Phân tích tu từ trong trích giảng văn học Anh Mỹ stylistic analysis of British and American literary texts

Here the teacher is oi great importance in helping students to reorganize the effect of stylistic devices SDs and expressive means EMs used.. A linguistic method of stylistic analysis i

DAI HOC QUOC GIA HA NOI YRUrONG DAI HOC KIIOA HOC XA HOI VA NIIAN VAN

PIIANTICTTTIITII LRONG TRICII (.lANG VAN HOC ANII MY ( STYLISTIC ANALYSIS OF BRITISH AND AMERICAN LITERARY TEXTS)

Ma so : QG 95 - 37

Cliii tri de lai : TS \A The Que

IIA NOI - 2000

1.2 What Forms of Literature to Teach? ^

1.2.1 The Study of Poetry

1.2.2 The Study of Prose Fiction

1.2.3 The Study of Drama

IL WHAT ARE NEEDED IN THE STYUSTIf: ANALYSIS OF LITERARY TEXTS? g

2.1 Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices ?

2.3 Syntactical Expressive Means and StyUstic Devices ^^

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INTRODUCTION

British and American literature is an indispensable subject for Vietnamese students of English

The study of literature helps to enrich the student's mind as well as

to develop his language skills To understand a literary text, the student should know, among other things, how the language is used

The puipose of stylistic analysis is to help the student to observe the

interaction of foiTn and matter, to see how through the infinite variety oi

stylistic devices and their multifarious functions the massage of the author

is brought home to the reader A linguistic method of stylistic analysis

involves carelul oKsei'vation and detailed and consistent description oi

language phenomena in the text

The examination of the text in detail may well lead to the need to investigate all related features, lexical, grammatical and phonetic

^CThe paper falls into three parts The first part deals with the teaching

oi literature in general and then with the teaching of literature texts The

second part focus on the main expressive ineans and stylistic devices that

are needed for stylistic analysis The third pa^rt includes a number (A

passages with stylistic analysis which sei'ves as pattern analysis ^

L THE TEACHING OF LITERATURE

1.1 Literature as Language

The study of literature in general and the study of British and

American literature in particular is fundamentally a study oi language in

operation The study of literature must always be based on the realization

that each work is essentially the collection oi words that are peiTnanently

available for the student to inspect, to investigate, to analyze, to build together The experiencing of a work of literature, no matter how big or

small, can only begin, and continue, with the reading and the study oi a

verbal text Nowadays many of us do so much reading that we are inclined

lo take it for granted, but the process of reading is a highly inlricalc business However, as with other activities in which we acquire skill after much practice, we eventually learn to carry it out effectively wilh considerable speed Nevertheless there are often occasions when the symbols of language require more careful inleipretation than the inexperienced reader may himself realize, and the most successful teacher oi" literature will be one who apart from his insight into his students' minds and interests, is fully conversant with all the ways in which language works, and can see exactly how it works in any particular case

The teacher of literature (equally with the teacher of language) will

he aware how language can be used for different puipose lo give infonnation lo express feeling, to persuade, to recognize, to conduct thinking He will be able to distinguish between language used to refer to actual things, situation or relationships and language which is used to create imaginary or hypothetical t)nes He will be familiar wilh the sub-languages

ni dialect and register that are available for specilic purposes within the

lolalily of the language he is working in He will be ready to recognize the different methods by which a language operates, whether by statement h\

elaboration, by rhythmic effect, by comparison, by allusion, or b\ indirect

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means such as understatement and irony: and he will be aware of the special effects that can be gained by changing from on method to another whether explicitly or unexpectedly Most important or all perhaps, he will

be aware that words actually used do not always represent the whole of the ideas that are being brought into consideration: the analogy of the iceberg is very useful here to compare the small part which is visible with the great quantity which is unseen

We may begin by repeating the following statement by H.L.B Moody(1971) that there is a close relationship between Literature and Language Language skills are four types: (i) listening (ii) speaking (iii) reading (iv) writing The inclusion of literature in the cuiriculum helps to train students in the skill of reading, and perhaps a little in listening, speaking and writing A student listens to literature read aloud by the teacher(or on records or tapes) and to the discussion that literature always stimulates in the class He speaks when he acts in plays, when he reads poems and when he takes an active part in discussion Because literature is interesting, he wants to talk about it It can provide plenty of interesting opportunities for writing too

Literature does not of course concentrate on a particular area oi knowledge, as for example does history or biology Literature is conceiTied wilh all aspects of man and the universe in their entirety Certainly every work of literature is about something, often about many things, and the more a person reads, the better stocked will his mind be wilh knowledge

