logico-semantic relations and their realization in chapter 5 white fang and the indians in the novel white fang by jack london

Logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English CLAUSE COMPLEXES IN CHAPTER 5 “WHITE FANG AND THE INDIANS” IN THE NOVEL “WHITE FANG” BY JACK LONDON 2.2.. For th

NGUYỄN THỊ PHƯỢNG

LOGICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS AND THEIR

REALIZATION IN CHAPTER 5 “WHITE FANG AND THE INDIANS” IN THE NOVEL “WHITE FANG” BY JACK

LONDON

(CÁC MỐI QUAN HỆ LOGIC – NGỮ NGHĨA VÀ SỰ THỂ HIỆN CỦA CHÚNG TRONG CHƯƠNG 5 “NANH TRẮNG VÀ NHỮNG NGƯỜI ANH-ĐIÊNG” TRONG

TIỂU THUYẾT “NANH TRẮNG” CỦA JACK LONDON)

M.A Minor Programme Thesis

Field : English Linguistics Code : 602215

Hanoi – 2012

NGUYỄN THỊ PHƯỢNG

LOGICO-SEMANTIC RELATIONS AND THEIR

REALIZATION IN CHAPTER 5 “WHITE FANG AND THE INDIANS” IN THE NOVEL “WHITE FANG” BY JACK

LONDON

(CÁC MỐI QUAN HỆ LOGIC – NGỮ NGHĨA VÀ SỰ THỂ HIỆN CỦA CHÚNG TRONG CHƯƠNG 5 “NANH TRẮNG VÀ NHỮNG NGƯỜI ANH-ĐIÊNG” TRONG

TIỂU THUYẾT “NANH TRẮNG” CỦA JACK LONDON)

M.A Minor Programme Thesis

Field : English Linguistics Code : 602215

Supervisor: Prof Dr Hoàng Văn Vân

Hanoi – 2012

2 Aim of the study and Research questions 2

PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.2 What is functional grammar? 4 1.3 The role of Contextual Analysis 5

1.3.2 The Model of context 6

1.5 Clause and clause complex 8 1.5.1 Clause and its position in functional grammar 8 1.5.2 Clause simplex and clause complex 9

1.6 Logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English

CLAUSE COMPLEXES IN CHAPTER 5 “WHITE FANG AND THE INDIANS” IN THE NOVEL “WHITE FANG” BY JACK LONDON

2.2 The context of the chosen text 28 2.3 Contextual configuration of the text 29

3 Suggestions for further study 44

REFERENCES 46

APPENDICES

According to Lock (1996: 1), there are many ways of describing the

grammar of a language One approach sees grammar as a set of rules which specify

all the possible grammatical structures of the language Another approach sees language first and foremost as a system of communication and analyzes grammar to discover how it is organized to allow speakers and writers to make and exchange meanings

The former approach to grammatical analysis is often called formal, while the latter approach is normally called functional

Halliday (1994) considers functional grammar (FG) essentially as a „natural‟ grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained, ultimately, by reference to how language is used

There have been many studies concerning with different aspects of functional grammar in which studies on the meaning and structure of a text also mention the relationship between clauses in clause complexes However, these studies are only limited to surface relations or one of the two of the relations between clauses in a clause complex In other words, logico-semantic relations have not been studied in details Also, there have been some studies on logico-semantic relations between clauses but they only focus on fairy tales, short stories, not on novels

For those reasons, I chose the novel “White Fang” written by Jack London to investigate the logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes The reason for my selecting the novel is not only because of its popularity but also because of its precise prose style Moreover, doing this research gives me a chance

to get to know the novel with lessons on bravery, patience, tolerance and love

The novel consists of 20 chapters but I only choose Chapter 5 as the illustrated material for the analysis because through this chapter, the logico-semantic relations are realized quite clearly As the result, readers can understand more about the logico-semantic relations between clauses Thus, my study will be

on Logico-semantic relations and their realization in chapter 5 “White Fang and

the Indians” in the novel “White Fang” by Jack London

2 Aim of the study and Research questions

The aim of this thesis is to explore how logico-semantic relations are realized

in chapter 5 “White Fang and the Indians” in the novel “White Fang” by Jack London

