a study on vietnamese - english translation of construction texts = nghiên cứu việc dịch việt - anh các tài liệu chuyên ngành xây dựng

Newmark put these methods in the form of a flattened V diagram: SL emphasis TL emphasis Word-for-word translation Adaptation Literal translation Free translation Faithful translation

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15

Hanoi - 2011 Hanoi - 2011

FACULTY OF POST-GRADUATE STUDIES

Field: English Linguistics Code: 60 22 15

Supervisor : Assoc Prof Dr Lê Hùng Tiến

Hanoi - 2011

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Declaration……… i

Acknowledgements ……… ii

Abstract ……… ii i List of abbreviations……….iv

Table of contents ……… v

PART ONE – INTRODUCTION ………1

1 Rationale ……… 1

2 Aims of the study……… 1

3 Scope of the study ……….1

4 Methods of the study……… 2

5 Design of the study ……… 2

PART TWO – DEVELOPMENT……….3

CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND ………3

I.1 Translation theory………3

I.1.1 Definition of translation……… 3

I.1.2 Translation methods ……… 3

I.1.3 Translation procedures……… 6

I.1.4 Translation equivalence………10

I.2 Technical translation and construction texts………14

I.2.1 Technical translation……….14

I.2.1.1 Definition of technical translation………14

I.2.1.2 Technical translation methods……… 14

I.2.2 Construction texts………15

CHAPTER II: AN INVESTIGATION INTO VIETNAMESE – ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF CONSTRUCTION TEXTS………17

II.1 Translation of construction texts……… ……….17

II.1.1 Translation of lexical items ………17

II.1.1.1 Technical terms ……… 17

II.1.1.2 Synonyms ……… 19

II.1.1.3 Word meaning and word form……… 20

II.1.2 Translation of syntactic structures ……….20

II.1.2.1 Lengthy and complex sentences………21

II.1.2.2 Wrong sentence structures……….21

II.1.2.3 The use of passive structures……….22

II.1.2.4 The use of verb phrases and noun phrases……….23

II.2 Problems in translation of construction texts………24

II.2.1 Problems related to translation of lexical items……… 24

II.2.2 Problems related to translation of syntactic structures………25

II.3.The major causes of the problems ……… 28

II.3.1 Badly written source language texts……… 28

II.3.2 Insufficient language proficiency……… 29

II.3.3 Insufficient specialized knowledge……… 29

II.3.4 Lack of translation skills……… 29

II.4 Suggested for solutions to the problems………30

II.4.1 Deal with problems related to lexical items………30

II.4.2 Deal with problems related to syntactic structures……… 31

PART THREE: CONCLUSION………35

The implications for translation of construction texts……… 35

Limitations of the study……… 36

Suggestions for further research………37

REFERENCES……….38

PART ONE - INTRODUCTION

1 Rationale

In a globalized world, translation has played an indispensable role in facilitating international exchanges and cooperation in various fields, one of the most important of which is construction The construction industry has been crossing geographical boundaries for serving clients globally In Vietnam construction is one of the key industries in the country‘s industrialization and modernization process since the beginning of the 20th century The next following years may see the development in many fields of construction: house, road, bridge and so on In the open economy with many foreign investment projects and international co-operations, translation of construction texts, therefore, has become an urgent need to exchange information and update modern constructional technology from developed countries

Being a co-assistance of a translation agency, I am fully aware that the translation of texts in construction is a difficult job It requires the translators to continuously improve basic knowledge in construction field as well as skill in dealing with situations relating to lexical terms and syntactic structures…

That is the reason why I have decided to carry out a study on Vietnamese-English translation

of texts in construction for my MA minor thesis with the hope that the study can provide a general view and give useful suggestions to translation of construction texts

2 Aims of the study

The study is aimed at

- Investigating fundamental aspects in translation of construction texts

- Identifying the problems relating to translation of construction texts

- Finding out major causes of the problems and suggestions for solution to the problems

in translation

3 Scope of the study

As the translation of texts in construction belong to technical translation, it has it own characteristics The translators, therefore, has to try his/her best to fulfill his/her job Within the scope of this study, a study on the translation of construction texts is very exclusive to talk about However, due to the limitation of time, my minor thesis only deals with some aspects,

problems, major causes of problems and solution to the problems in translation of texts in construction

4 Methods of the study

In order to achieve the goal of the study, the main method is quantitative data analysis Firstly, the study goes through a number of materials on translation to build up a theoretical background for the paper

Then, as it was stated in the aims and scope of the study the writing bases on clarifying and analyzing construction texts Therefore, to accomplish the thesis, a flexible combination of methods is employed, which embraces reference to publications, analysis of collected data, and description of results

5 Design of the study

The study consists of three main parts:

Part one is the Introduction which includes: rationale, significance of the study, scope, aims,

and design of the study

Part two is the Development with two chapters:

Chapter 1 is theoretical background; it gives general information about translation theory, technical translation, and construction texts

Chapter 2 is the study; the main part of the study It deals with an investigation into Vietnamese – English translation of construction texts In this chapter, some aspects and problems in translation of construction texts are discussed Then, major causes of problems and suggestion for solution of the problems are analyzed and given

Part three is the Conclusion This part points out some limitations of the study and presents

implications for translation of texts in construction and suggestions for further research

PART TWO - DEVELOPMENT CHAPTER I: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND I.1 Translation theory

I.1.1 Definition

Translation has been approached from a scientific point of view by linguists through times and thus has been defined variously Different linguists have put the definition of translation in various ways, among which the followings stand out

We start with a definition quoted from the Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics

―Translation is the replacement of a text in one language (Source language –SL) by an equivalent text in another language (Target language – TL)‖ and it is then followed by other linguists, (Catford, 1965)

―Translation is the expression in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in another, source language, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences‖ (Larson, 1984)

These definitions, in spite of slight differences in the expressions, there are still common features which can be realized as the notion of movement between languages, content and the responsibility to find equivalents that preserve the attributes or characteristic features of the original text It is a notion of equivalence, which will be taken into consideration in the next part

I.1.2 Translation methods

Translation methods are ways of translating for the widest range of texts or text categories They provide a framework of principles, restricted rules and hints for translating texts and criticizing translations, a background for problem-solving

Translation methodology is considered the utmost importance and the guideline in translation job The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely The argument has been going on and on for a very long time Some writers favoured some

kinds of free translation: the spirit not the letter, the sense not the words, the message rather

than the form, the matter not the manner

Larson (1984) divides translation into two main kinds: literal and idiomatic According to the

author, literal translation is form-based while idiomatic translation is meaning-based For

some purposes, it is desirable to reproduce the linguistic features of the source text, as for

example, in a linguistic study of that language Literal translation sounds like nonsense and

has very little communicative value If two languages are related, the literal translation can

often be understood, since the general grammatical form may be similar But if they are not

related, the literal choice of grammatical form and lexical items makes the translation sound

foreign

In contrast to literal translation, idiomatic translation uses natural forms of receptor language,

both in the grammatical constructions and in the choice of the lexical items A truly idiomatic

translation does not sound like a translation It sounds as if it was written originally in the

receptor language Therefore, it is recommended that a good translator should try to translate

idiomatically However, translations are often a mixture of a literal transfer of the grammatical

units along with some idiomatic translation of the meaning of the text

Newmark (1988) suggests 8 translation methods divided into two main groups called semantic

translation and communicative translation Newmark put these methods in the form of a

flattened V diagram:

SL emphasis TL emphasis

Word-for-word translation Adaptation Literal translation Free translation

Faithful translation Idiomatic translation

Semantic translation Communicative translation

I.1.2.1 Word for word translation

Word for word translation is interlinear translation in which words are translated by their most

common meanings, out of context The SL word order is preserved

I.1.2.2 Literal translation

In literal translation method, lexical words are again translated singly, out of context The SL grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest equivalent

I.1.2.3 Faithful translation

A faithful translation attempts to reproduce precise contextual meaning within the constraints

of TL grammatical structures It transfers cultural words and preserves the grammatical and lexical abnormality

I.1.2.4 Semantic translation

Semantic translation is somehow similar to faithful translation However it takes more account

of the aesthetic value of SL text It is more flexible, less dogmatic than faithful translation Semantic translation admits the creative exception and makes some small concessions to the readership

I.1.2.5 Communicative translation

Communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in such a way that both language and content are readily acceptable and comprehensible to the

readership

I.1.2.6 Idiomatic translation

This method reproduces the message of the original but tends to distort nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms

I.1.2.7 Free translation

This reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original.

I.1.2.8 Adaptation translation

Adaptation translation is the freest form of translation mainly used for plays and poetry: themes, characters, plots preserved, SL culture converted to TL culture and text is rewritten

I.1.3 Translation procedures

Definition of Translation procedures: Translation procedures are methods applied by

translators when they formulate equivalence for the purpose of transferring elements of meaning from the source text (ST) to the target text (TT) (cited by Delisle)

More than one procedure can be seen in one translation, and some translations may result from

a cluster of procedures that is difficult to discern

There is some disagreement amongst translation scholars about translation procedures This disagreement is not only terminological but also conceptual There is even a lack of consensus

as to what name to give to call the categories, different labels are used (procedures, techniques, strategies) and sometimes they are confused with other concepts Furthermore, different classifications have been proposed and the terms often overlap

The following are the different translation procedures that Newmark (1988b) proposes:

 Transference: it is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text It

includes transliteration and is the same as what Harvey (2000:5) named "transcription."

 Naturalization: it adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to

the normal morphology of the TL (Newmark, 1988b:82)

 Cultural equivalent: it means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL

one however, "they are not accurate" (Newmark, 1988b:83)

 Functional equivalent: it requires the use of a culture-neutral word (Newmark,

1988b:83)

 Descriptive equivalent: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained

in several words (Newmark, 1988b:83)

 Componential analysis: it means "comparing an SL word with a TL word

which has a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their common and then their differing sense components."

(Newmark, 1988b:114)

 Synonymy: it is a "near TL equivalent." Here economy trumps accuracy

(Newmark, 1988b:84)

 Through-translation: it is the literal translation of common collocations, names

of organizations and components of compounds It can also be called: calque or loan

translation (Newmark, 1988b:84)

 Shifts or transpositions: it involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for

instance, (i) change from singular to plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii) change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of

an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth (Newmark, 1988b:86)

 Modulation: it occurs when the translator reproduces the message of the

original text in the TL text in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the

SL and the TL may appear dissimilar in terms of perspective (Newmark, 1988b:88)

 Recognized translation: it occurs when the translator "normally uses the official

or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term." (Newmark, 1988b:89)

 Compensation: it occurs when loss of meaning in one part of a sentence is

compensated in another part (Newmark, 1988b:90)

 Paraphrase: in this procedure the meaning of the CBT is explained Here the

explanation is much more detailed than that of descriptive equivalent (Newmark,

1988b:91)

 Couplets: it occurs when the translator combines two different procedures

(Newmark, 1988b:91)

 Notes: notes are additional information in a translation (Newmark, 1988b:91)

Vinay and Darbelnet (1965) first proposed 7 procedures operating on three level of style:

lexis, distribution, and message

The procedures were classified as direct or literal translation and oblique translation

Literal translation occurs when there is an exact structural, lexical, even morphological equivalence

between two languages According to the authors, this is only possible when the two languages are very close to each other

Oblique translation occurs when word for word translation is impossible

1.Borrowing 4 Transposition

2.Calque 5 Modulation

3 Literal translation 6 Equivalence

7 Adaptation

Borrowing refers to words taken directly from another language Generally, borrowings enter

a language through translation, and just as with false friends (false cognates) the translator

should strive to look for the equivalents in the SL that convey the meaning of the SL more

advantageously

Calque is used when a foreign word or phrase is translated and incorporated into another

language It is a special type of borrowing, consisting of borrowing an expression from the source language and translating literally each element

Literal translation means the direct transfer of the source text into the target language in a

grammatically and idiomatically proper way This technique is used when it is possible to transpose the source language message element by element into the target language and obtain

a text that is idiomatic

Transposition replaces words from one grammatical word class with another without

changing the meaning of the message For example, a verb is translated with a noun, a noun with an adjective, an adjective with an adverb and so on

Modulation is a shift in point of view, changing the point of view without changing the

meaning of the message Vinay and Darbelnet identify different types of modulation, some of which are abstract for concrete, cause for effect, means for result, a part for the whole, geographical change

Equivalence accounts for the same situation using a completely different phrase It generally

refers to the commonly accepted and used equivalents of idioms, proverbs, idiomatic expression and lexicalized terms

Adaptation refers to a shift in cultural environment, for instance, to express the message using

a different situation Translators have to adapt a source language situation when it does not exist in the target language or would be considered inappropriate in the target culture

According to Nida (1964) there are three types of translation procedures: additions, subtractions and alterations They are used (1) to adjust the form of the message to the characteristics of the structure of the target language, (2) to produce semantically equivalent structures, (3) to generate appropriate stylistic equivalences and (4) to produce an equivalent communicative effect

A translator makes an addition when he needs to clarify an elliptic expression, to avoid ambiguity in the target language, to change a grammatical category, to amplify implicit elements or to add connectors

Subtraction refers to the omission of words or phrases if they are not essential to the meaning

or impact of the text

Alterations are changes made because of incompatibilities between the two languages due to structural differences between the two languages such as changes in word order, grammatical categories and semantic misfits, especially with idiomatic expressions

In Delisle‘sopinion, translation procedures consider textual micro-units to say the result of the translation functions in relation to the corresponding unit in the source text