Knowledge, of course, is a complex conception: we can analyze it and the way it is acquired from literature, in a number of ways Tliere are for example, the fact that are actually encountered and explained in the work of literature: there are also the facts thai we are impelled lo discover front other sources in order lo understand particular situations or problems that occur in literature Sooner or later, students come to the realization that

separate " f a d s " in themselves are less important than the \ \ a \ s \n which

they support and illustrate each other Most important ol all is the

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realization that the fact worth knowing are not only facts about "things"

but the fact ab<^ut life

A special kind of knowledge which every society must foster is that concerning its own culture The word "culture'' is used lavishly nowadays with many different meanings and implications Here we use it to signify what is peculiarly characteristic of a particular community, including its organization, institutions, laws, customs, work play art religion and so on Some of this knowledge is transmitted in the family, and some in various parts of the school curriculum Literature, however, can often fill in any gaps and weld the whole into a meaningful picture

Although there are various forms of literature, important aspects are

lo all foiTns A standard method of procedure could be adopted by any teacher of literature and a suggested method is put forward to include the following stages:

(1) Preliminary assessment: (2) Practical decision: (3) Introduction i)i

the work: (4) Presentation of the work: (5) Discussion: and (6)Reinforcement(testing)

It is essential, however, that no lesson should seem to fall into a set mechanical routine, the teacher will be helped because literature in its subject - matter and its expression is extremely varied

1.2 What Forms of Literature to Teach?

1.2.1 The Study of Poetry

We deal first with the study of poetry because this raises some of the most typical problems in the teaching of literature Poetry has been given a place of honour in every culture Yet the leaching of poetry presents special dilTicullies and many teachers are inclined lo avoid it as long as they can

We must bricHy consider the reasons for this

Tliere seem to be two kinds of obstacles lo the enjoyment of poetry The first is the thought that it is "useless" Hie second consists nol so much prejudice as of memories of "unfortunate experience"

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Archaic spelling, familiar words used in unexpected contexts, obscure references, unfamiliar comparisons, nonsensical statements, chaotic sentences are just a few of the features which are liable to make cooperation difficult Also the field of poetry seems to be extraordinarily complex , for there are lyrical poems, epic, naiTative and satirical poems, and such technical expressions as metaphysical poetry, impressionistic poetry, symbolism, imagery, hyperbole, metre, and perhaps many other things besides

How is the teacher of literature to steer his students safely through all these difficulties ? TTie essential educational principle here is that work rnust be related to students' capacity at any stage The teacher should make his own decisions in relation lo his students' capacities Perhaps the most important thing of all in teaching poetry is lo preserve a nonnal atmosphere

in the classroom Tlic kind of poetry we want to use is made of language Jiisl like anything else we read: and it confonns to the same principles,

building up its "message" wilh the help oi individual words and syntax or

grammar

Language study thus becomes extraordinarily important for the

study oi poetry The importance of linguistic study is nol of course

confined lo the understanding of single words or phrases But linguistic study becomes literary only when it serves the sludy of literature, when it

aims at investigating the aesthetic effects oi language, in short, when it

becomes stylislics

1.2,2, The Study of Prose Fiction

From the more general educational point of xicw it must he recognized that the novel is a literary fonn which has engaged the alteulion

oi a large number oi notable writers Novels and short slolies tend to h a \ e

lairlx' complex structures involving selling, characters, narralixc narratixe technique, language and themes

As for language, there is usually a great deal to be gathered from a careful appreciation of the resources of language, the sub - lamiilies dialects, registers and personal "idiolects" which may be employed in the course of a single novel or a short story The most straightforward type ol novel maintains a uniform style throughout coiTesponding to the pessonality of the particular naiTator or novelist This method allows lor many subtleties of description and definition In other cases, however, authors will modify the language they employ, whether in direct speech or narrative, to retlect the thoughts and feelings of particular characters at

particular moments Here the teacher is oi great importance in helping

students to reorganize the effect of stylistic devices (SDs) and expressive means (EMs) used

1,2.3, The Study of Drama

In the sludy oi a dramatic work, the same things ( aclting characters,

narrative, technique, language, theme) may still require our attention But

over and above these, we are concerned with the stylistic examination oi

the text

II WHAT ARE NEEDED IN THE STYLISTK ANALYSIS OF LITERARY lEX IS?

Literature is related lo all aspects of language All language phenoiTiena occuring in the text fonn a complex, present the whole A linguistic method of stylistic analysis involxes careful observation and detailed and consistent description of language phenomena in the text, ll is necessary lo emphasize that a rigorous analysis of expressive means (EMs) and stylistic dexiccs (SDs) cleariy seen at first glance is likely lo uncover oilier previt>usly unobserved, significant features

Tlic examination oi the text in detail may well lead lo the need to

investigale all related lealures lexical, grammatical and phonetic So while analvzing the lexl we must take into account the interrelation ofmanx parts

w Inch make up the whole

2.1 Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

The sound of a word or the way words sound in combination contribute something to the general effect of the massage, particularly when the sound effect has clearly been deliberately worked out

2.1.1 Onomatopoeia

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech - sounds which aiins at initiating sounds produced in nature(wind sea thunder, etc), by

lhings(machines or tools, etc), by people(sighing, laughter, patter oi feel

etc) and by animals

Tlierc are two types of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect

Direct onomatopoeia is contained in works thai imitate natural

sounds, as cliiii^-cJoiii* buzz, hcm^ cuckoo mc\\\ pii^-poni^, roar and the

like

Indirect onomatopoeia is a combination oi sounds which aims at makinu the sound of utterance an echo oi its sense