In order to fulfill this aim, the following research questions are raised for exploration:

1 What are logico-semantic relations?

2 How are they realized in chapter five of “White Fang” by Jack London?

3 Scope of the study

Given the aim and the research questions as set above, within the framework

of a minor M.A thesis, the study cannot cover all aspects of functional grammar What it attempts to do is to confirm itself to the exploration of the logico-semantic relations between clauses This involves a review on the notions concerning the clause complex and the logico-semantic relations between clauses

As the aim of this thesis is to explore how the logico-semantic relations are realized in chapter five of “White Fang” by Jack London, its second focus is on analyzing chapter five “White Fang and the Indians” of the novel “White Fang” in terms of logico-semantic relations

4 Data collection

Data collected for analysis and discussion is from clauses in chapter 5

“White Fang and the Indians” in the novel “White Fang” by the noted American writer, Jack London, which was published by Longman Group UK Limited in 1968

5 Methods of the study

The study is conducted as an attempt to understand more about the nature of logico-semantic relations between clauses in English and their realization in chapter

5 in the novel “White Fang” Thus, descriptive and analytical methods will be used

as the principal ones for the study The descriptive method is used to re-examine the notions relating to the clause complex and its logico-semantic relations between clauses The analytical method is used to analyze the text (chapter five of “White Fang”) in terms of logico-semantic relations

6 Design of the study

The study is organized around 3 parts:

Part A states the reasons for choosing the topic, the aim, research questions, the scope, data collection, the methods of the study, and the research design

Part B, the main part of the study, consists of two chapters:

Chapter 1 – Theoretical Background – provides an overview of systemic functional grammar, context and the role of context in interpreting meaning, grammatical rank scale, clauses and clause complexes, the notion of taxis and the logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes

Chapter 2 attempts to answer the question “How are logico-semantic relations realized in Chapter 5 „White Fang and the Indians‟ in the novel „White Fang‟ by Jack London?” This chapter analyzes chapter five of “White Fang” in terms of logico-semantic relations, discusses and makes some comments on the findings

Part C draws some conclusions, makes some implications for teaching and learning English and some suggestions for further research

PART B: DEVELOPMENT

CHAPTER 1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

1.1 Introduction

This chapter reviews some basic concepts that set the theoretical orientation for the study The chapter focuses on five parts: (1) what is functional grammar? (2) the role of contextual analysis, (3) grammatical rank scale, (4) clause and clause complex, and (5) logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English

1.2 What is functional grammar?

According to Martin, et al (1997: 1), “functional grammar is a way of

looking at grammar in terms of how grammar is used In the field of linguistics, the main alternative to functional grammar is formal grammar, which is concerned with the ways in which our genes constrain the shape of our grammars, and thus

constrain what we can and cannot say.” Martin, et al state that functional grammar

focuses on the development of grammatical systems as a means for people to interact with each other It provides us with tools for understanding why a text is the way it is A functional grammar is a grammar that respects speakers‟ rights to make up their own minds about how they choose to talk; at the same time it makes speakers explicitly aware of the choices they have available, so they can make an informed decision about the options they choose Its orientation is social, in other words, rather than biological

For Halliday, language is “a network of systems or interrelated sets of options for making meaning” (Halliday, 1994: 15), thus language is “systemic” The term „functional‟ is used to indicate that the approach is concerned with meaning

Functional grammar, in Thompson‟s (1996: 8) view, sets out to investigate what the range of relevant choices are, both in the kinds of meanings that we might want to express (or functions that we might want to perform) and in the kinds of wordings that we can use to express these meanings; and to match these two sets of choices

Functional Grammar seeks to be a theory which is “functional” in at least three different, though interrelated senses: (i) it takes a functional view on the nature of language; (ii) it attaches primary importance to functional relations at different levels in the organization of grammar; (iii) it wishes to be practically applicable to the analysis of different aspects of language and language use

1.3 The role of contextual analysis

1.3.1 What is context?

In linguistics, the term „context‟ has been used quite commonly So what is context? For some scholars, context seems just to be the minimal stretch of language that helps to understand what is written and spoken (Brown & Yule, 1983: 35) Nunan (1993: 7) considers context as an important concept in discourse analysis According to him, “context refers to the situation giving rise to the discourse, and within which the discourse is embedded.” (Nunan, 1993: 7 - 8)

In the view of Hymes (1962) (cited in Brown and Yule, 1983: 38), “A context can support a range of meanings When a form is used in a context it eliminates the meanings possible to that context other than those the form can signal: the context eliminates from consideration the meanings possible in the form other than those the context can support.”