Delisle (1993) introduces some variations to the translation procedures and maintain the term procedure for Vinay and Darbelnet‘s procedures He also introduces a different terminology – translation strategies, translation errors, operations in the cognitive process of tranlating He lists several of these categories as contrasting pairs In his review of Vinay and Darbelnet which are all classified as opposing pairs except for the procedures of compensation and inversion such as: reinforcement/condensation and amplification/ economy, he reduces them

to a single pair: reinfocement/ economy Reinforcement is to use more words in the TT than the ST to express the same idea He distinguishes three types of reinforcement: Dissolution, explicitation, periphrasis Economy is to use fewer words in the TT than the ST to express the same idea He distinguishes three types of economy: concentration, implication, concision The other categories Delisle introduces are:

Addition vs Omission: He defines them as unjustified periphrasis and concision and considers them to be translation errors Addition is to introduce unjustified stylistics elements and information that are not in ST, omission is the unjustifiable suppression of the elements in the

Translation equivalence is the relationship between a source text (ST) and a target text (TT) that allows the TT to be considered as a translation of the ST The following are some elaborate approaches to translation equivalence

I.1.4.1 Nida and Taber : Formal Equivalence and dynamic Equivalence

Nida argued that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence— which in the second edition by Nida and Taber (1982) is referred to as formal

correspondence—and dynamic equivalence Formal correspondence 'focuses attention on the

message itself, in both form and content', unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon 'the principle of equivalent effect' (1964:159) In the second edition (1982) or their work, the two theorists provide a more detailed explanation of each type of equivalence

Formal correspondence consists of a TL item which represents the closest equivalent of a SL word or phrase Nida and Taber make it clear that there are not always formal equivalents between language pairs Nida and Taber themselves assert that 'Typically, formal correspondence distorts the grammatical and stylistic patterns of the receptor language, and hence distorts the message, so as to cause the receptor to misunderstand or to labor unduly hard'

Dynamic equivalence is defined as a translation principle according to which a translator seeks

to translate the meaning of the original in such a way that the TL wording will trigger the same impact on the TL audience as the original wording did upon the ST audience They say that 'Frequently, the form of the original text is changed; but as long as the change follows the rules of back transformation in the source language, of contextual consistency in the transfer, and of transformation in the receptor language, the message is preserved and the translation is faithful' (Nida and Taber, 1982:200)

I.1.4.2 Baker’s approach to translation equivalence

Baker‘s theory of translation equivalence combines both the linguistic and the communicative approach She explores the notion of non-equivalence at different levels and in relation to the translation process

 Non-equivalence at word level

It means that the target language has no direct equivalence for a word which occurs in the source text Common problems of non-equivalence then involve such cases as culture-specific concept, the SL concept is not lexicalized in the target language, the SL is semantically complex, the SL and TL make different distinctions in meaning, the TL lacks a subordinate, the TL lacks a specific term (hyponym), differences in physical or interpersonal perspective, difference in expressive meaning, difference in form, difference in frequency and purpose of using specific forms, the use of loan words in the source text

 Non-equivalence above word level

According to Baker‘s theory, non-equivalence above word level is referred to the differences

in collocation, idiom and fixed expression translation of the SL and the TL, which create potential pitfalls and can cause pose various problems in translation

 Grammatical equivalence

Differences in grammatical structures in SL and TL may cause considerable changes in the way the information or message is carried across For many cases, translators need to add or omit functional word or even information in the TT because of the lack of particular grammatical devices in the TL or the insufficient meaning in the ST Baker focuses on common grammatical devices such as number, tense and aspects, voice, person and gender

 Textual equivalence

Textual equivalence is achieved through the realization of cohesion or cohesive devices such

as reference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion from the source text into the target text It is up to the translator to decide whether or not to maintain the cohesive ties as well as the coherence of the SL text His or her decision will be influenced by three main factors, that is, the target audience, the purpose of the translation and the text type

 Pragmatic equivalence

Pragmatic equivalence is associated with implicatures and strategies of avoidance during the translation process Baker claims that the translator needs to work out implications of the ST

in order to get the ST message across The role of the translator is to recreate the author‘s intention in another culture in such a way that help the audience in the target culture understand it clearly

I.1.4.3 Koller’s categories of equivalence

Koller‘s (1989: 100-103) categories establish a descriptive framework which involves various types of equivalence, among which are: denotative, connotative, text-normative, pragmatic and formal equivalence

 Denotative equivalence

Denotative equivalence is achieved when the same extra-linguistic content is expressed in both source and target text (both texts refer to the same thing in the real world) This is the referential identity between SL and TL units This is equivalence of the extra linguistic content

of a text, otherwise called 'content invariance'

 Connotative equivalence

Connotative equivalence is realized, for example, when the linguistics choices (register) in the target text such as colloquial language, and style, archaic or modern language create similar associations to the original ones SL and TL words should produce the same communicative values in the mind of native speakers of the two languages Or the equivalence transmitted by specific choices between synonymous expressions with respect to level of style (register), the social and geographical dimension, frequency, etc

 Text-normative equivalence

The SL and TL words are used in the same or similar text types in their respective languages

 Pragmatic equivalence

Pragmatic equivalence means translating the text for a particular readership The expectations

of the target readers have to be considered It is also called ―communicative equivalence‖

 Formal equivalence

Possibilities of formal equivalence with respect to categories such as rhyme, verse form, rhythm, special stylistic forms of expression in syntax and lexis, word play, metaphor and so

on The SL and TL have the same formal-aesthetic features-orthographic or phonological features, etc

I.1.4.4 Vinay and Darbelnet and their definition of “full equivalence”

Vinay and Darbelnet view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which 'replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording' (ibid.:342) They also suggest that, if this procedure is applied during the translation process, it can maintain the stylistic impact of the SL text in the TL text According to them, equivalence is therefore the ideal method when the translator has to deal with proverbs, idioms, clichés, nominal or adjectival phrases and the onomatopoeia of animal sounds

With regard to equivalent expressions between language pairs, Vinay and Darbelnet claim that they are acceptable as long as they are listed in a bilingual dictionary as 'full equivalents' (ibid.:255) However, later they note that glossaries and collections of idiomatic expressions 'can never be exhaustive' (ibid.:256) They conclude by saying that 'the need for creating equivalences arises from the situation, and it is in the situation of the SL text that translators have to look for a solution' (ibid.: 255) Indeed, they argue that even if the semantic equivalent

of an expression in the SL text is quoted in a dictionary or a glossary, it is not enough, and it does not guarantee a successful translation

I.2 Technical translation and construction texts

I.2.1 Technical translation

I.2.1.1 Definition of technical translation

In terms of nature of SL text, Sofer (1991) classified translation into translation of literary works and translation of scientific and technical matters Technical translation covers scientific and technical matters such as books written on science, techniques like books on computers, instruction manuals on TV, washing machine, etc Technical translation is usually

done by the one with significant knowledge of linguistics and background knowledge of the specific technical field