For example:

"And the silken, sad uncertain rustling of each"

Tlie repetition of the sound j s | (E.A.Poe) in the line actually produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain

2.7.2 Alliteration

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at imparling a

m elodic effect lo the utterance

The essence ol ihis device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, parlicularlv al the bciiinnini: of succcssixc words:

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Identity and similarity of sound combination may be relatix^e

There are full rhyme and incomplete rhymes

The full rhyme occurs when differing consonant sounds are followed

by identical stressed vowel-sounds, and the following sounds, if any are identical:

ioc - ioc: meci - ilcei: b//ffer - iY>//gher

Tlie incomplete rhyme occurs when only the final consonant -sounds

ol the rhyming words are identical: the stressed vowel-sounds as well as the initial consonant-sounds, if any, differ:

sou/ - oil: m'u'lh - for///

2.1.4, Rhythm

Rhythm exists in all spheres of human activity and assumes mullifarious fonns It is a mighty weapon in stirring up emotions whatever Its nature or origin, whether it is musical, mechanical, or symmetrical as in aichileclure

Cienerally rhythm may be defined as follow s:

"[•ihythm is a How movement, procedure, etc characterized b\

basically regular recurrence oi elements of lealures as beat or accent, in

alternation with opposite or different elements or features"

(Webster's New World Dictionarx)

d

Rhythm reveals itself most conspicuously in music, dance and verse

2.2 Lexical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

2.2.1 Metaphor

A metaphor is a relation between the dictionary and contextual logical meanings based on the affinity or similarity of certain properties or lealures of the two con'esponding concepts

Metaphor can be embodied in all the meaningful parts of speech: in nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs and sometimes even in the auxiliary parts

of speech, as in prepositions

• Nouns: His eldest son is the star of the family

• Adjectives: The hwnan tide is rolling westward

(Charles Dickens Dombey and Son)

• Verbs: He s^am bravely against the stream of popular applause

2.2.2 Metonymy

Metonymy is based on the proximity of the two concepts which these meanings represent

TIius the word crown may stand for "King or Q u e e n ' \

hollle for "the liquor it contains":

e.g

Tlie C^rown would not approve it

He is too fond of the bottle

2.2.3 Irony

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization

of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but the two meanini^s sland in opposition lo each other

e.g It must be deli^^htfiil to find oneself in a foreign country without

a penny in one's pocket

The word delightful acquires a meaning quite the opposite lo its

primary dictionary meaning, that is "unpleasant", "not delightfur\

2.2.4 Pun

The pun is another stylistic device based on the interaclion of two well-known meanings of a word or phrase

e.g " Bow to the hoard " said Bumble

Oliver brushed away two or three tears that were lingering in his

eyes: and seeing no hoard but the table, fortunately bowed lo that !

(Charles Dickens Oliver Twist)

2.2.5 Epithet

Tlic epithet is a stylistic device based on the interplay of emotive and lt>gical meaning in an attributive word, phrase or even sentence, used to characlcrize an object and pointing out to the reader, and IVcquenllv

imposing on him some oi the properties or features of the object wilh the aim of giving an individual perception and evaluation i)i these features or

properties:

e.g "Such was background of the wonderful, cruel, euchanling

hewildcriug, fatal, great city'\

this purpose are as, as - so, like

e.g En-ors, like straws, upon the surface How:

He that would search for pearis must dive below

(.lohn Dryden)

2.2.7 Periphrasis

Periphrasis is the re-naming of an object by a phrase that brings out some particular feature of the object The essence of the device is that it is decipherable only in context If a periphrastic locution is understandable outside the context, it is not a stylistic device but merely a synonymous expression

e.g "And Harold stands upon the place of skulls,

I lie grave of France, the deadly Waterloo"

(Ci.G Byron)

2.2.8 Euphemism

Euphemism is a word or phrase used lo replace an unpleasant w^ord

or expression by a conventionally more acceptable one

Tlic following euphemisms are used lo replace "lo die":

to pass away, to expire, lo be no more, to depart, to join the majorily and the more facetious ones:

to kick the bucket, to gixe up the ghost, to go west

e.g " Tliey think we have come by this horse in some dishouesi

intensifying one of the features of the object in question lo such a degree as will show its utter absurdity

e.g Rosemary Fell was not exactly beautiful No you couldn't have

called her beautiful her beautiful Pretty? Well, if you took her to pieces

(Katherine Mansfield)

2.2.10 Proverbs and Sayings

Proverbs and sayings have certain purely linguistic features which iTiusl always be taken into account in order lo distinguish them from ordinary sentences Proverbs are brief statements showing in condensed form the accumulated life experience of the community and serving as conventional practical symbols for abstract ideas They have metre, rhyme and alliteration:

e.g

To cut one's coat according to one's cloth

The proof of the pudding is in the eating

Early lo bed and early lo rise

Makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise

2.2.11 Quotations

A quotation is a repetition of a phrase or statement from a book, speech and the like used by way of authority illustration, proof or as a basis lor further speculation on the matter in hand

e.g Tlie Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen al the time

ol the French Revolution, in 1791 also slates: "All inen are born lice and

w ilh equal rights, and must always remain free and h a \ e equal lights."