From a complementary perspective, Hoang Van Van (2006: 40) sees context

as „the situation in which the text or the linguistic interaction takes place gives the participants a great deal of information about the meanings that are being exchanged, and the meanings that are likely to be exchanged‟ And context,

according to Nguyen Hoa (2000: 40), is the non-linguistic factor that contributes and constrains the interpretation of discourse

1.3.2 The Model of context

Halliday in Halliday & Hasan (1989) (cited in Hoang Van Van, 2006: 40 - 41) develops a model for contextual analysis which consists of three components or parameters: field (of discourse), tenor (of discourse), and mode (of discourse) His model of context can be represented as follows:

Field of discourse refers to what is happening, to the nature of the social

action, that is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language figures as some essential components?

Tenor of discourse refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the

participants, their statuses and roles: what kind of role relationships of one kind or another, both the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster of socially significant relationships in which they are involved?

Mode of discourse refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that

the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic, and the like

(Halliday in Halliday & Hasan, 1989: 12)

1.4 Grammatical rank scale

A rank scale consists of the following four ranks: clause, group, word, and morpheme, as shown in Figure 1 below

Clauses

e.g |||Computer facilities are free of charge.|||

are made up of one or more

e.g [{computer} {facilities}]

are made up of one or more

morphemes

e.g {compute er} {facility s}

Combine into clause complexes

e.g |||If this applies to you ||

tick this box.|||

combine into group complexes

e.g |||[Mark \\ and I]

[tried to \ help]|||

Fig 1: The rank scale

Source: Thompson (1996: 22)

As can be seen from the rank scale, the clause is the largest grammatical unit

in the scale and the smallest is the morpheme Thompson (1996: 21) explains the reason why there is no „sentence‟ rank above clause He says that the main reason is that we can adequately account for sentences by introducing the concept of clause complexes: two or more clauses linked by coordination and/ or subordination in a larger structural unit This sounds very much like the traditional description of a sentence However, according to him, the sentence is an idealization of the written language which it is often difficult to impose on spoken language We also find that full stops, which mark the boundaries of sentences in writing, may be used between clauses which are grammatically dependent on each other The term „sentence‟ is therefore best reserved to label stretches of written text bounded by full stops or the equivalent Typically, written sentences correspond to clause complexes

Traditionally, a series of related clauses has been seen as making up the

higher rank unit of „sentence‟ However, Halliday, cited in Martin, et al (1997: 165

- 166), argues that when clauses combine to form a clause complex, they do not

thereby create a new grammatical unit of higher rank His position is that the sentence is not a unit of grammar, but a unit of English orthography, realizing the grammatical construction clause complex The two interpretations of the status of

„sentence‟ are illustrated in Fig 2, with as the traditional view and as the IFG position

… …

Fig.2: Sentence and clause complex

Source: Martin, et al (1997: 166)

1.5 Clause and Clause Complex

1.5.1 Clause and its position in functional grammar

According to Jacobs (1995: 49), clauses are constructions with one phrase constituent, typically a noun phrase, which bears the subject relation and another constituent, the verb phrase, bearing the predicate relation In functional grammar, clause is referred to „a constituent unit‟ (Halliday, 1994: 16) In fact, a clause can be

seen as the basic unit of functional grammar because „it has a special place in expressing meaning because at this rank we can begin to talk about how things exist, how things happen and how people feel in the world around us It is also at the rank of clause that we usually use language to interact with others‟ (Bloor, 1995: 7)

1.5.2 Clause simplex and clause complex

In Halliday‟s grammar, clauses can be divided into clause simplex and clause complex Clause simplex contains one clause, whereas clause complex contains a Head clause together with other clauses that modify it Downing & Locke (1992: 274) define clause complex as “a unit consisting of two or more clauses related either paratactically or hypotactically, but not by embedding.” (An embedded clause, also according to Downing & Locke (1992: 274), functions as a constituent

of another, superordinate clause A conjoined clause or a dependent clause does not function as a constituent of another clause) The notion of „clause complex‟, as Halliday (1994: 216) states, “enables us to account in full for the functional organization of sentences.”

