an analysis of lexical cohesion in document of the textbook of english for geology = phân tích liên kết từ vựng sử dụng trong những tài liệu của giáo trình tiếng anh chuyên ngành địa chất

LIST OF TABLES IN THE STUDY Table 2.1: frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devicesLCD 13 Table 2.3: Summary of the repeated words as topics or mainpoints.. Abbreviations in the

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CANDIDATE’S STATEMENT i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii

ABSTRACT iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS iv

LIST OF TABLES viii

ABBREVIATIONS viii

PART A: INTRODUCTION Error! Bookmark not defined 1 Rationale Error! Bookmark not defined 2 Scope of the study 2

3 Aims of the study 2

4 Methods of the study 2

5 Design of the study 3

PART B: DEVELOPMENT 4

Chapter 1: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4

1.1 Background knowledge of English for specific purposes (ESP) 4

1.1.1 Concept of ESP and its characteristics 4

1.1.2 English for geology (EG) 6

1.2 Cohesion and Coherence 6

1.2.1 Concept of cohesion 6

1.2.2 Cohesion vs Coherence 6

1.2.3 Main types of Cohesion 7

1.2.3.1 Grammatical cohesion 7

1.2.3.2 Lexical cohesion 9

Chapter 2: LEXICAL COHESIVE DEVICES ANALYZED IN “ESP TEXTBOOK IN DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL RESOURCES” 11

2.1 General description of EG text 11

2.1.1 Definition of EG 11

2.1.2 Some features of EG 11

2.2 Cohesion and structure of each unit in EG textbook 11

2.2.1 Text 12

2.2.2 Diagram and figure 12

2.2.3 Vocabulary 12

2.3 Lexical cohesion 12

2.3.1 Reiteration 12

2.3.1.1 Repetition 13

a Repetition of Nouns/ Noun Phrases 14

b Repetition of different parts of speech 16

2.3.1.2 Synonym 17

2.3.1.3 Antonym 20

2.3.1.4 Super-ordinate 22

2.3.2 Collocation 23

Chapter 3: MAJOR FINDINGS AND IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING EG EFFECTIVELY 25

3.1 Findings 25

3.1.1 The features of EG texts 25

3.1.2 Lexical cohesion used in EG texts 25

3.1.3 Survey questionnaires 26

3.1.3.1 Teachers and students’ knowledge of ESP especially EG 27

3.1.3.2 Teachers and students’ awareness to LCD in texts of EG 30

3.1.3.3.Teachers and students’ targets and present situation 32

a Difficulties of teachers in teaching EG 33

b Difficulties of students in learning EG 34

3.2 IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING EG EFFECTIVELY 35

3.2.1 Teachers 35

3.2.2 Learners 37

3.2.3 Materials 37

PART C: CONCLUSION 39

Suggestions for further study 39

REFERENCES 41 APPENDIX 1 I APPENDIX 2 III APPENDIX 3 V APPENDIX 4 X

LIST OF TABLES IN THE STUDY

Table 2.1: frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices(LCD) 13

Table 2.3: Summary of the repeated words as topics or mainpoints 15

Table 2.4: Examples of repeated Nouns/Noun phrases as terminologies 16 Table 2.5: Frequency of presence of Synonyms in 9 texts 18

Table 2.7: Frequency of presence of Antonyms in 9 texts 21 Table 2.8: Examples of super-ordinate found in texts 23 Table 2.9: Frequency of presence of collocation in 9 texts 24

Table 3.2 Ts and Ss’ focuses on teaching and learning EG 28 Table 3.3 The time teachers clarify terminologies 29 Table 3.4 The time Students study terminologies 29 Table 3.5 Ss’choosing means to know terminologies’ meaning 30

Table 3.10 Ts’ wishing Ss to do after EG course 32 Table 3.11 Ts and Ss’ awareness to Appearance of LCD 33 Table 3.12 Teachers’ difficulties in teaaching EG 34

Table 3.14 Difficulties of students in learning EG 35

Abbreviations in the study

FG Functional Grammar

ESP English for Specific Purposes

LCD Lexical Cohesive Devices

DMR, FG

of UMG

Department of Mineral Resources, Faculty of Geology, University of Mining & Geology