(Ho Chi Minh)

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2.2.12 Allusions

An allusion is an indirect reference, by word or phrase, to a historical, literary, mythological, biblical fact or to a fact of everyday lile made in the course of speaking and writing

e.g In this house of his there was writing on every wall

(John Galsworthy)

It is an allusion to the Biblical story of a warning written in letters oi

lire on the wall of the palace of the last Babylonian King Balthazar (6''' century BC)

2.3 Syntactical Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices

2.3.1 Stylistic Inversion

Stylistic inversion in Modem English should not be regarded as a violation of the noiTns of Standard English It is on of the fonns of what arc known as emphaUc constitutions

The following patterns of stylistic inversion are most frequently met both in English prose and English poetry

i Tlie object is placed at the beginning oi the sentence

e.g Talent Mr Micawber has: capital Mr Micawber has

not

(Charles Dickens)

ii Tlie allribute is placed after the word it modifies

e.g With fingers weary and worn

(Thomas Hood) iii Tlie predicate is placed before the subjecl

e.g A good generous prayer it was

(Mark Twain)

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iv The adverbial modifier is placed at the beginnmg of the

sentence

e.g Eagerly I wished the morrow (E A Poe)

V Both modifier and predicate stand before the subject:

e.g In went Mr Pickwick

(Charles Dickens)

2.3.2 Detached Constructions

In the English language detached constructions are generally used in the belles - lettres prose style and mainly with words that have some explanatory functions

The detached part, being torn away from its referent, assumes a greater degree of significance and is given prominence by intonation

e.g Sir Pitt came in first, very much flushed, and rather unsteady

in his gait (W.M Thackeray)

2.3.3 Parallel Construction

Parallel constructions is a device involving identical, or similar syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence

e.g The seeds ye sow - another reaps

The robes ye weave - another wears

The anns ye forge - another bears

(P.B.Shelley)

2.3.4 Repetition

Tlie stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an

emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the kev-word oi the

ulteranee

1 ^

Repetition may be:

i Anaphora or the repetition of a word(or phrase) at the beginning of two or more consecudve sentence, clauses or phrases:

e.g For that was it ! Ignorant of the long and stealthy march

of passion, and of the state to which it has reduced Fleur: ignorant of how Soames had watched her; ignorant of Fleur's reckless desperation - ignorant of all this, everybody felt aggrieved

(John Galsworthy)

i Epiphora or the repetition of a word (or phrase) al the

end of consecutive sentence, clauses or phrases:

e.g I am exactly the man to be placed in a superior position

in such a case as that I am above the rest of mankind, /// such

a case as that I can act with philosophy /// such a case a.s ihai

(Charles Dickens)

2.3.5 Enumeration

Enumeration is a stylistic device by means of which homogeneous

parts oi an utterance are made heterogeneous from the semantic point oi

\ iew

e.g and as she had no sort of character, nor talents, nor

opinions, nor occupations, tun' amusements, nor that vigor of stnil and ferocity of temper which often falls lo the lot of entirely foolish woman, her

hold upon Sir Pitt's affections was not very great

(W.M.Tliackeray)

2.3.6 Suspense

Suspense is a compositional device which consists in arranging the

matter iA a communication in such a wax that the less important

descriptive, subordinate parts are amassed at the beginning, the main idea being withheld till the end and his interest is kept up

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e.g Mankind, says a Chinese manuscript, which my friend M was

obliging enough to read and explain to me for the first seventy thousand

ages ate their meat raw

2.3.7 Climax

Climax is an arrangement of sentences (or of the homogeneous parts

of one sentence) which secures a gradual increase in significance,

importance, or emotional tension in the utterance:

e.g It was a lovely city, a beautiful city, a fair city, a veritable gem

of a city

(G G Byron)

A gradual increase in significance may be maintained in three ways: logical, emotional and quantitative Emotional climax is achieved by such words wilh emotive meaning as "lovely", "beautiful", "fair" in the above example

Quantitative climax may be found in

They looked at hundreds of houses: they climbed tlunisands of stairs: they inspected innumerable kitchens

(Somerset Maugham)

2.3.8 Antithesis

Antithesis is a stylistic opposition based on relative opposition which

arises out oi the context through the expansion of the objectixvly

contrasting pairs:

e.g ^'outh is lovely, age is lonely

Youth is fiery, age is frosty

(H.W Lonulcllow)

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2.3.9 Ellipsis

As a stylistic device, ellipsis always imitates the common features ol

colloquial language, where the situation predetemaines nol the omission ol

certain members of the sentence, but their absence

e.g 'There's somebody wants to speak to you "