The separation of a clause complex from the other is represented by three vertical strokes |||…||| while two vertical strokes ||…|| are used between two clause simplexes And embedded clauses are put in square brackets […] Below is an example:

|||Then he heard something: || the Indians heard it too |||The cub ceased his crying ||

and waited for the coming of his mother – his wonderful mother [who had fought and killed all things and was never afraid.]|||

(London, 1989: 18)

1.6 Logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English

As we all know, in traditional grammar, a sentence is considered as the highest unit, which may be classified into 4 types by structure: simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex sentences In compound, complex and

compound-complex sentences, clauses are linked with each other by coordination or/ and subordination Similarly, in functional grammar, a clause is referred to as the largest grammatical unit, which can be divided into clause simplex and clause complex Clauses in a clause complex are linked by a means of conjunctions In traditional grammar, coordination is a symmetrical relation, holding between two independent clauses while subordination is a non-symmetrical relation, holding between two clauses in such a way that one is a constituent or part of the other (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 309) Like this, in functional grammar, conjunctions used to link clauses in a clause complex show equal and unequal or hierarchical relations between them This type of relation is TAXIS However, the relationship between clauses in a clause complex is not simply realized in terms of taxis In other words, one clause in a clause complex is linked to another in terms of a particular LOGICO-SEMANTIC relationship Then, we can say that clauses within

a complex are interrelated grammatically in terms of two systems, those of TAXIS and LOGICO-SEMANTIC TYPE This makes functional grammar quite different from traditional grammar and a clause complex dissimilar to a sentence

So, what are taxis and logico-semantic relations in English and how are they related to each other? To answer these questions this chapter attempts to re-examine both taxis and logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English, mainly based on Halliday‟s functional grammar Although the main purpose of the chapter is to discuss logico-semantic relations between clauses in clause complexes in English, the type of taxis needs to be reviewed because logico-semantic relations can be paratactic or hypotactic Then, two types of logico-semantic relations which are expansion and projection are investigated in detail The findings will serve as the framework for the analysis in the next chapter, with the hope to discover the features hidden in the text

Taxis

Taxis, or interdependency, indicates the logical interdependency between clauses in a clause complex, i.e it shows whether one clause is dependent on or

dominates another, or whether they are of equal status The two kinds within the system of TAXIS are parataxis and hypotaxis

Parataxis is the logical interdependency between clauses where the clauses

in the nexus are of equal status, one initiating and the other continuing Both the initiating and the continuing element are free, in the sense that each could stand as a functioning whole In principle, the paratactic relation is logically symmetrical and transitive This can be exemplified with the „and‟ relation For paratactic structures

we shall use a numerical notation 1 2 3…, with nesting indicated in the usual way:

11 12 2 31 32 means the same as 1(1 2) 2 3(1 2)

||| John ran away, || and Fred stayed behind.|||

Hypotaxis, in Halliday (1994: 221), is the binding of elements of unequal

status The dominant element is free, but the dependent element is not The hypotactic relation is logically non-symmetrical and non-transitive Hypotactic structures will be represented by the Greek letter notation , , , … in which an alpha () is used for the dominant, a beta () is used for a clause dependent on it, and a gamma () is used for one dependent on that, and so on Below is an example:

||| We‟re going to buy an intercom system || so that we can hear Stephen in

||| As they walked along the dark fen meadow || he watched the moon.|||

 

(Martin, J R., et al., 1997: 169)

According to Halliday (1994: 218), a typical clause complex is a mixture of paratactic and hypotactic sequences, either of which may be nested inside the other

||| I would || if I could,|| but I can‟t |||

Table 1: Primary and secondary clauses

Primary Secondary Parataxis 1 (initiating) 2 (continuing) Hypotaxis  (dominant)  (dependent)

(Halliday, 1994: 218 - 219)