Part A: Introduction

1 Rationale of the study

This dissertation emphasizes the LCD as one prominent feature of FG which are really worthfocusing when they are put in ESP texts It is reasonable that this study will cover a number of concepts (ESP, EG, Cohesion, Coherence, Cohesive Devices, LCD) within the single constrained knowledge This work established clearly-defined links between linguistics and science Moreover, since the geological advances which make it possible to do this owe a great deal to this work, the transition from generative grammar to functional grammar can be comparatively straightforward one Although the author has not attempted to deal exhaustedly with all the problems of teaching and studying EG, the current work covers those issues which partly contribute to enhance the present situation

In particular, a lot of Vietnamese who speak English as the second language have paid heed to both General English and English for Specific Purposes; And ESP, nowadays,

is really taken notice more and more One of ESP subjects is English for Geology (EG) which is a significant component of science and a necessary means to learn the knowledge

of human beings about science including Geology

As with other branches of human knowledge, in education, educationists usually experience the problem of students after graduation According to the result of a survey done by students K44, K45, K46, K47 and K48 of Psychology, Information-library and Linguistics departments of Ha Noi National University, College of Social Science and Humanity in Feb, 2009, only 41.9% graduate students work in accordance with what they were trained after one year, 18.8% do not, 1.8% are unemployed, and 1.8% study post graduate It is said that most of the students study impractically, they try to pass the exams and graduate, even they have to be retrained the major before applying on the real work Therefore, to non-major English students, most of the geological students cannot certainly apply English especially EG on work well after graduating Generally speaking, it takes time to be retrained in order that they are able to transfer the theory into practice This sets out a question: How to make the knowledge of ESP become practical?

Being aware of the necessity of studying EG in Department of Mineral Resources, Faculty of Geology, University of Mining & Geology(DMR, FG of UMG) , EG is

arranged to be a compulsory subject, however, it seems to be nightmare to most of students due to many reasons which are from the different aspects like materials, textbook designs,

also expects the suitable method to help students study effectively and apply on the future jobs flexibly

Within the limitation of time and knowledge, it is too ambitious to touch on all

features of the whole ESP text book in Department of Mineral resources, but only

Lexical Cohesion in some remarkable documents after giving away the overview of ESP,

EG, Cohesion and Coherence

2 Scope of the study

Due to the limited time and scope of a minor M.A thesis, this study only analyzes

Lexical Cohesive Devices in some texts from the ESP textbook in DMR, FG of UMG

Therefore, it is reasonable to cover only enough number of typical texts to make the study reliable In order to be reliable, two survey questionnaires were handed out to five English

teachers and fifty forth year students studying in DMR, FG of UMG

3 Aims of the study

The aims of this study are to work out the following features:

1 Overview of the ESP and EG

2 Clarification of Cohesion and Coherence

3 Main types of Cohesion

4 Analysis in “ESP textbook in department of mineral resources”

5 Statistics of questionnaires to work out the findings

6 Problems in teaching and studying EG based on the findings

7 Implications for teaching EG effectively and some suggestions for further study

4 Methods of the study

In order to catch up with the targets of this study, it is indispensable to apply the appropriate methods which are both qualitative and quantitative approaches To the detail, the methods of description, statistics and analysis are applied flexibly by handing out the survey questionnaires, analyzing them and collecting the data from both nine typical texts and two survey questionnaires

In this study, with a view to examine the material currently used at DMR, FG of UMG in relation to the course requirements, much attention is paid to the analysis of the

syllabus and the material itself These analyses were based on Hutchinson and Waters‟

criteria on material evaluation (1987) and Halliday and Hasan‟s features on lexical cohesive devices used in material

5 Design of the study

This study is divided into three main parts:

Part A: Introduction

The first part mentions the rationale, aims, scope, methods and design of the study

Part B: Development

This part also consists of three smaller parts which are labeled by each chapter

Chapter 1 goes over the theoretical background of the research containing two

significant terms:

(1) Overview of ESP and EG

(2) Cohesion and Coherence

Chapter 2 puts across lexical cohesive devices in the chosen texts of EG from the

ESP textbook at Department of Mineral Resources, Faculty of Geology, University of Mining & Geology

Chapter 3 indicates some major findings of studying EG and suggests some

meaningful implications to reform teaching and studying ESP, especially EG more effectively

Part C: Conclusion

The last part shows the summary and touches on the further study

Part B: Development Chapter 1: theoretical background

This chapter sets out in detail all the knowledge which is foundational to the whole work related to the title consisting of concepts of ESP, EG, cohesion, coherence, lexical

cohesive devices

1.1 Background knowledge of English for specific purposes (ESP)

1.1.1 Concept of ESP and its characteristics

There are many ways to give the definition of ESP according to many differnet linguists, however, this study mentions only some typical definitions to clarify the term