( E Hemingway)

2.3.10 Rhetorical Questions

The rhetorical question is a special syntactical stylistic device

consisting in reshaping the grammatical meaning oi the interrogative

sentence In other words, the question is no longer a question but a statement expressed in the fonn of an interrogative sentence

e.g Men oi England, wherefore plough

For the lords who lay ye low 7

(P.B Shellev

2.3.IL Litotes

Litotes is a stylistic device consisting of a peculiar use of negative constructions TTie negation plus noun or adjective serves to establish a positive feature in a person or thing This positive feature, however, is somewhat diminished in quality as compared with a synonymous expression making a straightforward assertion of ihe positive feature

e.g He is not a bad student - He is good student

He is no coward - He is a brave man

"not bad" is nol equal lo "good" (although and "no coward" is not ecpial lo " a brave man")

Tliese constructions are svnonvmous

111 PAM ERN STYLISTIC ANALYSIS

3.1 Poetry

PHRCY BYSSIliZ SMLLLUY

, TO THE MEN OP ENCILANO

1 Men of FTigJaiifl, wherefore plom^li

t^or the lords who lay ye low?

Wherefore weave wilh loll and cnic,

The ricli robes your lytniils xvpai?

2, VVIieiefoie feed, and clollie, ninl save,

f'foin (he rirndle lo the grnve,

Those niiRrnlefttl dioiies who would

Drain yotir sw^eat—nny, drink your bloodi

.1 Wliriefoie, l^ees of Englntid, forgo

Many n \ven|)oii chain and sroinge,

That Ihe.'ie: slin^les.s drones tnny spoil

Tlie foicell i piodiiee of yonr toil?

I Have ye leisure, conifoil, calm,

Shelter, food, love's geiille bnlin?

{)\ what is it ye buy so tlear

With your pain and with your fenr?

f) The seed ye sow, niiother reaps;

The wealth ye find, another Iceeps;

1 he rohns yo wonvn, nnolhor wen is;

the aims ye foige, another bears

f) Sow srfMl—but let no lyrnitt reap;

Fiiul wenllli -let no impostor hnn[);

Wenve t()hes,-lel no idler wear;

I'oige nifiis,—in yonr defence lo bear

t Sill ink lo your cellars, holes, and cells;

In linlLs ye dfM h ai tot her f I we lis

Wh y shake? Iho chniiis ye wioiifjii I ? '>'(» see llie sleel ye lenipeied glance on yo

1 Willi plough and spade, and hf)e and loont, rince youi ginve, nnd l)nilfl your tomb, And weave yoni winding slieel, till fair l''ngland he yom so(nilcliie

Id

Stylistic Analysis

The poem is an expression of Shelley's just indignation at the cruelty

of capitalist exploitation Thus it is imbued with bitter irony and wrath The

poem is built on a contrast between "Men of England" - the labourers,

those who create real values, and the lords " the ungrateful drones" who exploit the toilers - " drink their blood"

The poem is built up as an address " to the Men of England" The beginning of the poem ( the first two lines) is an appeal expressed through the SD of rhetorical question:

Men of England, wherefore plough

For the lords who lay ye low?

Tlie idea cxpres.sed in this question is sustained through the first three slanzas The anaphoric repetition: "wherefore weave'", "wherefore feed"

"Wherefore, bees of England" stresses the idea - the uselessness of "toil and care" wasted on " those ungrateful drones" In the fourth stanza the climatic enumeration: " Have ye leisure, comfort, calm " brings out a rhetorical question:

Or what is it ye buy so dear

With your pain and with your fear?

Tlie fifth stanza offers a solution of the problem, a way out of the unbearable situation The use of parallel constructions here is most efficient, a series of imperative sentences brings out the climax:

Sow seed - but let no tyrant reap;

Find wealth, - let no impostor heap:

The last two stanzas present a kind of ironical address, directed against those who shrink from struggle lo their " cellars, holes, and cells", those who seek no way out and submit to tyranny and cruel exploitation: they weave their own " winding-sheet", their fate is inosl Iragic and disastrous, if they d(^ nol fight against the monstrous social injustice ihev

are doomed - "England be your sepulchre"

The metrical pattern of the poem is that of trochee:

The imagery employed in the poem is used with the purpose oi

enhancing the contrast between the toilers and the oppressors Note the metaphors - " bees of England", , " those ungrateful drones" " drain your sweat - nay", drink your blood" The verb metaphors ( "drain", "drink") though trite add to the emotional appeal of the poem

The metaphors used in the last stanza: " And weave your

windingsheet", "England be your sepulchre" present a kind oi sinister warning

-those who do not struggle will perish

One should note another lexical SD used in the poem - metonymy:

"from the cradle to the grave" " with plough and spade, and hoc and loom " Tlie interaction of metaphor and metonymy in the sexenlh stanza increases the effect created by the use of other SDs: " the steel ye teinpered glance on yc"

