in several positions in the clause, but are most common

at the end:

Eg: Often I dream I often dream I dream often

 Adverbials may perform different functions:

- Adding information: I walked quietly

- Linking clauses: The bus was full However, Fred found a seat

- Adding a comment on what is expressed: Quite frankly we disapprove of

violence

 Some verbs ( like put) must have an adverbial to complete their meaning:

Please put the gun down The path runs around the field

1.1.2.7 Vocatives

These are optional elements used to show the person to whom a sentence is addressed They may occur in various positions in the clause They include names, titles, evaluative

labels, the pronoun you and certain kinds of clause:

o John, it's me

o It's me, darling

o Hello, Susan, how are you?

o You silly person, what do you mean?

o Honey, I shrank the kids

The function of words and phrases tells us what 'job' they are doing in any particular context There are five different functions words and phrases can fulfil - linguistically

speaking, we say they can appear as one of the five clause elements:

1.1.3 Simple sentences

1.1.3.1 Definition of simple sentences

Grammarians use clause to refer to both simple sentences and to subordinate clauses A simple sentence is called an independent clause Some of the definitions of clause used in

the Longman Grammar are quoted here: The term simple sentence can be confusing

because of definitions that many of us have learned that focused on the meaning or content

of a sentence Those misleading definitions said something like "a simple sentence has only 1 main idea." But that definition is just impossible to apply because it's impossible to

be sure what "one idea" is A simple sentence can be short and with uncomplicated ideas, but a simple sentence can be long and with complicated ideas

Examples of simple sentences with complex content: No aspect of life goes untouched by

social class ; Perhaps this decline has already begun; We have lost millions of manufacturing jobs to Mexico, South America, ad Asia

Thus, we need to use a definition like the one given in the Longman Grammar A simple

sentence is a unit that has only a single subject and a single predicate The subject can be

compound, but the simple sentence is a single unit as in the following examples

Examples of Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects Jack and Jill went up a hill

Sociology and anthropology are both social sciences

1.1.3.2 Intransitive Verbs in Simple Sentences

Intransitive verbs cannot have objects or complements They are complete with just

a subject and a verb Adverbials can be added but are not required for the SV to be syntactically completed

It's raining It's raining "cats and dogs." The wind is blowing The wind is blowing hard Drugs kill Change happens

1.1.3.3 Transitive Verbs in Simple sentences

Transitive Verbs must have objects Maybe it is more accurate to say that a

transitive verb must have an object, because some transitive verbs need two objects or an object and an adverbial Be careful about these sub-types The idea is that the verb must have the additional units That requirement is especially tricky with the SVOA type The adverbial is required not optional for this category Now, SVOA is a very small category with only 1 or 2 verbs in it Few verbs require that we specify adverbial information

Notice that put does require that we say where We can't say just: Her mother put the

book We have to add the location Focus on these examples: S+V+Od: Maria bought a book

S+V+Oi+Od: Maria gave her mother a book

S+V+O+A: Her mother put the book on the shelf

1.1.3.4 Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences

I've taught so many ESL students over the years and sometimes-less-than-mature

graduated students, too, that I've just learned not to try to talk about copular verbs It's just not worth the giggles That's probably why classroom teachers still use the term linking

verbs Moreover, linking does have the right meaning for this category The verb links

descriptive information back to the subject Here's the list of common linking verbs from

Applied English Grammar:

Linking Verbs

be She is a teacher She is happy

appear She appears tired

become She became a teacher She became ill

feel I feel tired

grow He grew sleepy

look They look pleased

prove The plan proved a disaster The plan proved tiring

remain They remain tired

smell The soup smells great

sound The students sound happy

taste The coffee tasted bitter

Linking verbs can connect adjectives or noun phrases to give more information about the

subject of the sentence To distinguish this purpose and structure from that of the object in the SVO types, some linguists and grammarians use the term complement for the third element in a sentence with a linking verb Others use the term subject predicative

Two types of sentences with linking verbs are given in the Longman Student Grammar: S+V+SP has an adjective or a noun as the subject predicative Notice that most linking verbs can take only adjectives for their complements but that be can have either an

adjective or a noun phrase The second type is the S+V+A where the A is required and is often a prepositional phrase used for location or time Linking Verbs in Simple Sentences

S+V+SP: The soup tasted salty The cook is not a very good cook

S+V+A: The soup is on the table The cook is in the kitchen

1.1.4 Sentences classified in accordance with purposes of communication

Simple sentences may be divided into four major syntactic classes, whose use correlates

with different communicative functions:

1.1.4.1 Statements: Statements are sentences in which the subject I always present and generally precedes the verb:

John will speak to the boss today

On exceptional statement not containing a subject

(I am) Sorry I couldn‟t be there

(It‟s) Good to see you

1.1.4.2 Questions: Questions can be divided into three major classes according to the type

of answer they expect:

(1) those that expect only information or rejection (as in Do you have breakfast?) are

YES-NO questions;

(2) those that expect a reply supplying an item of information (as in what is your name? How old are you?) are WH- questions;

(3) those that expect as the reply one of two or more options presented in the question are

ALTERNATIVE questions; for example: Would you like to go for a walk or stay at home?