“English for specific purposes is a term that refers to teaching or studying English for

a particular career (like law, medicine) or for business in general.“ (International Teacher Training Organization, 2005) There is a specific reason for which English is learned Pauline C Robinson (1989) describes ESP as a type of ELT (English Language

Teaching) and defines it as: “Goal-oriented language learning.“ (Robinson, Pauline C., ed Hywel Coleman, 1989, p 398) that means student has a specific goal that is going to be

attained

The origin of ESP and its development is closely linked with learners´ interest in various specific disciplines e.g ´Law English´, ´English for Hotel Industry´ or ´English for Tourist Management´ Students learn English for a specific purpose, represented by studying subject matter, to gain and develop appropriate knowledge and skills through English That is why English language is not seen as the main goal in the process of learning, but rather a vehicle for its acquirement “Students study ESP not because they are interested in the English language as such but because they have to perform a task in English Their command of the English language must be such that they can reach a

satisfactory level in their specialist subject studies (Robinson, Pauline C., ed Hywel Coleman, 1989, p 396)

The fact that “learners know specifically why they are learning a language” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1992, p 6) is a great advantage on both sides of the process The group of ESP learners is going to achieve the same goal in the field of studying branch, so learners´ motivation, in a form of the same aim, enables teacher to meet learners´ needs and expectations easier Learners and their ways of learning (´acquiring language´) are considered to be the main factors in the whole process Hutchinson and Waters (1992)

emphasize ESP to be an approach not product that means language learning not language use is highlighted They draw the attention to a ´learning-centered approach´ “in which all

decisions as to content and method are based on the learner‟s reason for learning” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1992, p 19)

Tony Dudley-Evans and Maggie Jo St John (1998) divided characteristic features

of ESP in two groups according to their ´absolute´ and ´variable´ attributes Concerning the absolute characteristics (according to Dudley-Evans and St John):

 ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner

 ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves

 ESP is centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities

The variable characteristics are seen in five points:

 ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines

 ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that

of general English

 ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation

 ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students

 Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but it can be used with beginners (Dudley-Evans, 1998)

Hutchinson and Waters (1992) do not emphasize any concrete limits of students´ level or age, they emphasize learners´ individual needs and specialist knowledge of using English for specific purposes Although there exist several aims and different purposes why learning English, the way of learning may be same “Though the content of learning may vary there is no reason to suppose that the processes of learning should be any different for the ESP learner than for the General English learner” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1992, p 18) They add that ESP methodology “could just as well have been used in the learning of any kind of English” (Hutchinson and Waters, 1992, p 18)

1.1.2 English for geology (EG)

Geology is the study of the planet Earth-the materials of which it is made, the processes that act on these materials, the products formed and the history of the Planet and its life forms since its origin Geology considers the physical forcer that act on the Earth, chemistry of its constituent materials, and the biology of its past inhabitance as revealed by

fossils (as cited in the ESP textbook at Department of Mineral Resources, Faculty of Geology, University of Mining & Geology)

1.2 Cohesion and Coherence

It is advisable to distinguish cohesion and coherence because they are still confused

by many people Therefore, this part will provide the concept of cohesion with its types and the distintion between cohesion and coherence

1.2.1 Concept of cohesion

As Kilborn & Kriei, 1999, Cohesion is the glue that holds a piece of writing together In other words, if a paper is cohesive, it sticks together from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph

Otherwhile, in Connor, 1996, Cohesion is considered as “The use of explicit linguistic devices to signal relations between sentences and parts of texts.“

In other case, Nguyen Hoa (2000) claimed that “Cohesion refers to the formal relationship that causes texts to cohere or stick together It is indicated by grammatical, logical and lexical relationships found among or between the sentences of a text”

1.2.2 Cohesion vs Coherence

In the Nunan (1993:116), “Coherence is the extent to which discourse is perceived

to hang together rather than being a set of unrelated sentences or utterances.”