In conclusion one must say that the use of archaic fonns oi pronouns

( "thee", "yc") adds to the solemn atmosphere created by the use of lexical and syntactical SDs and heightens the emotional appeal of the poem

IC

ROBERT FROST

THE ROAD NOT TAKEN

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not Irnvel l)olli And be otie traveller, long I stood

Atid looked down one as fa^ as 1 could

To where it beiit in the undergrowth; Then took the other, as just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing (here Had worn Iheiii really aljoul (lie saiiio

And both that niorning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black

Oh, 1 kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on lo way,

I doubted if I sliould ever coiue back

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, aiul f

-I took the one less travelled bv,

And that has made all Ihe difference

i i

Stylistic Analysis

The poem " The Road not Taken" is casual in its subject-matter describing a particular place at a particular time: once while travelling alone the poet stopped at a fork in the road, undecided which path to take Finally

he chose one because it seemed a little less frequented

In analyzing this poem we must point out its three main features: 1) the effect of striking conereteness and simplicity: 2)the impression of a melancholy meditating tone: 3) the implication suggested by the poet as the ultimate stylistic effect

These three peculiarities are linked and interwoven to produce a joint impression, the EMs and SDs of the poem are aimed at achieving the desired ellect

The poet describes a particular autumn wood: "Two roads diverged in

a yellow wood", and two paths: one - " bent in the undergrowth", the other

"was grassy and wanted wear" All the facts consistently presented in the poem stress the conereteness of the image (the third stanza):

And both that morning equally lay

In leaves no step had trodden black

The poet consistenUy refers to himself as a traveller in a definite wood described precisely one autumn day ( the first stanza):

And soiTy I could not travel both

And be one traveller

SDs used in describing the picture are aimed at arousing a concrete image: epithets "yellow", "grassy", metonymical periphrasis "wanted wear" and "no step had trodden black" suggesting paths which arc seldom used

A careful and inclusive analysis must consider linguistic items al various levels, as all stylistically significant features foim a coinplex

Tlie meditative tone of reminiscence is established from the \ery first The most important factor in achieving this effect is a phonetic SD: a peculiar rhyming scheme a b a a b which suggests a slow mclancholx

intonation Tlie stanza oi the poem consists of live lines, lines 3 and 4 having the same rhyme as line 1 produce a peculiar effect oi sound anadiplosis Tliis sound(or rhyme) anadiplosis stresses the impression iA a slow movement oi thoughts Three instances of the repetition of the

21

conjunction "and" (polysyndeton) in the first stanza add to the serene and pensive tone of the poem:

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood

And sorry I could not travel both

And be one traveller, long 1 stood

To where it bent in the undergrowth

The poem is written in iambic meter in which the unstressed syllabic

is followed by a stressed one The line consists of four iambic feel, so the meter is called iambic tetrameter and is graphically represented thus:

.^ -/ I V j i Vf i I 0/ i I

We find a number of inegularities(rhythm modifiers) in the metrical pattern of the poem which are quite common in English verse The rhythmic modifiers of spondee and rhythmic inversion break to some extent

the metrical pattem oi the poem and help the poet lo create the impression

of lively colloquial English

Spondee(a feet of two stressed syllables) occurs in the first line of the first stanza (the P' foot):

i J \ i/' 1

Two roads diverged

and in the fourth line of the last stanza (the 3"' fool):

.<^ J I V ? I 1 J I ^ J \

I look the one less travelled by

Rhythmic inversion (the intrusion of a trochee) occurs in the second line of the last stanza twice (in the P' and 2'"' feel):

Somewhere aues and aucs hence:

Enjambmenl or run-on-line (the transfer ol a part oi a synlagm liom t>iie line to the following) is also a violation of the requirements o{ the \erse

according lo which the line must be a more or less complete unit in itself

2.3

Enjambment occurs a number of times in the poem, some instance are acutely felt, as in the following lines (the first stanza):

And sorry I could not travel both

And be one traveller, long I stood

And looked down one as far as I could

The lines seem to be tom into two halves, the second half running on

to the next line

The expression of colloquial intonation of reminiscence is mainly created in the poem through enjambment The pause in the middle of the line (see the third lines in the first and the last stanza) makes the lone of the lines natural and meditating The combination of the SDs of enjambment and anadiplosis (the repetition of the pronoun " I " at the end of the line and

at the beginning of the next line) in the last stanza produces the impression

of a kind of afterthought uttered quite naturally after a pause:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and

I-1 look the one less travelled by

Tlie compositional structure of the poem is based on framing: the line

" Two roads diverged in a wood " occurs in the first and the last slanzas and adds lo effect of the plain meditative tone of the poem too Lexical EMs and SDs emphasize the melancholy lone of the poem Note the emotionally coloured word "sorry" in the first stanza, the interjection and the exclamatory sentence in the third stanza "Oh I kept the first for another day!", ihe emotionally coloured "with a sigh" in the fourth stanza - all conlribulc to the same effect

Tlie meditative tone of the poem and its melancholy colouring seem incongruous with the simple particular fact imparled by the poet Tlie lone and the emotional colouring suggest deeper ideas

Tlie meaning of some lines gives us the key lo the ideas that lie beneath the surface Tlie two lines in the third stanza differ froin the pieccding slanzas in their wording:

\'et knt>wing how way leads on lo wax

1 doubled if I should ever come back

If we compare the pairs of synonyms occurring in the lirst stanza and III this slanza: "road", "trax'cl" - "come", we shall notice that in the third

stanza, the words are more abstract than their coiTcsponding synonxms in the first stanza These pairs of synonyms suggest the combination of the local and the universal a concrete road in a yellow wood and a way in lite The last stanza rings as a definite conclusion:

I shall be telling this with a sigh

Somewhere ages and ages hence:

Two roads diverged in a wood, and I

-I took the one less travelled by

And that has made all the difference

Note the repetition of the line " Two roads diverged in a W(HK1 "

wilh a slight change (the word "wood" is nol modified by epithet "yellow": the synonymical repetition: " I took the one less travelled by " which sounds like a more general statcmcnl if we compare it with the metonymical periphrases occurring in the preceding slanza "wanted wear" and " In leaves no step had trodden black " These language peculiarities of the last slanza make it devoid of the impression o conereteness Tlie use ol the trite hyperbole "ages and ages hence" (compare with the concrete expression "that morning" in the third slanza) emphasizes the effect of non-concretcness too

Tlie last line " And that has made all the difference" suggests a more serious interpretation of the whole slanza and sums up all that was said

before, in a generalized way Tlie basic combination iA the concrete and

the general, the local and the universal is brought out in the last two stanzas, the symbolic meaning of the poem becomes clear: Robert Frost has gone his own way in life and literature and this progress is indicated in the poem

IS

3.% Prose

CHARLES DICKENS LITTLE DORR IT

Chapter II

AIRS OLNIiRAL Mrs (Jeiiornl wns llio rlnnghler of n cloricnl rlifitrilary

in a calhedral Ifiuii, wheie she had led the fnsliioii niilil she

wns as near forly-five as a siuple lady can \n\ A stiff

coni-niissai iat officer f)f sixty, fnuiotis as M mm tinet, had IIHMI

become eiiauiomed o\ the gravity with which sln^ diovr^ lln^

[)!oprielies four-in-hnud Ihrough Ihe cathedinl towMi society, and had soliciled lo he lakeu beside her on the box r)f the cool coach of ceremony fo which that team was haiuessed [lis proposnl of mnrringe being accepted by the Indy, the coinmissafy tof)l( his seal behind Ihe pioprielies with gic;it flocomin, nnd yMis.-(Jeueral dtove until the crilnmissniy died

In Ihe course of their titiiled jomiiey they rnn over several poople who came in the way of the piopiieties: but alwnys

in a high style, and with couiposme

The comurissaiy liaviiig been buried wilh all Ihe

tlvcn-lalions suilable In Ihe service (the whole bvun of lies w-'ere haiuessed (o his hearse, and tlicy all lind fenlhei^ ami black velvet hniisiiigs, wilh bis coal of aims in Ihe coi- ner), Mrs (leiieial hegan to in{(uire what fpiniitily of dust ami ashes was deposited at Ihe b a n k e r s ' II then Iranspiied (hat Ihe commissary had so fnr stolen a mnrcli on A\is (JOU- era! as to have bouedil himself an annuity some yenrs befou^

pro(uif^-his mariiage, nwt] lo have resetved that ciicimislauco in

menlioning, al the iiei iod of liis proposal Ibnl his iiicoiiio was derived from me iiderest of his iiiouov A^r^ ^lotifMal rfMise(|ueiilly found her means so miicli diminished (lint,

16

but for the perfect regulation of her mind, she might have felt disposed lo question the accuracy of that portion of the late service which had declared that the commissary could take nothing away wilh hirn

In this state of affairs it occurred lo Mrs General that she might "form the mind", and eke the manners of some young lady of distinction Or that she iwight harness the proprieties to the carriage of some rich young heiress or wid- ow» and become at once the driver and guard of such ve- hicle through the social mazes

In person, Mrs General, including her skirts, which liad much to do with it, was of a dignified and imposing np- pearance; ample, rustling, gravely voluminous; always up- right behind the proprieties She might have been taken— had been takeii - to the top of the Alps and the bottom of Mer- culaneum, without disarranging a fold in her dress, or dis- placing a pin If her countenance and hair had rather a floury appearance, as though from living in some transcendently genteel mill, it was rather because slie was a chalky creation altogether, than because she mended her complexion wilh violet powder, or had turned grey If her eyes had no expres- sion, it was probably because they had nothing to express

If she had few wrinkles, it was because her mind had never

traced its name or any other inscription on her face A cool,

waxy, blown-out woman, who had never lighted well Mrs General had no opinions Her way of forming a mind was to prevent it from forming opinions She had a little circular set of mental grooves or raiks on which she sinrfed little trains of other people's opinions, which never overtook one another, and never got anywhere Even her propriety could not dispute that there was impropriety in the world: but Mrs General's way of getting rid of it was to put it out

of sight, and make believe that there was no such thing This was another of her ways of forming a mind—to cram all articles of difficulty into cupboards, lock them up, and say they had no existetice It was the easiest way, and be- yond all comparison, the properest