1.1.4.3 Commands: Commands are sentences which normally have no overt grammatical subject, and whose verb is in the imperative

(1) Commands with a subject: is the type of command in which the subject you is retained:

You be quiet! or You mind your own business, and leave this to me!

(2) Commands without a subject: the imperative verb, however, is severely restricted as to tense, aspect, voice, and modality There is no tense distinction or perfect aspect:

Sit down, please! or Come in!

(3) Commands with Let: first person imperatives can be formed by proposing the verb let,

followed by a subject in the objective case:

Let us all work hard (more usually: Let‟s…)

Let me have a look

(4) Negative commands: to negate 2nd and 3rd person imperatives, one simply adds an

initial Don‟t, replacing assertive by non- assertive forms where necessary

Open some windows Don‟t open any windows

(5) Persuasive commands: A persuasive or insistent imperative is created by the addition

of do (with a nuclear tone) before the main verb:

Do let‟s go to the theatre

1.1.4.4 Exclamations: Exclamations are sentences which have an initial phrase

introduced by what or how, without inversion of subject and operator:

What the noise they are making!

1.2 Review of previous works

Over the past several decades, whether or not grammar should be taught explicitly has been a controversial issue Extensive grammar research has shown that grammar should be neglected in teaching English ever since communication methodology appeared

in the last 1970s It was claimed that language should be acquired through natural exposure, not through former instruction (Krashen, as a cited in Nassaji & Potos) However, recent research studies have demonstrated that grammar instructions enable learners to attain high level of proficiency, both in accuracy and fluency It was claimed that the teacher should provide learners with authentic discourse samples to illustrate all the contextually dependent grammar rules (Ellis & Cele Murcia, 2002) Florez (1999) in

an article emphasized speaking skills using grammar accurately

Speaking and listening is the most used language skills both in and outside the classroom Speaking is an interaction process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information (Florenz, 1999; Brown, 1994)

Kumaravadivelu (1999) demonstrated that discourse relates to the relationship between language structure and the immediate social context in which it is used The social context helps classroom discourse look at the class room activity as a social event and the classroom as a “minisociety” with its own rule

Pennington (2002) suggested “action grammar” in which grammars of language should meet the real use: “it must be interactive in nature and relative to specific discourse communicative and their communicative practices”

Celce-Murcia illustrated grammatical sentences that combine the formal and functional perspectives to show how the sentences relate to form and meaning that relate communicative purpose Fotos (in Larsen-Freemen, 2002) argued that structure- based tasks designed to promote awareness of target grammar forms and useful pedagogy for providing communicative grammar instruction She also claimed that recent empirical evidence has shown that explicit instruction not only activates the previous knowledge of the target structures and but also draws their attention to the forms

However, none of these studies provides any descriptive methods based on data that demonstrates actual application to the EFL classroom where communicative input is extremely limited and where grammar-based syllabi are the norm In addition to the limited communication input, EFL learners do not have the real-world needs for communicative functions in the target language as much as EFL learners do Another limitation that previous research has not covered is that many non-active English speaking teachers who teach EFL have a lack of communicative proficiency to teach grammar at the discourse level

The present work will report on the reforms of English Grammar Teaching for communicative purposes, and present an applicable curriculum for communicative grammar in EFL classroom setting, which challenges and changes the role of EFL teachers

CHAPTER 2: SYNTACTIC AND SEMANTIC FEATURES OF

ENGLISH CLAUSE ELEMENTS

The main aim in this chapter is to present the semantic and syntactic features related to English Clause Elements In this study, each element of English clause will be overviewed thoroughly with many simple examples as a persuasive illustration The first section represents the semantic and syntactic features of the Subject, and then comes the Verb, Object, Complement and Adverbial which are very important in English sentences

2.1 Subject

The subject has the grammatical function in a sentence of relating its constituent (a noun phrase) by means of the verb to any other elements present in the sentence, i.e objects, complements and adverbials The subject is a phrasal constituent, and should be

distinguished from parts of speech, which, roughly, classify words within constituent 2.1.1 Syntactic features

2.1.1.1 Realization: A subject can be realized as a noun phrase (basic and complex

sentences), expletive, a cataphora It, a finite clause, a nonfinite clause

(i) A noun / noun phrase: in the basic and complex sentences and can be realized by the following forms:

 A determinerless noun phrase (also called a bare noun phrase): In English, this is mostly limited to plural noun phrases and noun phrases headed by a mass noun Builders are at work

 A noun phrase introduced by a determiner: This complex (determiner + noun

phrase) is usually called a determiner phrase:

The large car stopped outside our house

(ii) An expletive: These are words like it or there when they don't refer to any thing or place For example in the following sentence "it" doesn't refer to anything It rains (iii) A cataphora It : This is the use of it when it is co-referent with a subordinate clause that

comes after it

It was known by everyone (that) he had traveled the world

(iv) A finite clause:

 A finite clause which introduced by that, itself containing a subject and a predicate

That he had traveled the world was known by everyone

 A direct quotation: I love you is often heard these days

(v) A nonfinite clause:

Eating is a pleasure (Gerund)

His constant hammering was very annoying (Determinerless phrase)

To read is easier than to write (Infinitive)

Whom to hire is a difficult question (Embedded clause)

The subject can also be implied In the following command, the subject is the

implied "you" that is the recipient of the imperative mood Take out the trash!

2.1.1.2 Position

 Occurs before the verb phrase in declarative clauses:

The children go to school every morning

Tom‟s father often drinks beer with friends after job

 Immediately after the operator in questions:

Where did he go?

But : Subject is a Q-element: who opened the letter?

2.1.1.3 Possible transformation: passivization with Subject becoming “ by-phrase ”

Mary beat Tom hard → Tom was beaten hard by Mary

The teacher gave the students a lot of books → The students were given a lot of books by the teacher

2.1.2 Semantic roles: Agentive subject, Recipient subject, Locative, Temporal, Eventive,

Instrumental and Empty it subject

(i) Agentive subject: The most typical semantic role of the Subject is agentive; that is, the

animate being instigating or causing the happening denoted by verb:

John opened the letter; Tom put the book on the table

(ii) Recipient subject: the subject may also have a recipient role with verbs such as have,

own, possess, benefit (from), as is indicated by the following relation:

Mr Bean has bought / given / sold his son a book → so now his son has / possesses / owns the book

 The perceptual verbs see , hear , taste , smell and feel also require a recipient

subject , in contrast to look at and listen to, which are agentive

 Verbs indicating a mental state may also require a recipient subject:

I liked the play ( the play give me pleasure )

(iii) Locative, temporal and eventive subjects

 The subject may have the function of designating place or time:

Sunday is a day-off (temporal); Hanoi is the capital of Vietnam (Place)

 Temporal subjects can usually be replaced by the empty it, the temporal expression becoming adjunct:

Tomorrow is my birthday (= it is my birthday tomorrow)

 Eventive subjects ( with abstract noun heads designating arrangements and activities ) differ from others in permitting intensive complementation with a time adverbial:

The meeting is usually on Monday morning; The concert is on Thursday

(iv) Instrumental subject: A part from its agentive function, the subject frequently has an

instrumental role; that is, it expresses the unwitting ( generally inanimate ) material cause

of an event:

The storm completely destroyed the city

With intransitive verbs, the subject also frequently has the affected role that elsewhere typical of the subject:

The pencil was on the table

 A noun phrase in basic and complex sentences:

Mary beat Tom; The big man hit the small boy

 A finite and non-finite clause

I think that she is right; She wants to go home now

2.2.1.2 Position:

 After Verbs in SVO

Tom ate a cake this morning; Mary opened the door

 After O in SVOO

I gave Mary a book; The policeman gave him a fine of $ 200

2.2.1.3 Possible transformation: by the passive transformation, assumes the status of

I have a nice house; He lacks confidence

2.2.2 Semantic roles: Affected participant, Locative direct object, and Effected direct

object

(i) Affected participant: The most typical function of the direct object is that of the

affected participant who does not cause the happening denoted by the verb, but is directly involved in some other way:

Many people criticized the Prime Minister

Bean is eating a cake

(ii) Locative direct object: A part from the affected object, semantic type of direct object

is the locative object:

The horse jumped the fence

There are similar uses of such verbs as turn, leave, reach, surround, penetrate , mount,

cross , climb…

(iii) Effected direct object: An effected direct object in one that refers to something which

exists only by virtue of the activity indicated by the verb

Mary wrote two letters; Baird invented television

2.3 Indirect object

2.3.1 Syntactic features:

2.3.1.1 Realization

 A noun phrase in basic and complex sentences:

I gave Mary a book (noun); Tom gave the old man an orange (noun phrase)

 A finite clause:

I gave whoever came to my party a bunch of flowers

The rich man gave whoever stood in the bus station a note of $10

2.3.1.2 Position: A direct object, where both objects are presented, precedes the direct

object (except in rare instances like BrE Give it me), it is semantically equivalent to a

prepositional phrase