Palmer (1983) indicated that “Coherence refers to the rhetorical devices, to ways of writing and speaking that bring about order and unity and emphasis”

Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize and create a text Mona Baker defined that cohesion is the network of surface relations which link words and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, and coherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie the surface text

In the case of cohesion, stretches of language are connected to each other by virtue

of lexical and grammatical dependencies In the case of coherence, they are connected by virtual of conceptual or meaning dependencies as perceived by language users Hoey (1991:12) gave the summary of the difference between cohesion and coherence as follows:

We will assume that cohesion is a property of the text and that coherence is a facet

of the reader’s evaluation of a text In other words, cohesion is objective, capable in principle of automatic recognition, while coherence is subjective and judgments concerning it may vary from reader to reader

1.2.3 Main types of Cohesion

1.2.3.1 Grammatical cohesion

Grammatical cohesion comes about through the selection of items that are related

in some way to those that have gone before

Classification of grammatical cohesion

a) Substitution

 Substitution is a process of replacing one item with another within a text

E.g.: Bananas are good for health I have one every morning

Substitution is based on the relation in the wording rather than in the meaning There are three types of Substitution:

E.g.: A: I don‟t think he is a liar

B: But for me he is (a liar)

There are 3 conditions of ellipsis: repetition, expansion and replacement Moreover, three main types of Ellipsis include:

 Nominal

 Verbal

 Clausal

c) Conjunction

Conjunction is defined as a word or group of words used to connect words, phrases,

or clauses It marks certain relationships between clauses and sentences

There are four categories:

 Additive

 Adversative

 Causal

 Temporal

E.g For the whole day he climbed up the steep mountainside, almost without stopping

And in all this time he met no one ►Additive

Yet he was hardly aware of being tired ►Adversative

So by the night time the valley was far below him.► Causal

d) Reference

Reference is the Replacement of words and expressions with pro-forms

e.g pronouns, pro-modifiers

There are three types of reference:

According to Halliday and Hasan, there are five major types of Cohesive Devices, and the fifth type of cohesive tie is lexical This one is divided into two main subtypes

including Reiteration and Collocation

a) Reiteration

It is said that this type is achieved by the selection of vocabulary In the term of Reiteration, it is also subdivided into four subcomponents consisting of Repetition, Synonym, Superordinate, and General Word It is the fact that the same word or a synonym

is sometimes used and repeated throughout the text In some other cases, related words such as superordinate or general words are used

Lexical items are also tied together simply by collocation For example, when we think of a bedroom, we also think of the bed, the pillow, the blanket, the reading lamb, and the mosquitoes net

Collocation, as a sub-class of lexical cohesion in Halliday and Hasan‟s model, covers any instance which involves a pair of lexical items that are associated with each other in the language in some ways Halliday and Hassan offer the following types of association:

- Various kinds of oppositeness of meaning: E.g Son/Daughter, Sad/Happy, Teach/Learn

- Associations between pairs of words from the same ordered series: e.g Monday/Friday, May/December, Summer/Spring

- Associations between pairs of words from the unordered lexical sets: e.g whole relations: Car/Break, Face/Eye, table/Feet

Part-Part-part relations: Eye/Ear, Mouse/Screen

Co-hyponymy: Red/Black, Chair/Table

- Associations based on a history of co-occurrence: e.g Rain, pouring, torrential, wet

As reported the theory of cohesive devices above which seems to be very complicated, this study‟s author would like to make it more simple and familiar with readers, especially EG teachers and students It is the reason why the research only focuses

on two main types of LCD including reiteration and collocation; to the detail, reiteration is divided into four subtypes consisting of repetition, symnonym, antonym, and super- ordinate

In summary, the above information brought all meaningful background knowledge which is the basic material for the following parts with descriptions, statistics and analysis

in the focus of the lexical cohesive devices used when going to the detail of texts

Chapter 2: Lexical cohesive devices analyzed in “Esp

textbook in department of mineral resources”

2.1 General description of EG text

The first part of this chapter reports the description of EG in general before coming

into the specification of cohesion used in texts

2.1.1 Definition of EG

EG is the study-in-English of the planet Earth- the materials of which it is made- the processes that act on these materials, the products formed and the history of the planet and its life forms since its origin

2.1.2 Some features of EG

The matter of fact that the author must master and follow the linguistic rules for working out long geological texts which are used so many kinds of cohesive devices such

as grammatical and lexical ones, moreover, the most common voice is passive

It is the truth that all the texts are full of vocabulary and terminology of EG However, the knowledge of Geology seems to be understood well by students and they can easily guess the equivalent meaning of terminology of EG

The difficulty in teaching EG lies on the leading students from knowing the Geology

to studying Geology in English Based on that, students can be confident to discover the knowledge of Geology more and more Therefore, both geological teachers and students have to face the problem that teachers have to find the most effective way to convey the knowledge of Geology in English, especially the language of specialized vocabularies and terminologies; students are in charge of enhancing their not only Geological but also English knowledge Of course, one thing cannot ignore is pointing out the coherence through the cohesive devices including lexical one in the texts

2.2 Cohesion and structure of each unit in EG textbook

It is apparent that each unit in EG textbook is divided into 3 main components, normally consisting of a text, one or more than one figure sometimes diagram, and a list of vocabulary with their relevant meaning All of them serve the content of the unit and there

is the combination among them

2.2.1 Text

Text which is the most important part in each unit is normally long and difficult to understand Students are sometimes confused by the complicated meaning inside It is

unavoidable to encounter much vocabulary of Geology which students usually consider as nightmare Even when they know the meaning of all vocabulary, but the intensive content of the text is also hidden To a major English learner, this type of text is not easy to manage Therefore, to the non-major English students, Geological students seem to find more and more difficulty in comprehending the whole knowledge of Geology

2.2.2 Diagram and figure

The content in major English text of Geology is really difficult to master Thank to the diagrams and figures which illustrate the text comprehensively Although the pictures are black and white, they help readers figure out all they wonder Perhaps, the black and white pictures or figures with simple symbols are not attractive or interesting, but the learners base

on them a lot to study EG effectively

2.2.3 Vocabulary

This part which is at the end of each unit is in charge of providing the Vietnamese meaning of all vocabulary It is the truth that all vocabulary belongs to ESP, of course, few students have ESP dictionaries and the rest will find easier to get the unit with this tool

Based on the background knowledge of reiteration in the beginning part, reiteration

is obviously related to the repetition of a lexical item To make analyzing text simplier, the author just devides reiteration into repetition, synonym, antonym, and super-ordinate To figure out how much important role they play, this section touches on their frequencies of occurrence in the texts of EG, from that, lexical cohesive functions and structures will be worked out

To find out the most general overview of the using lexical cohesive devices in the textbook of EG, the below table indicates the frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices(LCD) in nine chosen typical texts in that book to figure out the role of these devices used in those texts

Table 2.1: frequency of occurrence of lexical cohesive devices(LCD)

As seen in the above table, two major lexical cohesive devices which are used most are repetition and collocation, especially collocation with the average of more than 50 percent Obviously, antonym and super-ordinate rarely appeared in the texts Therefore, it means that repetition and collocation play more important role in the EG texts than antonym and super-ordinate

2.3.1.1 Repetition

In the term of lexical cohesion, repetition means repeating exactly a lexical item that appeared previously in the text In other words, repetition meets the demand of coherence and cohesion, besides, in some cases, the repetition users would like to attract the readers‟ attention even emphasize the important words In the area of this section, only two components of repetition which are mentioned and compared are repetition of Nouns/ Noun Phrases, and repetition of other parts of speech (except “to be” and “the”)

Table 2.2: Occurrence of types of repetition

a Repetition of Nouns/ Noun Phrases

As usual, the texts use key or topic words repeated for many times to emphasize the topic or main points Of course, repeated words are used as linking words to make the text coherence For example,

In text 1, ENERGY AND MINERAL RESERVE “CRISES”, the word “Mineral” which appears 7 times is also the topic; or the word “petroleum ” which is repeated 11

times is one of the main points

In text 2, the topic or title is “Mineral Exploration”, the author used the

word “Mineral” for 9 times and the word “Exploration” for 13 times

In text 3, “ZONING” is the title of the text and repeated 21 times

In text 4, like other texts, the word “ALTERATION” in the name “WALL ROCK ALTERATION” is used for 9 times

In text 5, the word “deposits” in this text “PLACER DEPOSITS” occurs 5 times, whereas the word “gold” as a main point of the text is repeated 11 times

In text 6, readers can see the word “Exploration” in the title “EXPLORATION FOR PLACER DEPOSITS” for 6 times

In text 7, “WEATHERING AS AN ORE FORMING PROCESS”, the word

“Weathering” seems to be emphasized a lot with 23 times of repetition

In text 8, the same to text 7, the word “Weathering” in the title “DEPOSITS RELATED TO WEATHERING” also appears 10 times

Last, in text 9, DEPOSITS RELATED TO REGIONAL METAMORPHISM, the word “metamorphism” occurs 15 times