According to Newmark (1981), ―technical translation is one part of specialized translation; institutional translation, the area of politics, commerce, finance, government etc…is the other‖ He adds that ―technical translation is potentially non-cultural and universal because the benefits of technology are not confined to one speech community Worldwide technology is developing rapidly and play an important role in human life Demand for technology transfer

is of logical necessity among nations The terms in technical translation, therefore, should be translated

Technical translation is primary distinguished from other forms of translation by terminology, its characteristics, grammatical features (passive, nominalization, third person, empty verb, present tense) and its technical format (technical report)

I.2.1.2 Technical translation methods

It is suggested by Newmark (1988) that when approaching a technical text, the translator read

it first to understand it, underline difficult words and then to assess its nature, its degree of formality, its intention, the possible cultural and professional differences between the readership and the original one Next, the translator should give the translation the framework

of a recognized house-style In addition, the translator has to take into account for everything, every word, every figure, letter, every punctuation mark

Newmark draws attention into two main points in the translation method of technical texts They are translating the title, and going through the text

 Translating the title

Newmark assumes that all titles are either descriptive or allusive A descriptive title succinctly names the subject and states the purpose, while an allusive title is suitable for some imaginative literature and popular journalism, and may have to be changed

The title of the SL article is often two long by English standard and could be omitted Besides, the ―general‖ word is best slightly shifted in translation to application In addition, the title has transparent collocation

He adds that most errors in technical translation are caused be misleading adjective plus noun collocation for standardized terms In non-standardized language, transparent or motivated verb plus object, or subject plus verb collocation can also be misleading

 Going through the text

It is recommended by Newmark that the translator should read the text through to get the gist and underline all words and structures that appear to contain problems: new technical terms, unfamiliar apparent transparent words with morphemes, figures and symbols, syntactic ambiguity, verb forms The translator, then, can translate sentence by sentence, making grammatical shifts to form natural language

In technical translation , the translator can be as and free in recasting grammar (cutting up sentence, transposing clause, converting verbs to nouns, etc.) as in any other type of informative or vocative text, provided the original is defective

Lexically, the main characteristic of technical language is its actual richness and its potential infinity The translator has to ensure equivalent level of register Also he/she has to adjust the translated sentence in each technical style

I.2.2 Construction texts

Nowadays due to the dominant role of the global needs for construction, there is a great opportunity for translation of construction texts (CT) The translation of CT is one part of technical translation; therefore, it is distinguished from other forms of translation by its characteristics, its terminology and syntactic features, etc

Construction texts appear in different forms such as construction reports, construction procedures and specifications, constructional contracts, constructional investment project, construction tender documents and so on In term of style, those texts are in neutral style, the highest priority is given to denotational meaning In addition, the language used in the texts is

usually precise and brief However, the construction texts are usually written for a special kind

of readership, who is specialized in construction Therefore, these documents are typically full

of technical terms and special expressions

Generally, there have been always challenges in translating lexical items and syntactic structures in CT The translation of those documents requires a good understanding of the basic principles and the correct use of its lexical items and grammatical structures

CHAPTER II:

AN INVESTIGATION INTO VIETNAMESE – ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF CONSTRUCTION TEXTS

II.1 Translation of construction texts

Translation is a very complicated process, it is complicated because it involves many aspects that need to be paid attention and clarified by the translator during the translating process Concerning to translation of technical texts in general and technical construction texts in particular, the documents are written for the experts or the ones specialized in the construction field not for the lay people The translator has to carefully take into considerations every aspect in order to make it successful translation Nonetheless, lexical items and syntactic structures are the two main aspects that should be discussed and analyzed in the translation process

II.1.1 Translation of lexical items

Lexical items are bone of technical texts in general and technical texts in construction in particular They embody the process of knowledge distillation In construction texts, a lot of special expressions like acronyms, abbreviation, figures, symbols, and formulas etc are used Thus translating lexical items accurately is very important and it becomes the first and foremost aspect that matters the translator

II.1.1.1 Technical terms

As suggested by Newmark (1988), the central difficulty in construction text translation is the technical terms, the new and difficult terminologies In fact, there have been no translators who are products of courses that provide technical translation training Thus, translating technical terms becomes a challenging matter for a translator of CT

The following examples are highly specialized terms in construction To render them into English is not an easy task at all

Vietnamese English

Đầm lèn Compaction

Đá dăm lu khô Dry bound macadam

Đất gia cố guđrong Tar-stabilized soil

Cốt liệu thô Coarse aggregate

Mặt đường tấm đan bê-tông đúc sẵn Precast slab concrete pavement

Vữa phun Shotcrete

Máy đổ bê tông ván khuôn trượt Slip-form paver

Khoan thăm dò địa chất Geological drilling

Múi cấp phối Grading envelope

Bê tông dự ứng lực Pre-stressed concrete

Bó thép kéo sau Post-tensioned tendon

Vôi sống Quicklime

The following extract is another example:

Việc đo cao độ miệng lỗ khoan phải được thực hiện bằng máy thủy bình hoặc máy kinh vĩ Sai số giữa 2 lần đo không vượt quá 50 L mm , với L là khoảng cách từ mốc cao độ tới lỗ

Z m – Cao độ miệng lỗ khoan khi bắt đầu hoặc kết thúc khoan

Z n – Cao độ mặt nước ở cùng thời điểm đó (m)

H n – Chiều sâu từ mặt nước đến mặt đất (đáy sông, đáy hồ ) khi bắt đầu khoan hoặc kết thúc khoan (m)

Cao độ lỗ khoan phải được ghi chép đầy đủ vào nhật ký khoan và theo quy trình

22TCN259-2000

The terms in bold may be new and unfamiliar to a non-construction majored translator He/she may be confused in getting the meaning of these terms in the source texts, and choosing the words in the target language so that the translation is correct may become challenging It takes the translator time and experience to find proper translated version

Measurement of drill hole elevation must be carried out by the level or the theodolite Error span between two measurement times will not be over50 L mm , with L is the distance

from the bench mark to drill hole calculated in km

When drilling is carried out by floating means, identification of drill hole elevation must be done and calculated based on the following formula:

Z m = Z n - H n (1)

While: Z m - Elevation of drill hole mouth when starting of finishing drilling

Z n - Elevation of water surface at the measurement time (m)

H n - The depth from the water surface to land surface (river bed, lake bed, etc) when starting of finishing drilling (m)

Elevation of drill hole must be fully noted in the drill diary and based on procedure 22TCN259-2000

II.1.1.2 Synonyms

According to Larson (1984:73) in any languages, there are synonyms which are words very similar in meaning Usually, the translator uses synonyms to avoid repetition and make the texts natural to the English However, these words may not have exact the same usage in sentence and paragraph structures

For example, the word ―giám sát‖ are translated by some synonyms like “to supervise”, “to

monitor”, “to watch over”, “to oversee”, and “to look out” The word “thẩm định”/ “đánh giá” can be translated by ―to evaluate”; “to appraise”; “to appreciate”; “to assess”; “to rate”, etc