Mrs General was not to be told of anything siiockiiig Accidents, miseries, and offences, were never to be men- tioned before her Passion was to go to sleep in the presence

of Mrs Generab and blood was to change to milk and water The little that was left in the world, when all these deduc- tions were made, it was Mrs GeneraTs province to varuisli

In that formation process of hers she dipped the smallest

17

of i)ruslies into the largest of pots, and varuislied the surface

of every object that came under consideration The more cracked it was, the more Mrs General varnished it

There was varnish in Mrs General's voice, varnish in Mrs General's touch, an atmosphere of varnish round Mrs General's figure Mrs General's dreams ought to have been varnished—if she had any—lying aslee|) in the arms of Ihe good St Bernard, wilh llie feathery snow falling on his housetop

Chapter V

SOMETHING WRONG SOMEWHERE

"Amy," said Mr Dorril, "you have just now been the subject of some conversation between myself and Mrs Gene- ral We agree that you scarcely seem at home here Ha—how

is this?" ;

A pause

"I think, father, I require a little time."

"Papa is a preferable mode of address," observed Mrs General "Father is rather vulgar, my dear The word Papa, besides, gives a pretty form (o the li|)S Papa, potatoes, poul- try, prunes, and prism, are all very good words for the lips: especially prunes and prism You will find it serviceable, ill the formation of a demeanour, if you sometimes say to yourself in company—on entering a room, for instance—Papa, potatoes, poultry, prunes and prism, prunes and prism."

"Pray, my child," said Mr Dorrit, "attend to t h e — h u m precepts of /Mrs General."

-Poor Little Dorrit, with a rather forlorn glance at that eminent varnisher, promised to try

Mr Dorrit was even a little more fragmentary than usual; being excited on the subject, and anxious to make himself particularly emphatic

"I do beg," he repeated, "that this may be attended lo and that you will seriously take pains nud Iry lo conduct yourself in a manner both becoming your position as—ha — Miss Amy Dorrit nnd satisfactory to mvself and Mrs Gen- eral."

That lady shut her eyes again, on being again referred to; then, slowly opening them and rising added these words:

"If Miss Amy Dorrit will direct'her owui attention to, and will accept of my poor assistance in, Ihe formation of

a surface, Mr Dorrit will have no further cause of anxiety

Id

A\ay I take litis opportunity of remarkiu^, as an iiislaiice

in point, that it is scarcely delicate to look at vagrants wilh the attention which I have seen bestowed upon (hem by a very dear young friend of mine? They should not be looked

at Nothing disagreeable should ever be looked at Apart from such a habit standing in the way of that graceful etiua- nimity of surface which is so expressive of good breeding,

it hardly seems compatible with refinement of mind A truly refined mind will seem to be Ignorant of the existence of anything that is not perfectly proper, placid, and pleasant." Having delivered this exalted sentiment, Mrs General made

a sweeping obedience, and retired wilh an expression of mouth indicative of Prunes and Prism

^9

The ironical treatment of the subject is seen from the very first lines Mrs General is presented as a driver "of the cairiage of proprieties'' The metaphor is sustained through the whole passage, so the reader inevitably associates Mrs General with "the cool coach of ceremony'' wilh a pompous and pretentious behaviour that was calculated to impress the people, and thus win Mrs General a high reputation in bourgeois society Mrs General and her husband acted as paragons of virtue and condemned any breach of conduct with pitiless cruelty Tlieir behaviour is revealed through the metaphor which is prolonged involving relevant details "of their united journey" "In the course of their united journey'' Mrs Cieneral and

her husband "run over several people who came in the way oi proprieties",

in other words they treated people ruthlessly and ruined many a reputation

It was done, however, "in a high style, and with composure"

The first paragraph introduces Mrs General as a lady who had "led

the fashion" or metaphorically speaking "drove the cairiage (A proprieties"

The central image of metaphor, that of a driver of "the coach of

ceremony" is sustained through a series of contributary images as io in-hand" (she drove the proprieties four in hand), "the box oi the cool coach

"four-oi ceremony to which that team was haniessed", "in the course of their

united journey", "they ran over several people", etc

In the second paragraph one should note a peculiar use iA' the word

"hearse", in its direct meaning it is a part of reality (Mr G e n e r a r s funeral),

on ihe other hand, in the macrocontext it is a part iA' sustained metaphor i)i

the first paragraph ("the coach of ceremony")

In the third paragraph the same image is further developed and enhanced through the use of the synonyms ("coach", "carriage", "\ehicle"): nolc the unity of the imagery used by Dickens .All the contextual synoinnis

develop the same idea, that i)i Mrs ( i c n e r a r s drive "through the social

mazes"

.3C