The following table indicates the summary

Noun Phrases

Times of repetition

4 WALL ROCK ALTERATION Alteration 9

Table 2.3: Summary of the repeated words as topics or mainpoints

It is said that most of specialized vocabularies and terminologies normally are Nouns

or Noun Phrases, which provide students with a lot of content of the texts This leads students to find out which specialized vocabularies and terminologies are important and necessary to focus on and study Of course, learners based on them can catch up with the coherence of the texts and understand them deeply

Besides, Noun Phrases are also used again owning to the unique characteristics of ESP in general and EG in particular In other words, there is no choice to replace one Noun Phrase in ESP with an other one So, it seems to be compulsory to repeat them to make coherence in texts In short, repetition is available in not only EG but other ESP as well These are some examples to illustrate Nouns/ Noun Phrases as terminologies

zoning (21s), deposits (7s)

minerals (8s)

gold (11s) diamond(6s)

Weathering(23s), mineral(10s)

weathering (10s) metamorphism(15s)

11s =11 times Table 2.4: Examples of repeated Nouns/Noun phrases as terminologies

b Repetition of different parts of speech

The previous part is about using exact words again for some reasonable purposes, however, in this part, the author just wants to mention the repetition of some words which are different parts of speech with the similar meaning This type of repetition plays a bit fundamental role in making the texts coherence, but it is hopeful that students can be aware

of it and use effectively in reading comprehension and writing correctly

For example,

The energy has brought home not only to Americans, but also to the people of all

industrial countries, and some not so industrialized, that oil and gas reserves are

finite.(Text 1)

Where intrusive rocks or other sources of mineral concentration appear in windows

in this thrust, mineralization is not uncommon The Carlin gold mine is such an example Determining the depth to the trust is major problem, but small mineralized veinlets that

have penetrated the unfavorable silicic and volcanic allochthonous rocks are suggestive of

more concentrated mineralization in the autochthonous carbonate rocks below the thrust

fault.(Text 2)

Syngenetic deposits may be zonal parallel to a shore line or along a stream channel Any detection of a zonal pattern-epigenetic or syngenetic- is important to economic

geology because it helps predict changes in the style and grade of mineralization as a

deposit is developed and mined Zones of abstraction and leaching that are parts of lateral secretion, or solution-remobilization, should be reflected in cryptic or phase zoning.(Text

3)

Surface accumulation of heavy minerals can be detected by airborne pray or ground scintillometer surveys and, more directly, by heavy mineral exploration (panning) surveys;

stream sediment geochemistry generally constitutes a less appropriate tool In many cases

the mineralized gravel is situated directly on top of bed rock and covered by finer grained sediments (sand, peat, clay) Testing of the mineralized gravel requires Banka drilling or, if

possible, pitting.(Text 6)

Alter the mineralogy to greater either greater or less value by creating new valuable

or deleterious products.(Text 8)

It may convert a worthless material into a useful or valuable one, normally with a

change in composition and mineralogy; or It may simply “free” a resistant accessory mineral by disintegrating the rock-forming minerals around it (Text 8)

They may react with carbonate rocks or feldspars and other silicate minerals to become neutral or slightly alkaline, typically with hydrolysis reactions which consume H-ions and therefore raise pH in the fluid phase The rocks thus act as a buffer (Text 8)

Most metamorphic petrologists would perceive of regional metamorphism as

involving a series of isograds, the so-called Bar-rovian zones (Text 9)

2.3.1.2 Synonym

In some cases, the writer wants to remind the same information but they do not overuse the exact words like repetition Insteadingly, they tend to find synonyms to create the sentences multiform Finding a synonym of a word means that selecting another word with the same or similar meaning It is said that synonym is one of devices which makes the texts coherence and avoids ambiguity and tautology It is the fact that finding synonyms of words especially terminologies of ESP including EG is really difficult It is the reason why there are fewer synonyms than repetition

To analyze the detail of synonym in the texts, the author only divides it into four main parts of speech consisting of Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and others mainly including Adverbs

The following table illustrates frequency of presence of Synonyms in 9 texts

Table 2.5: Frequency of presence of Synonyms in 9 texts

Although being used not much as repetition and collocation since readers look through these nine texts, synonyms still play a vital role in making the texts in unification

and coherence The real situation is that there is not equal scale of using both different sorts of lexical cohesive devices and different parts of speech in each sort not except synonym However, it is a certain result because of the unique characteristics of ESP in general and EG in particular As statistics in the above table, we can see that the highest percentage of presence of synonyms belongs to Nouns containing much information that the author would like to convey to readers In contrast, Verbs seem to be rarely used as synonyms Besides, Adjective is also an important element for many writers to make use in not only in EG but also other fields; maybe due to the descriptive ability of adjectives

Using synonyms is considered to be the wise way to avoid using repetition too much and this helps the texts coherent and not tautological

The following table will give examples in detail

1 Countries & Nations; Requires & Needs & Demands; Increase & Reach & Rise;

Finite & Little; Relatively & Rather & Severely

2 Studies& Search & Discoveries; Zonation & Area & Areas & Range & District &

Location; Brought into & Found; Blind & Hidden; Perspicacious & Dispensable; Comparatively & Adequately

3 Species & Classes; Single orebody & Single ore shoot; Limited & Restricting;

Normal & Reversed;

4 Conditions & States; Fissure & Conduit; Various & Different; Fundamental &

Significant; Routinely & Repetitively

5 Magnetite & Blach sand; Travel downstream & Downstream transport; Disolved

& Disintergrated; Rich & Abundant; Seldom & Rarely; Commonly & Generally

6 Carperdolith & An alternative ; Basic & Simple & Individual; Generally &

Ultimately;

7 Forms & Structures & Produces & Constituents; Acidic country rock & Parent

rock; Related & Involved; Contains & Includes; Troublesome & Untrustworthy; Largest & Greatest & Top; Usually & Often; Considerably & Relatively

8 Components & Compounds & Variations & Constituennts & Composition &

Produces; Vital & Premise; Typically & Markedly & Principally; Widely & Generally

9 Industrial minerals & Rocks; Regional & Dynamothermal; Involving & Related

to; Widely & Broadly

Table 2.6: Examples of Synonyms used in texts

When exploring the texts, there are many pairs of words with the similar meaning

as the above table The one special characteristic is that all pairs of these words are the same part of speech However, the real situation readers can recognize easily and wonder if many pairs of words with the similar meaning but different parts of speech are synonyms

As example below:

The mining Congress Journal has indicated the demand, consumption, and deficit

of energy, metals, and nonmetallics, for the United States from 1950 o predictions for the year 2000 In 1950, the deficits were zero to $1 billion, respectively The predicted

deficiencies in the year 2000 are $22, $36, and $6 billion in the year 2000 (Text 1)

Where intrusive rocks or other sources of mineral concentration appear in windows

in this thrust, mineralization is not uncommon The Carlin gold mine is such an example Determining the depth to the thrust is major problem, but small mineralized veinlets that

have penetrated the unfavorable silicic and volcanic allochthonous rocks are suggestive of

more concentrated mineralization in the autochthonous carbonate rocks below the thrust

fault.(Text 2)

In the first example, predictions and predicted have the similar meaning, nevertheless, predictions is noun meanwhile predicted is adjective

Moreover, in the second example, a pair of words “concentration” and

“concentrated” has the similar meaning, but the word “concentration” is noun and the word “concentrated” is adjective Besides, another pair of words “mineralization” and

“mineralized” are the same In fact, this feature is so popular in not only EG texts but also

many texts of other fields And many people are aware that they are types of synonyms

To be sure of the answer, everybody should remind the theory of the synonym which has the same or similar meaning to the previous word and they are the same part of speech Therefore, some typical examples have been mentioned are considered as a kind of cohesive or linking device

2.3.1.3 Antonym

Antonym is a word that has the opposite meaning of the previous word and they are the words of the same part of speech

Unlike synonyms, writers tend to find more than one synonym for a word, while they have no choice to choose antonyms because there is normally only one antonym for each word It is the reason why antonym is used less than synonym To clarify the antonym, in the field of this study, antonym is divided into four major types according to parts of speech including Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives and Adverbs

Table 2.7: Frequency of presence of Antonyms in 9 texts

Due to the particular features of antonym, texts often used synonyms than antonyms Especially, adjectives-one part of speech- are the most popular in the texts up to

58 percent Meanwhile, Nouns, Verbs and Adverbs get less percentage of occurrence in the texts about more than 10 percent

These are some more examples to illustrate the comments:

The horizons from the unstructured saprolite upwards slide over the structured

saprolite as substratum

Geologists usually work from the hard earth‟s core towards the surface and stop at

the first signs of weathering, geographers study the surface forms and there origin but too

often forthe to look at the underlying rocks, pedologists and agronomists seldom reach

deeper than the first few metres (Text 7)

The word metamorphism can be defined both narrowly and broadly (Text 9)

Based on the analysis, we can find out two main groups to recognize antonyms

The first one that readers are only sure due to the meaning of those words such as narrowly and broadly, Initial and Last In fact, it means that we have to know exact meaning to

confirm if they are antonyms In some cases, we must focus on the context to guess its

“The nature of wall-rock alteration by hydrothermal processes offers strong

evedence in support of the view that many hydrothermal solutions are neutral or slightly

acidic at higher temperatures Helgeson (1964) states that hydrothermal alteration of

aluminosilicate rocks is essentially aprocess of trading H+ ions for other cations in the

rock”

More luckily, some devices lead readers to figure out antonyms more easily as this

example:

Color changes include bleaching, darkening, and the development of aureoles of

various colors Pastel colors of micas and clays are especially prominent around some ore

deposits and may form conspicuous leads to ore

Otherwhile, the second group belongs to pairs of suffixation which are easy to

realize; in other words, when we master the suffixation of antonyms, we completely work

out which are antonyms For example, unstructured and structure, uncommon and

common, dispensable and indispensable, ect

2.3.1.4 Super-ordinate

According to linguistics, Super-ordinate is a word the meaning of which includes

the meaning of another word or words

In the field of the EG texts, super-ordinates do not occur much; however, it is

popular in some ESP texts including EG texts, especially the scientists in this field would

like to describe the components, elements, or compounds related to Geology

Normally, readers find out some pairs of words that are super-ordinates

Nevertheless, in EG, it is advisable to mention groups of super-ordinates It means that

there are lists of words which are included in the meaning of a word

The most immediately obvious example of super-ordinate is general noun with a

list of elements, compounds or components normally as parts belong to a whole This point

has been assumed up to, however, in these texts, one of typical types of super-ordinate is a

list of proper nouns such as countries, cities or places to make the texts not only reliable

but also coherence

Some illustrated examples as follows

Texts Super-ordinates

1 United States Pennsylvania, Connecticut, New York, Alaska

2 Deposits Pima, Mission, Twin Butte, Goldfield, Tonopah, the East

Tintic district

3 Zoning Regional zoning, District zoning, Orebody zoning

4 Minerals Potassic, Propylitic, Phyllic, Argilloic, Advanced argillic,

Skarm

5 Phases Oxides, Silicates, Cassiterite, Chromite, Wolframite, Rutile,

Magnetile, ilmenite, Zircon, and Many gemstones

6 Sediments Sand, Peat, Clay

7 Scientists Geologists, Geographers, Pedologists, Agronomists

8 Reactions Hydrolysis, Hydration, and Oxidation

9 Rocks Graphite, Garnet, Emery, Kyanite-silliantle, Pyrophyllite,

Wollastonite, Asbestos, Tale, Mica and Gems-varieties of uranium

Table 2.8: Examples of super-ordinate found in texts

Actually, in the terms of this thesis, the writer does not touch on “the” is a kind of super-ordinate of “this, that, these, those”; because they always appear in every text

2.3.2 Collocation

In linguistics, there are so many definitions of collocation According to Hill and Lewis, collocation is considered to be pairs of words which usually co-occur This way of definition tends to be grammatical cohesive devices Therefore, the author of this study just wants to raise the geological terminologies including words or phrases which are one kind

of lexical cohesive devices, collocation, analyzed in the texts In other words, collocation is not limitted to a pair of words but long cohesive chains to be worked out of lexical relations of this kind with word pattern

According to Halliday and Hasan, the members of any each set have some kind of semantic relation to one another; and it is always possible to make cohesion between any pair of lexical items containing association with each other in some way in the language

there is a number of these pairs having similar patterns of tends to appear in similar contexts

In the field of this thesis, words or phrases are mentioned in collocational section and classified into five major components including Nouns (N)/Words (W), Noun Phrases (NP), Verbs (V)/Verb Phrases (VP), Preposition Phrases (PP), and Other Phrases (OP) Types of

Table 2.9: Frequency of presence of collocation in 9 texts

After analysis, collocation seems to be one of two important types of lexical cohesive devices Especially, collocation is considered to be the most vital factor of both

EG and ESP Understanding collocation means managing the knowledge that the texts convey even the detail