These words are synonymous in nuclear meaning; however, they are used differently in different contexts The translator should be aware of the minute differences in meaning between words, in order to choose words, which have the right connotation Therefore, choosing the word to translate appropriately also matters the translator As the vocabulary of the source language will not match that of the target language, it will be of great help if the translator refers to synonyms words in case there are no none-word equivalents between the source language and the target language

II.1.1.3 Word meaning and word form

Another characteristic of language pointed out by Larson (1984:7) is that word form and word meaning are different between languages

Because languages combine meaning differently, therefore there will exist many words which

do not have an exact one-word equivalent in the target language In fact, a single word needs

to be translated by several words in the target language in order to give the same meaning, and vice versa, several words in the source language may be translated by a single word For

example, the word ―xây lắp‖ can be translated by the expression ―construction and

installation‖, and the expression ―khoan thăm dò địa chất‖ can be translated by ―geological drilling‖, or the expression ―công tác lấy mẫu thí nghiệm‖ is rendered by ―taking test sample‖,

etc

It may be possible to translate a word with a phrase, which comprise a word with similar

meaning, and a phrase to add further definition For example, the Vietnamese word ―thiết bị

khoan thăm dò‖ is translated into English by the phrase ―equipments using for drilling survey‖

It is also stated by Larson (1984:73) that a single lexical item (word) may have several meanings other than the one that usually comes to mind In fact, there will be a primary meaning which is the meaning suggested by the word when it is used alone and secondary meaning- the additional meaning that a word has in context with other words For example, a

simple word “là” in Vietnamese may be translated either as “is/are” or “comprise” or

“include”, etc, as in the following example:

- Các dự án đầu tư xây dựng mà Nhà nước có mức góp vốn pháp định từ 30% trở lên là những

dự án…

(Constructional investment projects to which Vietnamese State owned enterprises contribute

at least thirty percent of the legal capital shall comprise projects….)

II.1.2 Translation of syntactic structures

Another aspect that really confronts the translator of construction texts is translating syntactic features This part will look into some grammatical features, which frequently appear in the source text and its English version It will also discuss the difference between Vietnamese and English in the syntactic structures, which affect the success of translation

II.1.2.1 Lengthy and complex sentences

The technical documents in construction are almost written clearly, however, there are some bad texts with ambiguous syntactic structures In Vietnamese version, the documents sometimes have long and complex sentences For example:

Theo đề án, từ nay đến năm 2015, Việt Nam sẽ tập trung thu hút đầu tư, phát triển các đô thị lớn, và đô thị trung bình có vai trò, vị thế là hạt nhân, tăng trưởng chủ đạo cấp quốc gia, cấp vùng, cấp tỉnh…gắn với việc xây dựng vùng kinh tế trọng điểm, các khu kinh tế tổng hợp nhằm tạo ra thế cân bằng trên các vùng lãnh thổ quốc gia, góp phần thúc đẩy sự phát triển của của toàn bộ nền kinh tế đất nước, và cũng dành nguồn lực phù hợp để đầu tư, phát triển các đô thị trung bình và nhỏ trên cơ sở khai thác triệt để các lợi thế, tiềm năng của tất cả các vùng, liên kết hỗ trợ nhau làm cho tất cả các vùng đều phát triển

It can be seen that there is no full stop in this long sentence so it is difficult for the readers to understand its meaning The translated version, therefore, sounds ambiguous and not natural in English

According to the project, from now on to 2015, Vietnam will focus on attracting the investment

in developing large and medium urban areas which are the core key to the development of the

nation, regions and provinces together with building important and complex economic zones, aiming at creating the balance among various regions in the country, contributing to the development of the whole national economy, and spending necessary resources on investing and developing advantages and potentials of all regions thoroughly and creating opportunities for these regions to support each other for their all development

II.1.2.2 Wrong sentence structures

In Vietnamese versions, sentences are sometime wrong and ambiguous because of mistakes between noun phrases (NP) / verb phrases (VP) and S-V sentence, lack of subject or predicate For example:

Khi khoan vào trong các tầng đất, sử dụng mũi khoan chòng ba chóp xoay hoặc ống khoan thổi rửa bằng dung dịch đưa mùn khoan lên Đến độ sâu cần lấy mẫu vét sạch đáy lỗ khoan để đưa dụng cụ lấy mẫu xuống Khi khoan vào trong tầng đá dùng mũi khoan hợp kim hoặc kim cương khoan đến độ sâu lấy mẫu, sau đó chèn bẻ mẫu

The above examples are verb phrases They are not sentences so the full stop cannot be used at the end of them The incorrect grammar makes both the SL and TL texts clumsy and ambiguous

When drilling into soil layers, use tricorne bit or drill pipe blowing and cleaning by liquid to take drilling dust up At the depth of taking sample, cleaning drill hole bottom to send taking sample tool down When drilling into stone layer, use alloy, or diamond-drilling bit until the depth of taking sample, then tamp to crack sample

II.1.2.3 The use of passive structures

In most languages, there is always the passive structure However, the function and usage of the passive structure differs from language to language In English, passive sentences are more often used than active ones especially when the agent of the sentences cannot be specified It

is said that the use of passive structures is more subjective in the formal communication and the scientific written texts Meanwhile in Vietnamese, the use of passive structures is not much

paid attention to as in English Vietnamese language has a group of words such as ―bị”,

“được”, “phải‖ to combine with main verbs in order to express passive meaning In formal

communication and scientific written texts like construction texts, a Vietnamese active sentence can be translated by the passive one in English

For example:

- “ Việc kí kết hợp đồng giữa bên mời thầu và bên trúng thầu là bắt buộc Hợp đồng phải thực hiện theo nguyên tắc sau”

( A contract must be signed between the party calling for tenders and the successful tenders

Such contact must be signed in accordance with the following principles.)

- “Xét thầu là quá trình phân tích, đánh giá các hồ sơ dự thầu để tuyển chọn bên trúng thầu (Tender evaluation is the process by which tenders are analysed and evaluated for the purpose

of selection of successful tenders)

Besides, some imperative sentences in Vietnamese versions are changed into passive voice in English

- ―Phải thực hiện các công tác kết thúc lỗ khoan theo quy định khoan thăm dò cà các quy

định, nghị định của nhà nước hiện hành về Quản lý đầu tư xây dựng cơ bản.”

(All tasks of the finishing drilling holes must be carried out in accordance with the drilling

investigation survey principles and current regulations as well as decrees in terms of managing basic construction investment issued by Government.)