Types of logico-semantic relations

As stated above, one clause in a clause complex is linked to another not only

in terms of taxis, but also in terms of a particular logico-semantic relationship Halliday (1994: 219 - 220) says that there is a wide range of different logico-semantic relations any of which may hold between a primary and a secondary member of a clause nexus But it is possible to group these into a small number of general types, based on the two fundamental relationships of (1) EXPANSION and (2) PROJECTION

1.6.1 Expansion

Expansion is one of the two types of logico-semantic relations between clauses in a clause complex In expansion, „one clause expands the meaning of another in some way‟ (Downing & Locke, 1992: 279) According to Halliday

(1994: 219), in expansion, the secondary clause expands the primary clause by elaborating it, extending it or enhancing it, either paratactically or hypotactically In other words, expansion can be classified into three kinds: elaboration, extension, and enhancement

a Elaboration

According to Halliday (1994: 225), in elaboration, one clause elaborates on the meaning of another by further specifying or describing it The second clause does not introduce a new element into the picture but rather provides a further characterization of one that is already there, restating it, clarifying it, refining it, or adding a descriptive attribute or comment The elaborating relation is symbolized in the notation with an „equals‟ sign (=)

In a paratactic elaborating complex „an initial clause is restated, exemplified

or further specified by another‟ (Martin, et al., 1997: 171) The symmetry of this

type of clause complex is reflected in punctuation by the use of the semi-colon, colon or dash Paratactic elaboration can be divided into three subtypes: exposition, exemplification, and clarification

 Exposition: Here the secondary clause restates the thesis of the primary

clause in different words, to present it from another point of view, or perhaps just to reinforce the message (Halliday, 1994: 226) Conjunctive expressions include: in other words, or rather, that is (to say), specifically, namely, as follows, i.e (in writing) For example:

This picture is not an original, in other words, it‟s a forgery

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 283)

 Exemplification: Here the secondary clause develops the thesis of the

primary clause by becoming more specific about it, often citing an actual

example (Halliday, 1994: 226) Conjuncts include: for example, for instance,

in particular, e.g (in writing) For example:

There are lots of things you might do - for example, you might learn to play

a musical instrument (Downing & Locke, 1992: 284)

 Clarification: In this case the secondary clause clarifies the thesis of the

primary clause, backing it up with some form of explanation or explanatory comment (Halliday, 1994: 226) The cohesive conjuncts are: in fact, indeed, actually, at least For example:

I didn‟t mind their questions - indeed, I was glad to be able to answer them

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 284)

In a hypotactic elaborating complex, the dependent clause - realized by a

„non-restrictive‟ relative clause - provides some kind of elaborating description or comment (Martin, et al., 1997: 171) According to Halliday (1994: 227), these dependent clauses may be either finite or non-finite

 Clauses with which whose domain is either the whole of the primary clause

or some part of it that is more than a nominal group For example:

They decided not to go, which turned out to be a mistake

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 284)

 Clauses with which, who or whose whose domain is a nominal group For

example:

She was hard at work on the white kitten, which was lying quite still

(Halliday, 1994: 227)

 Clauses with when or where, having as domain some expression of time or

place For example:

We should be ready by July, when the holidays start

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 285) The dominant and dependent clauses are linked by „tone concord‟ in speech, while in writing a comma or dash can be expected to separate them The beta clause may elaborate just one participant in the alpha clause, in which case it often occurs next to that participant, interrupting or included in the alpha clause For example:

His mother, who had been watching them all evening, made her way over

(Martin, et al., 1997: 171 - 172)

 Non-finite clauses

The finite verb forms -ing, to-infinitive and –en participle are used

non-restrictively to express the same meanings as the finite forms (Downing & Locke,

1992: 286) For example:

I worked for a local firm at that time, selling office equipment

It‟s my own invention - to keep clothes and sandwiches in

The mountains were invisible, enveloped in a thick mist

b Extension

According to Halliday (1994: 230), in extension, one clause extends the meaning of another by adding something new to it What is added may be just an addition, or a replacement, or an alternative The extending relation is symbolized in the notation with an „addition‟ sign (+)

The combination of parataxis and extension gives coordination between

clauses It is expressed by the coordinating conjunctions and, or, nor and but These are often accompanied by cohesive expressions such as too, in addition, moreover,

also, on the other hand (Downing & Locke, 1992: 287) Paratactic extension

includes addition, variation and alternation

 Addition

Two situations are represented as adjoined in a relationship of equality that is positive, negative or adversative Halliday (1994: 230) states that in paratactic addition, there is no implication of any causal or temporal relationship between them For example:

He doesn‟t like bacon, and also he‟s better without it (positive)

I have no intention of going, nor in fact did I ever promise to (negative) It‟s an extremely simple device, but actually it‟s very effective (adversative)

Additive conjuncts include also, furthermore, in addition, besides Adversative conjuncts include in fact, actually, as a matter of fact

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 287)

 Variation

Here „one clause is presented as being in total or partial replacement of

another‟ (Halliday, 1994: 230) Variation conjuncts include instead, on the

contrary, but, and only For example:

He didn‟t stay even an hour, but instead returned to London on the next train

Peaches are marvelous just now, only they are very expensive

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 288)

 Alternation

According to Downing & Locke (1992: 287), alternative coordination is

expressed by or, the second clause presenting an alternative to the first The meaning can be reinforced by adding else (or else) and by preceding the first unit by

either (either…or) Cohesive conjuncts associated with this meaning include alternatively, conversely, on the other hand For example:

You can add the wine to the water: conversely, you can add the water to the wine There are several medium-priced hotels: alternatively, self-catering facilities are available

From Halliday‟s (1994: 231) point of view, the combination of extension

with hypotaxis also embraces addition, replacement and alternation, but with the

extending clause dependent The dependent clause may be finite or non-finite

 Finite clauses

Hypotactic clauses of addition are introduced by the conjunctions whereas,

while In this case, the dependent clause contrasts in some way with the primary

clause, especially when there is also some point of similarity between the two For example:

She likes tea, while I prefer coffee

(Oxford learner‟s pocket dictionary, 2008: 506)

Jane already speaks two foreign languages, whereas her brother hasn‟t yet learned any (Downing & Locke, 1992: 289)

The hypotactic form which expresses the meaning of alternation is if…not, and corresponds to either…or in paratactic combinations For example:

If you haven‟t lost it, then it‟s in that cupboard

(= Either you‟ve lost it, or else it‟s in that cupboard)

(Halliday, 1994: 231)

For subtraction the finite clause is introduced by except that, but (for the

fact) that For example:

I‟d take you to the station, except that the car is being repaired

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 289)

Besides breaking her leg, she caught a bad throat infection (additive)

Instead of turning down that side road, you should have kept straight on (replacive)

He has embarked on a huge project, without realizing what is involved (adversative)

You won‟t get any information from him other than by paying him (subtractive)

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 290)

c Enhancement

According to Halliday (1994: 232), in enhancement, one clause enhances the meaning of another by qualifying it in one of a number of possible ways: by reference to time, place, manner, cause or condition Enhancing clauses can be in a paratactic or a hypotactic relationship to the primary clause The enhancing relation

is symbolized in the notation with a „multiple‟ sign (x)

The combination of parataxis and circumstantial meaning gives a kind of

coordination reinforced by a circumstantial element There are four subtypes of enhancement: temporal (time), spatial (place), manner (means) and causal-conditional

 Temporal

Temporal relation can be signaled by a conjunction or a conjunction group

such as now, (and) then, (and) afterwards, first…then, and just then, at the same

time, and at this time For example:

The lights have gone out: now we won‟t be able to do any more

They spread the cloth on the grass and then began unpacking the picnic things

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 291)

 Spatial

Spatial relation is introduced by „and there‟ to denote the same place For

example: She turned the corner, and there stood Robin waiting for her

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 291)

 Manner

Manner consists of means and comparison

 Means: (and) (in) that way For example:

Keep on subtracting the difference, and in that way you will arrive at the correct

figure (Halliday, 1994: 234)

 Comparison: (and) similarly, in the same way, likewise, and so, and

neither,… For example:

She likes the simple life, and so does he (Halliday, 1994: 234)

 Causal-conditional

 Cause may consist of reason and purpose

 Cause - effect relation can be introduced by conjunctions (and) so,

therefore For example:

He was hurt so I helped him

(Oxford learner‟s pocket dictionary, 2008: 420)

 Effect - cause relation can be introduced by for For example:

We left in silence, for there was little we could say

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 291)

 Condition may be positive, negative or concessive

 Condition (positive): and then, (and) in that case For example:

You might have an accident, and in that case who would rescue you?