- “Lập báo cáo khảo sát địa chất công trình lập cho từng khu khảo sát: Khu nhà hỗn hợp và

văn phòng, khu nhà thấp tầng, khu nhà biệt thự và khu trường học…”

(The geological survey is carried out for each survey area: Complex Building and office, low

building, villas and schools…)

- Lắp các dầm hộp chủ của cầu dẫm bằng cần cẩu sau đó hàn liên kết các công son tại hiện trường (TCKSTK/3-2003/22)

(Main box girders of beam bridge are installed with a crane Cantilevers are subsequently welded on site (SBD/95)

II.1.2.4 The use of verb phrases and noun phrases

The use of verb phrases and noun phrases in different languages is also different English language uses mainly NP meanwhile Vietnamese language uses mainly VP It can be seen that

in formal written texts, nouns and noun phrases are used to create formality, clarity, and precision for the texts in English Thus, there is a tendency that the verb phrases are turned into NP when translating from Vietnamese to English For example:

- “Quy chế đấu thầu được ban hành nhằm thống nhất quản lý hoạt động đấu thầu trong cả

nước, đảm bảo tính đúng đắn, công bằng, và có tính cạnh tranh trong đấu thầu dự án và từng

phần dự án đầu tư về tuyển chọn tư vấn, mua sắm vật tư thiết bị và thi công xây lắp để thực hiện các dự án đầu tư …”

( The Regulations on Tendering are issued with the objective of achieving unified

management of tendering activities throughout the country and ensuring correctness,

objectivity, and competitiveness in tendering for the whole or part of investment projects with

respect to the selection of consultants, the procurement of materials and equipment, or construction and installation for the purpose of implementation of investment projects….)

In the above translation, the Vietnamese verbs in bold: “quản lý”, “tuyển chọn”, “mua sắm”,

“xây lắp” and “thực hiện” are translated in English by the nouns (and noun phrases)

―management”, “selection”, “procurement” “construction and installation” and

“implementation”

II.2 Problems related to translation of a construction texts

II.2.1 Problems related to translation of lexical items

As a matter of fact, the translator‘s training has its own deficiencies Whether the translator is

a specialist in construction or majored in English, he/she is half-trained Due to the lack of background knowledge in construction field, the translator has difficulties in finding the TL equivalences for SL lexical items, especially the technical terms

The translator often translates inaccurately the technical terms, the highly specialized terms in

construction and sometimes, he/she does not know how to translate What are called “ đầm

lèn”, “cốt liệu thô”, “vữa phun”, “bê tông dự ứng lực”, “bó thép kéo sau”, etc? Looking into

these words, of course, if the translator is not an expert in construction field, he/she might not understand them Thus translating them correctly is difficult Moreover, these terms are

usually translated literally by combining the meaning of each word but only by combining the

meaning of each word, the terms can not be translated accurately like: “đường không có giải

phân cách” (undevided highway), “đường trục” (devived arterial road), “bê tông cốt thép” (reinforced concrete), “cầu lắp ghép” (segmentally comstructed bridge), etc

This excerpt is another example:

- Các qui định cho việc thiết kế chống động đất, phương pháp thiết kế theo mô hình chống

và giằng, thiết kế các cầu bê tông theo phương pháp phân đoạn và cầu bê tông cốt thép lắp ghép cũng được trình bày trong chương này…

Phrases in bold might have caused the translator a headache to find proper translated version for these technical terms With the aim at making readings acceptable and understandable by the English readers, the translator reproduces these terms of identical meaning or only near equivalent The translated version is changed, and a little different from original in terms of style and effect

(In this chapter, provisions for seismic designs, analysis by the trut-and-tie model, and design

of segmentally constructed concrete bridges and bridges made from precast concrete elements are included….)

Besides, the use of synonyms is also obstacle to a translator of construction texts The translator often uses a variety of English words which are very similar in meaning to render the Vietnamese words with the hope of avoiding repetition and making the texts natural to the English However, these words do not always have the same meaning and usage in different contexts, or the equivalent target language synonyms have several meaning in the source language Therefore, the use of synonyms in translation sometime makes the translated versions become incorrect or ambiguous to readers

For example:

- Ứng lực do tác động kéo xuống với cọc hay cọc khoan do lún của đất khối tiếp giáp với cọc

hay cọc khoan phải được xác định theo qui định của phần 10

(Force effects due to the down drag on piles or drilled shafts resulting from settlement on the

ground adjacent to the piles or shafts shall be determined in accordance with the provision of

section 10.)

The word “determine” and “specify” are synonyms, however without the careful consideration, the translator replace ―determined‖ by ―specified‖ in this case: ―Force effects

due to the down drag on piles or drilled shafts resulting from settlement on the ground

adjacent to the piles or shafts shall be specified in accordance with the provisions of section

10.” The translation can be inaccurate and the meaning is unclear

II.2.2 Problems related to translation of syntactic structures

Beside lexical items, the syntactic structures are big obstacles for the translator when translating construction texts

In fact, it usually causes headaches to the translator in getting the meaning of long and complex sentence in the source text The translator misunderstands the meaning of these Vietnamese sentences and accordingly, he/she translates them inaccurately

Let us consider the following example:

“ Công tác theo dõi, ghi chép trong khi khoan được chính xác, kíp trưởng và thư ký khoan phải thường xuyên nắm vững độ sâu của đáy mũi khoan, độ sâu của chân ống vách, độ sâu của mặt lõi (hay mẫu) lấy được đồng thời thường xuyên theo dõi đầy đủ các yếu tố phản ánh tình hình địa tầng, tình hình khoan vào từng loại địa tầng như: cảm giác tay khoan, tiếng vọng ởđáy lỗ khoan, mầu sắc và lượng nước rửa, tình hình tự lún hay tự tụt của cột dụng cụ khoan, chiều cao động, tình hình đóng tạ, tốc độ khoan, áp lực lên đáy lỗ khoan v.v…”

This sentence is long and complicated It causes difficulty for translator in analyzing and gathering the meaning in both SL and TL The translated version below is considered a failure

of translation as the meaning goes differently from the source text

(Monitoring and noting during drilling are exact, team leader and drill secretary must always know the depth of drilling bit bottom, the depth of well casing foot, the depth of core surface and bottom (or sample) taken and also frequently supervise element reflecting layer progress, drilling progress into each kind of layer such as: feeling of drilling hand, echo from bottom of drilling bit, colour and amount of cleaning water, self-sunk condition or self-slipping condition of the pillar of drill tools ,hundredweight driving progress, speed of drilling, pressure on drill hole bottom, etc.)