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 292)

 Condition (negative): otherwise, or else For example:

You‟d better return it immediately; otherwise they‟re likely to accuse you

of stealing it (Lock, 1996: 259)

 Condition (concessive)

- Concession - consequence: still, yet, though For example:

I didn‟t get the job though I had all the necessary qualifications (Murphy, 1994:

224)

- Consequence – concession: consequently, as a result For example:

He had not taken the precaution of being vaccinated; consequently, he got malaria

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 292)

Hypotactic enhancing clauses are traditionally called „adverbial clauses‟ As

with parataxis, these are clauses of time, place, manner, cause, and condition They may be finite or non-finite (Halliday, 1994: 235)

 Finite clauses

Finite dependent clauses are introduced by subordinating conjunctions which serve to indicate the dependent status of the clause together with its circumstantial meaning

 Temporal: as, while, when, as soon as, whenever, every time, after, since,

before, till/ until For example:

When I last saw you, you lived in Washington

(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 322)

 Spatial: as far as, where, wherever, everywhere For example:

Where the fire had been, we saw nothing but blackened ruins

(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 323)

 Manner: consists of means and comparison introduced by as, as if, as

though, like, the way For example:

He treated me (just) as if he had never met me

(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 328)

 Causal - condition: consists of cause and condition

 Cause consists of reason and purpose introduced by the following

conjunctions:

- Cause - reason: because, as, since, in case, seeing that, considering For

example:

Because it was wet he took a taxi

(Thomson & Martinet, 1989: 291)

- Cause - purpose: in order that, so that For example:

John visited London in order that/ so that he could see his MP

(Quirk & Greenbaum, 1987: 328)

 Condition may be positive, negative or concessive

- Condition (positive): if, provided (providing) that, as (so) long as For

example:

Providing that/ Provided that she studies hard, she will pass

(Murphy, 1994: 228)

- Condition (negative): unless For example:

Unless you work much harder, you won‟t pass the exam

(Murphy, 1994: 228)

- Condition (concessive): even if, even though, although For example:

Even though she can‟t drive, she has bought a car

(Murphy, 1994: 222)

 Non-finite clauses

According to Downing & Locke (1992: 294), non-finite dependent clauses of enhancement express many of the meanings conveyed by the finite in addition ton some others The semantic relationships may be made clear by means of a conjunction or a conjunctive preposition, or they may be left inexplicit

 Non-finite dependent clauses of enhancement introduced by conjunctions or conjunctive prepositions:

 Subset of conjunction: when, while (time), while (concession), though,

if For example:

While talking, he jotted everything down in a pad

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 294)

 Subset of conjunctive prepositions: before, after, since, from, by, in,

on, with, without (concession), without (reason) For example:

In learning a foreign language, several skills are involved

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 294)

 Non-finite dependent clauses of enhancement expressed by the to-infinitive, the -ing and the -en participle forms alone For example:

 to-infinitive clauses: To relieve backache, apply liniment twice daily

 -ing clauses: Living abroad, he rarely sees his relatives

 -en clauses: Raised in Texas he had no knowledge of other parts of

the United States

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 295)

1.6.2 Projection

According to Downing & Locke (1992: 297), in projection, „one clause is projected through another, either as a locution after a verb of saying, or as an idea, after a verb of thinking.‟ Projection can be paratactic or hypotactic “A paratactic relation holds when one clause quotes another („direct speech/ thought‟), and a hypotactic relation holds when one clause reports another („indirect speech/

thought‟)” (Martin, et al., 1997: 172) The locution projecting relation is symbolized

in the notation with a „double quotes‟ sign (), and the idea projecting relation is symbolized in the notation with a „single quote‟ one ()

a Paratactic projection

 Paratactic locutions

In quoted speech the projecting clause contains a verb of saying The projected clause contains that which is said The order of the two clauses is free For example:

„Two notable successes have marked this trip,‟ he said

He said, „Two notable successes have marked this trip.‟

„Two notable successes‟, he said, „have marked this trip.‟

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 298)

Verbs used to introduce direct speech include:

(i) say (and, less frequently, tell);

(ii) verbs introducing statements: announce, observe, point out, remark,

report and questions: ask, demand, inquire, query;

(iii) verbs combining „say‟ with some circumstantial element: reply (say in response), explain (say in explanation), protest (say with reservation), continue (go

on saying), interrupt (say out of turn), repeat (say again), threaten (offer: undesirable), vow (offer: sacred), promise (offer: desirable), agree (offer: in response), urge (command: persuasive), plead (command: desperate), warn

(command: avoid undesirable consequences);

(iv) verbs having connotation of various kinds: insist (say emphatically),

complain (say irritably), cry, shout (say loudly), boast (say proudly), murmur, think

(talk to oneself), stammer (say with embarrassment), blare, thunder (order imperiously), moan (plead whiningly), yell (order vociferously), fuss (order

officiously);

(v) verbs which are not verbs of saying at all but serve, especially in fictional narrative to suggest attitudes, emotions or expressive gestures that accompany the

act of speaking: whisper, sob, snort, twinkle, beam, venture, breathe, giggle, sigh,

laugh, smile, grin

 Paratactic ideas

Not only words may be quoted, but also thoughts, as in:

„I‟ll have to get a new bulb for this lamp,‟ thought Peter

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 300) Mental process verbs which occur in the projecting clause include:

(i) think, the basic verb;

(ii) other verbs of cognition which express some additional, often aspectual

meaning: muse, ponder, reflect, wonder

b Hypotactic projection

 Hypotactic locutions

Reported speech (traditionally called „indirect speech‟) is characterized by a series of formal features which distinguish it from quoted („direct‟) speech They have the effect of shifting all deictic elements away from direct reference to the speech situation

Verbs used in reporting statements and questions are essentially the same as those used in quoting The main exceptions are the following:

(i) Semantically complex verbs which express rhetoric processes are used

only in reporting, not in quoting These include: claim, deny, hypothesize, imply,

insinuate, maintain, make out, pretend For example:

He denies being involved in the incident

(Downing & Locke, 1992: 302)

(ii) Conversely, verbs which are not intrinsically verbs of saying are not

normally used to report These include behavioral verbs such as whisper, sob, snort,

twinkle, beam, venture, breathe, giggle, sigh, laugh, smile, grin

 Hypotactic ideas

Verbs which represent mental processes are used to report ideas, beliefs,

fears, and speculations These include believe, feel, hold, imagine, understand, fear,

suspect, think For example:

Dr Singleman believed his patient would recover

(Halliday, 1994: 253) Also according to Halliday (1994: 253), when something is projected as a meaning, we are not presenting „the very words‟, because there are no words Hence, in combination with the tactic system the basic pattern for projecting

meanings is not parataxis, which treats the projection as a free-standing event, but hypotaxis, which makes it dependent on the mental process In other words, the typical pattern for representing a „thinking‟ is the hypotactic one

1.7 Summary

In this chapter, an attempt has been made to provide the theoretical background for my research I first provided a review of functional grammar, the role of contextual analysis, grammatical rank scale, and clause and clause complex Then, realizing that the clause complex and its logico-semantic relations are of central importance for the analysis of chapter five of „White Fang‟ by Jack London,

I re-examined in some detail the notions of clause complex, the system opens to the different choices Below is a brief summary of clause relationship:

The relationship between clauses in a clause complex can be seen from two

dimensions: taxis and logico-semantic relations Taxis, which show the

interdependency between the clauses in the nexus, are of two types: paratactic (the

equality in status) and hypotactic (the inequality in status) Logico-semantic

relations are divided into two types: expansion - which includes the meanings

realized by conjunctions - and projection - which includes direct and indirect speech and thought Both two types of logico-semantic relations can be paratactic or hypotactic

Expansion refers to the relation between clauses in a clause complex in

which one clause expands on another by one of the following three ways: elaborating, extending or enhancing, either paratactically or hypotactically

Elaborating clauses are clauses which clarify or comment on the primary

clause Paratactic elaboration consists of exposition, exemplification and clarification Hypotactic elaboration is realized by non-defining relative clauses which can be finite or non-finite

Extending clauses are clauses which add something new to the primary

clause to extend its meaning Paratactic extension consists of addition, variation and