The sentence in Vietnamese version is ambiguous ―Công tác theo dõi, ghi chép trong khi

khoan được chính xác, kíp trưởng và thư ký khoan phải thường xuyên nắm vững độ sâu…” It

is translated in to English: “Monitoring and noting during drilling are exact, team leader and

drill secretary must always know the depth of drilling bit bottom…” Analyzing carefully the

meaning of the whole sentence, it must be translated as ―In order for monitoring and noting

during drilling to be exact, team leader and drill secretary must always know the depth of drilling bit bottom…”

The correct translated version should be:

In order for monitoring and noting during drilling to be exact, team leader and drill secretary must always know the depth of drilling bit bottom, well casing foot, core surface and bottom (or sample) taken and also frequently supervise element reflecting layer and drilling progress into each kind of layer such as: feeling of drilling hand, echo from bottom of drilling bit, colour and amount of cleaning water, self-sunk or self-slipping condition of the pillar of drill tools, hundredweight driving progress, speed of drilling, pressure on drill hole bottom, etc

Moreover, in Vietnamese version, there are many unnecessary repetitions that make the

sentence poor and difficult to translate; ―độ sâu của đáy mũi khoan, độ sâu của chân ống vách,

độ sâu của mặt lõi ” (the depth of drilling bit bottom, well casing foot, core surface and

bottom) and “tình hình địa tầng, tình hình khoan vào từng loại địa tầng”(layer and drilling

progress)…It can be seen that the repeated words are omitted when translated into English

In addition, in term of passive structures, as discussed in the earlier part, the passive structures are different between Vietnamese and English In English, the passive voice is more widely used with different types of passive structures meanwhile Vietnamese language only has a group of words such as ―bị‖, ―được‖ to combine with the main verbs in order to express passive meaning However many Vietnamese passive sentences do not contain ―bị‖ and

―được‖ whereas many others containing them are not passive at all For examples:

- “Chiếc cầu bị sập.”

- “Dầm thép bị gỉ.”

- “Móng bị lún.”

The above sentences have “bị” therefore the translator may mistake them for passive

structures

Moreover, when using the passive structures in the translation, the translator can sometimes fail to interpret the meaning of the SL version For example:

- Một số vết nứt trong vùng chịu kéo nén trước có thể được chấp nhận

(Some cracking in the pre-compressed tensile zone may be permitted.)

- Dòng lực trong vùng neo có thể ước tính bằng mô hình chống và giằng như qui định trong

điều 5.6.3

(The flow of force in the anchorage zone may be approximated by a trut-and-tie model as

specified in Article 5.6.3.)

- Phải lập báo cáo khảo sát địa chất công trình lập cho từng khu khảo sát: Khu nhà hỗn hợp

và văn phòng, khu nhà thấp tầng, khu nhà biệt thự và khu trường học…

(The geological survey is carried out for each survey area: Complex Building and office, low

building, villas and schools…)

These above sentences are acceptable and still keep the communicative message, however the denotational meanings have been changed The meaning of the verbs in the TL are deviated from the SL verbs

Besides, as mentioned in the earlier part, Vietnamese sentences are sometime incorrect and ambiguous because of mistake between NP/VP and S-V sentence, lack of subject or predicate

It does not only make the SL texts clumsy but also cause difficulty for translator to render into

TL texts For example:

- Công tác khoan khảo sát địa chất công trình của Dự án được lựa chọn là phương pháp khoan xoay thăm dò, bơm rửa bằng dung dịch sét kết hợp hạ ống vách tránh sập vách lỗ

khoan có lấy mẫu thí nghiệm trong phòng, tiến hành thí nghiệm SPT Công tác khoan thăm

dò theo quy định 22 TCN259-2000

The phrase in bold in the ST is a mistake between a noun phrase and a complete sentence It makes the ST version ambiguous therefore translating it into English becomes challenging In order for both ST and TL understandable and acceptable by readers the sentence must be

―Công tác khoan thăm dò phải tuân thủ theo quy định 22 TCN259-2000.”

(Engineering geological drill survey method of the project selected is the survey rotary drilling, pumping and cleaning by drilling fluid combining with sinking drill hole wall collapse proof well casing and taking sample and carrying out SPT test Drill survey must comply with procedure 22 TCN259-2000.)

II.3.The major causes of the problems

There are many causes of problems in translating construction texts They may come from different factors subjective or objective such as the quality of SL texts themselves, the translators‘ competence in translation, etc Although the number of causes is great, the major ones are categorized as follows:

II.3.1 Badly written SL texts

There are many causes of the problems in translation of construction texts one of which is the badly written SL texts It is not an exceptional case that there are Vietnamese texts written with wrong or ambiguous expressions and structures In fact, the writer may use incorrect words or unnecessary/repeated words, and omits words, etc He/she may write wrong sentence structures, long and complicated sentences, sentences without subjects, predicates, empty verbs, and successive nominalization, passiveness, etc That makes the readers fail to understand and get the gist of the text They sometime may understand it incorrectly thus translating it inaccurately is an inevitable problem

II.3.2 Insufficient language proficiency

The translators of construction texts can be divided into two main groups The first group includes experts in construction whose jobs are concerned with construction The second one falls into those who are majored in English

As for the first group of construction translators, they may have long time and experience working with this kind of materials Although they are not specialized in English, they know a large number of constructional terms and their English equivalents However, their insufficient proficiency of English is the root of problems They may use wrong vocabulary and incorrect

grammar when translating Therefore, the translated versions they produce can become poor and unnatural English and they are ambiguous to readers

II.3.3 Insufficient specialized knowledge

The second group of translators, who are specialized in English, are suffered from this disadvantage They have a quite good English proficiency and have studied linguistics and translation theories Nonetheless, they have problems in interpreting specialized knowledge even though they know the meaning of all separate words This is easy to understand because

CT is a difficult natural scientific and technological branch It is full of technical terminologies, new and difficult terms Even constructional experts find it difficult to understand Vietnamese versions not to mention non-constructional experts who try to get the meaning of the technical terms in those texts and interpret them into English Therefore, translating CT accurately is a big problem for this group of translators

II.3.4 Lack of translation skills

We cannot deny the truth that the translation skills are very important to the success of translation For both groups of translators, the experts in constructions or English specialized translators, without good translation skills, they cannot bring about good translations The translators who lack of translation skills might not know what kind of equivalence should be given the highest priority or what kind of translation techniques or procedures should be applied to attain good translated versions In fact, they may have problems with the word choices and syntactic alterations when translating; therefore, they may produce the translated versions not equivalent with the SL texts

II.4 Suggested solutions to the problems

To solve the problems, the translator has to go from the root of them, it is the causes As mentioned above, there are many causes of the problems The translator who wants to translate

a text smoothly and successfully, he/she has to analyze the text carefully and understand what problems he/she is facing with What are the problems? The problems are related to what aspects in translation? The solutions to the problems are varied; however, the followings may

be some useful suggestion for solution to the problems

II.4.1 Deal with problems related to lexical items

As mentioned above, the insufficient knowledge of technical terms can lead to the inaccurate and ambiguous translation As a matter of fact, due to the lack of specialized knowledge in construction; the translator finds it difficult to understand technical terms even in the SL, not

to choose the correct words or equivalences in the TL To overcome the problems related to lexical items, different methods can be applied to translate successfully However, the first step for any translator is to read the text thoroughly to get the gist, the intention, the formality, the readership… by general reading And close reading comes after to underline new and difficult words For these words, the translator can translate by looking up in the dictionary the meaning, form, and usage However, some words are quite difficult and unable to translate by looking up in the dictionary; they can be rendered by connecting the meaning of words with careful analysis Besides, some words can be interpreted by reference from experts in construction for their empirical experience

In addition, to handle with the problems due to the different in word form and word meaning between Vietnamese and English and the use of synonyms in translation, the translator can accumulate vocabulary knowledge As the possession of good vocabulary can help the translator choose the correct words so that the translation is accurate A wide range of vocabulary studying tasks can achieve this One of a good ways to build up vocabulary knowledge is reading and translating construction materials It can help the translator enrich not only the vocabulary in construction field but also the English lexical competence

Here are some good examples of Vietnamese-English translation of lexical items in construction:

Bàn chấn động Vibrating plate

Bảo dưỡng thường xuyên Ordinary maintenance

Bêtông nhựa Asphalt concrete

Bêtông rỗng Porous concrete

Cào xới Scarification

Chỉ số dẻo Plasticity index

Độ thấm nước Permittivity

Đường trục Devided artificial road

Hệ số hấp thụ tiếng ồn Sound absorption coefficient

Khe thi công Construction joint

Làm bằng, làm nhẵn Shaping, Finishing

Lớp chống bám Sealing coat

Lu Roller

Lu bánh cứng Rubber-tyred roller

Máy bào đất Planing machine

Sai số cao độ Tolerance in level

Vật liệu thấm Filter material

II.4.2 Deal with problems related to syntactic structures

Because of poor and wrong SL texts, the translator sometimes fails to interpret long and complex sentences or sentences with incorrect structure like lack of subject or predicate, etc

To deal with these problems the translators need to choose the way thought to be the most appropriate with the final aim of satisfying best the English target reader

For instance, facing such long and complicated sentence like the following example, the translator has to read through it and carefully analyze the meaning Then the best approach to apply for such case is to split this sentence into short ones to clarify it Besides, some changes can be made so that the translated version sounds natural and understandable Nonetheless, it must ensure the fact that the meaning and the intended communicative value is the same

- “Theo đề án, từ nay đến năm 2015, Việt Nam sẽ tập trung thu hút đầu tư, phát triển các đô thị lớn, và đô thị trung bình có vai trò, vị thế là hạt nhân, tăng trưởng chủ đạo cấp quốc gia, cấp vùng, cấp tỉnh…gắn với việc xây dựng vùng kinh tế trọng điểm, các khu kinh tế tổng hợp nhằm tạo ra thế cân bằng trên các vùng lãnh thổ quốc gia, góp phần thúc đẩy sự phát triển của của toàn bộ nền kinh tế đất nước, và cũng dành nguồn lực phù hợp để đầu tư, phát triển các đô thị trung bình và nhỏ trên cơ sở khai thác triệt để các lợi thế, tiềm năng của tất cả các vùng, liên kết hỗ trợ nhau làm cho tất cả các vùng đều phát triển.”

(According to the project, from now on to 2025, Vietnam will focus on attracting the investment in developing large and medium urban areas which are the core key to the development of the nation, regions and provinces together with building important and

complex economic zones All these activities are aimed at creating the balance among various regions in the country, contributing to the development of the whole national economy In addition, necessary resources will be spent on investing, developing advantages and potentials

of all regions thoroughly, and creating opportunities for these regions to support each other for their all development.)

The translated version seems clearer and easier to understand with the suitable changes The long and complicated sentence is splitted into three smaller ones The verb phrases are added subject to turn into complete sentences So that the meaning of translated version is clearer, however it still keep the original meaning of the SL text

In another example:

-“Dự báo các chỉ tiêu phát triển đô thị theo Đề án Điều chỉnh Định hướng quy hoạch tổng thể

hệ thống đô thị Việt Nam đến năm 2025:

Dân số đô thị cả nước khoảng 46 triệu người, tỷ lệ đô thị hóa đạt 45% Cả nước có khoảng 1.243 đô thị, trong đó có 9 đô thị loại đăc biệt và loại I, 17 đô thị loại II, 50 đô thị loại III, còn lại là đô thị loại IV, V…

Nhu cầu đất xây dựng đô thị khoảng 370.000 ha, bình quân 80m2/người.”

(The estimated urban development index in the Project of adjusting General Plan of

Vietnamese urban system until 2025 will follows:

Nationwide urban population is 46 million; urbanization rate reaches 45% ; there are 1243

urban areas, including 9 Special and Rate 1 urban areas, 17 Rate 2 urban areas, 50 Rate 3 urban areas, and Rate 4, Rate 5 urban areas for the rest … in the whole country

There will be a demand for 370 000 ha for urban construction (at the average of

80m2/person)

In the above example, there are a verb phrase and two noun phrases not complete sentences In order for the translated version is understandable by readers and the grammar is correct, changes are made in both SL and TL texts The translator added subject and predicate to those phrases when translating them from Vietnamese to English

The verb phrase: ―Dự báo các chỉ tiêu phát triển đô thị theo Đề án Điều chỉnh Định hướng

quy hoạch tổng thể hệ thống đô thị Việt Nam đến năm 2025” and the two noun phrases ―Dân

số đô thị cả nước khoảng 46 triệu người” and “Nhu cầu đất xây dựng đô thị khoảng 370.000

ha, bình quân 80m2/người” are translated by complete sentences: ―The estimated urban development index in the Project of adjusting General Plan of Vietnamese urban system until

2025 will follows.”and ―Nationwide urban population is 46 million” and “There will be a demand for 370 000 ha for urban construction (at the average of 80m2/person).”

In addition, in order to avoid the mistakes related to the translation of passive sentences, the translator needs to know the use and form of the passive voice in Vietnamese and English He/she should be aware of the syntactic and semantic role of ―bị‖ and ―được‖ Because there

is an endless number of Vietnamese expressions containing ―bị‖ and ―được‖ have nothing to

do with the passive voice In contrast, an equal large number of expressions without ―bị‖ and

―được‖ bear passive meaning This will enable the translator to decide to use whether the passive sentences or active ones in translation For example:

- Rất nhiều loại kết cấu dùng để phân tách các mức giữa hai tuyến đường cắt nhau hoặc giữa đường bộ và đường sắt

(Various types of structures are employed to separate the graders of two intersecting roadways or highway and railroad.)

The above example does not have ―bị‖ or ―được‖ however it is suitable to use passive voice when translating into English In contrast, the following sentence contains ―bị‖ and ―được‖ however they are not passive sentences; therefore, they must be translated by active structures

- “Dầm thép bị gỉ.”

(The steel compaction is rusty)

- “Nền bị lún”

(The foundation have sunk)

- “Chiều dài của giá khoan không được lớn hơn độ cao rơi của búa.”

(The length of casing is not greater than the ram stroke length)

Nonetheless, the passive structures in Vietnamese sometimes need to be translated by an active form in English For instance: