a study on the meaning and structure of an english fairy-tale a systemic functional analysis = nghiên cứu về ngữ nghĩa và cấu trúc của một câu truyện cổ tiếng anh theo quan điểm của ngữ pháp chức năng hệ thống

I would like to choose “A study on the meaning and structure of an English fairy tale: a systemic functional analysis” for my thesis, using Halliday’s functional grammar as the theoret

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.1 Rationale of the study 1

1.2 Aims of the study 2

1.3 Scope of the study 2

1.4 Methods of the study 2

1.5 Design of the study 2

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 3 2.1 Introduction 3

2.2 Systemic functional grammar 3

2.2.1 Introduction to systemic functional grammar 3

2.2.2 Clause and clause complex 4

2.2.3 The transitivity system 6

2.2.4 The mood structure 12

2.2.5 The thematic structure 14

2.2.6 Cohesion 15

2.3 Theoretical backgrounds of fairy tales 20 2.3.1 What is fairy tales? 20

2.3.2 History of English fairy tales 21

2.3.3 Features of English fairy tales 21

CHAPTER 3 THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE FAIRY-TALE “CINDERELLA” 24 3.1 Introduction 27

3.2 The chosen text 29

3.3 Contextual configuration of the text 29

3.4 Clause and clause complex analysis 30

3.5 The transitivity pattern of the text 37

3.6 The mood pattern of the text 38

3.7 The thematic pattern of the text 39

3.8 The cohesion of the text 39

3.9 The structure of the fairy tale text 41

CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION 43 4.1 Recapitulation 43

4.2 Implications for the study 43

4.3 Suggestions for further study 44

APPENDIXES

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Rationale of the study

There are many different approaches to describe the grammar of a language One approach sees grammar as a set of rules which specify all the possible grammatical structures of the language where grammatical and ungrammatical sentences are distinguished clearly and so, its main concern is the forms of grammatical structures rather than with their meanings or their uses in contexts, therefore, the analysis of sentences isn’t connected to real world sources

Another approach sees language as a system of communication and analyses grammar to discover by what means it allows speakers and writers to make and exchange meanings Its main focus is not a clear distinction between grammatical and ungrammatical forms but on the appropriateness of a form for a particular communicative purpose in a particular context In this approach, the function of structures is not concerned with their constituents and their meanings in context Grammarians who are interested in this kind of description is likely to use data from authentic texts

The two approaches are clearly different from each other: the former approach refers to grammatical analysis and it is often called formal while the later one is called functional However, they are certainly exclusive

For me, I find functional grammar very useful and interesting because it offers

us an analytic tool of looking at the whole text Functional grammar is a complex but comprehensive model Although it has been studied by many famous linguists in the world, such as M A K Halliday (1961, 1967, 1970, 1978, 1985, 1994), it has not been studied much in Vietnam Up to now, there have been only two grammarians studying

the functional approach: Cao Xuân Hạo (1991) with the work Tiếng Việt – Sơ thảo ngữ

pháp chức năng and Hoàng Văn Vân (2002) with Ngữ pháp kinh nghiệm của cú Tiếng Việt –Mô tả theo quan điểm chức năng hệ thống

Being a teacher of English, I want to contribute something to this field I would

like to choose “A study on the meaning and structure of an English fairy tale: a

systemic functional analysis” for my thesis, using Halliday’s functional grammar as the

theoretical framework

1.2 Aims of the study

This thesis attempts to study the meaning and the structure of an English fairy tale as seen from the systemic functional perspective

1.3 Scope of the study

This study does not mention all aspects of meaning and structure of the fairy tale but only some precious features are discussed They are the transitivity, the mood, the theme pattern and the cohesion of the text

1.4 Methods of the study

The methods used in the study are descriptive and analytic

Descriptive method is concerned with the description of main areas of functional grammar and analytic method is concerned with the analysis of the text

1.5 Design of the study

This thesis is divided into 4 chapters:

- Chapter 1: Introduction – presents the rationale of the study, the aims, the scope, the methods and the design of the study

- Chapter 2: Literature Review provides the theoretical background of the study Its focus is on introducing important concepts in systemic functional linguistics relevant to the topic of the study and knowledge surrounding the kind of fairy tales

- Chapter 3: The meaning and structure of an English fairy tale Cinderella –

analyzes the fairy tale as seen from the systemic functional point of view

- Chapter 4: Conclusion – summarizes the results of the study, suggests some implications for discourse analysts, students and teachers of discourse analysis and then presents some suggestions for further research

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter we will present background knowledge on systemic functional grammar and overview some aspects of this theory (the transitivity system, the mood structure, the thematic structure and cohesion)

2.2 Systemic functional grammar

2.2.1 Introduction to systemic functional grammar

Systemic functional grammar is a grammatical model developed by M.A.K

Halliday In his book An introduction to Functional Grammar (1994), Halliday

explained that his grammar is called functional because “the conceptual framework on which it is based is a functional one rather than a formal one It is functional in three distinct although closely related senses: in its representation (1) of texts, (2) of the system, and (3) of the elements of linguistic structures” (Halliday, 1994) According to Halliday, language is functional in sense that it is designed to account for how language

is used and language has evolved to satisfy human needs Therefore, the fundamental components of meaning in language are functional components and each element in a language is explained by reference to its function in the total linguistic system Halliday’s grammar model is also called systemic because he developed the detailed system networks named mood type for many areas of English grammar

Hoang Van Van states that systemic functional grammar owns “a very rich pool

of analytical instruments which help researchers tackle not only phonological but also grammatical (syntax), semantic and discoursal problems of a text” (Hoang Van Van 2006: 161) This theory encompasses all levels of language: phonology, lexico-grammar, semantics and context of situation where language occurs In terms of phonology, it studies the resources of intonation, rhythm, and syllabic and phonemic articulation Lexico-grammar includes lexis or vocabulary and grammar in a unified system Semantics is concerned with the system of meaning Unlike other grammatical theories, this theory develops a model for contextual analysis which consists of three

components or parameters: field, tenor, and mode His model can be represented as follows:

 Field: refers to what it is happening, to the nature of the social action that

is taking place: what is it that the participants are engaged in, in which the language features as some essential components?

 Tenor: refers to who is taking part, to the nature of the participants, their statuses and roles: what kind of role relationships of one kind or another, both of the types of speech role that they are taking on in the dialogue and the whole cluster

of socially significant relationships in which they are involved?

 Mode: refers to what part the language is playing, what it is that the participants are expecting the language to do for them in that situation: the symbolic organization of the text, the status that it has, and its function in the context, including the channel (is it spoken or written or some combination of the two?) and also the rhetorical mode, what is being achieved by the text in terms of such categories as persuasive, expository, didactic and the like

(Halliday in Halliday and Hasan 1989: 12)

2.2.2 Clause and clause complex

2.2.2.1 Clause complex

In Halliday’s theory of functional grammar, a sentence can be interpreted as a clause complex: a Head clause together with other clauses that modifying it There is the same kind of relationship between sentence and clause as there is between group and word: the sentence has evolved by expansion outwards from the clause However, we can not account for all of sentence structure simply in terms of Head + Modifier because there are a lot of kinds of modifying and also other similar relationships

With the notion of clause complex, we are able to account in full for the functional organization of sentences A sentence can be defined as a clause complex The clause complex will be the only grammatical unit which we shall recognized above the clause Therefore, there is no need to bring in the term “sentence” as a distinct grammatical category

The relations between clauses are interpreted in terms of the “logical” component of the linguistic system: the functional-semantic relations that make up the logic of natural language There are two systemic dimensions in the interpretation: one

is interdependency including parataxis and hypotaxis which is general to all complexes- word, group, phrase and clause alike, and the other is the logico-system of expansion and projection, which is specifically an inter-clausal relation

2.2.2.2 Types of relationship between clauses

2.2.2.2.1 Type of interdependency

In this type, the relation of modifying, whereby one element ‘modifies’ another,

is not the only relationship that may obtain between the members of a complex Where one element modifies another, the status of the two is unequal; the modifying element is dependent on the modified But two elements may be joined together on an equal footing, neither being dependent on the other

Hypotaxis:

The general term for the modifying relation is Hypotaxis Hypotaxis is the relation between a dependent element and its dominant, the element on which it is dependent The dominant element is free, but the dependent element is not

Hypotaxis will be represented by the Greek letter notation already used for modification on the structure of the group

Parataxis:

Parataxis is the relation between two like elements of equal status, one initiating and the other continuing Paratactic structures are presented by a numerical notation 1 2 3… Both the initiating and the continuing element are free, in the sense that each could stand as a functioning whole

2.2.2.2.2 Type of logico-semantic relation

In this type of semantic relation, there is a wide range of different semantic relations any of which may hold between a primary and a secondary member

logico-of a clause nexus and it is possible to group these into a small number logico-of general types, based on the two fundamental relationships of Expansion and Projection

Expansion: the secondary clause expands the primary clause, by elaborating it,

extending it, or enhancing it

Projection: the secondary clause is projected through the primary clause, which

instates it as a locution or an idea

Within the general categories of expansion and projection, we recognized first of all a small number of subtypes: three of expansion, and two of projection The names these, with suggested notation, are as follows:

(1) Expansion:

- elaborating = (equal)

- enhancing x ( is multiplied by)

(2) Projection:

These symbols combine with those for parataxis and hypotaxis:

Elaborating: one clause expands another by elaborating on it (or some portion of

it): restating in other words, specifying in greater detail, commenting, or exemplifying

Extending: one clause expands another by extending beyond it: adding some

new element, giving an exception to it, or offering an alternative

Enhancing: one clause expands another by embellishing around it, qualifying it

with some circumstantial feature of time, place, cause, or condition

Locution: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as a

locution, a construction of wording

Idea: one clause is projected through another, which presents it as an idea, a

construction of meaning

2.2.3 The transitivity system

According to Halliday (1970), language has three functions: ideational, interpersonal, and textual Each of the three metafunctions is about a different aspect of the world, and is concerned with different mode of meaning of clauses and all these functions are reflected in the structure of the clause The ideational metafunction, which

includes experiential function and logical function is about the natural world, including our own consciousness, and is concerned with clause as representation The interpersonal metafunction is about the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and hearer, and is concerned with clause as exchange and the third metafunction textual metafunction is about the verbal world, and is concerned with clause as

messages

Experiential meanings are realized through the system of TRANSITIVITY and the transitivity construes the world of experience into a manageable set of process types

In the transitivity system of English, six process types are recognized: Material, Mental,

Verbal, Behavioural, Relational, and Existential

2.2.3.1 Material process

Material process is the process of doing or action/ event such as running, walking, catching, kicking, etc The basic meaning of material process is that some entity does something or undertakes some actions, so to realize this type of process we

often ask question “What did X do?”

There may be one, two or even three participants in this process but there must

be an obligator one which is Actor The Actor is the doer of the action When a process has only one participant (Actor), it is called intransitive When there are two participants, the process is called transitive and these transitive clauses are probed by

“What did X do to Y?” and in this case, these roles are referred to respectively as Actor

and Goal (one that is affected by the action) In some material processes, there appears the third participant which is called Receiver, which is the one benefiting from the process The following examples reflects the material process

(e1)

(e2)

(e3)

The representation of a material process can come either the active form or the passive form The examples above are in active form and the following example is in active form

(e4)

2.2.3.2 Mental process

Mental process is the process of sensing such as thinking, loving It is divided into four main types: cognition (thinking, knowing, realizing), perception (hearing, sensing, feeling), affection (loving, hating, adoring, pampering) and desideration (wanting, desiring, wishing) In this process, we do not talk about what we are doing but about what we think or feel Therefore, we do not probe mental process by asking

“What did X do to Y?” but we often ask “What do you think/ feel/ know about X?” In

mental processes, there are often two participants: Sensor (one who senses, feels, thinks,

or wants ) and Phenomenon (one that is sensed, felt, thought of, and wanted)

(e5)

2.2.3.3 Relational process

Relational process is the process of being, being at, or having It consists of three main subtypes: the intensive, the circumstantial and the possessive

Intensive: “X is a”

Circumstantial: “X is at a” (where “is at’ stands for “is at, on, in, for, with, about, along, etc)

Possessive: “X has a”

Each of these comes in two modes: attributive and identifying

Attributive: “a is an attributive of X”

Identifying: “a is the identify of X”

When a relational process is in the attributive mode, it has one participant referred to Carrier and the quality or the thing showing that the Carrier belongs to a class of things, which is usually realized by an adjective or an indefinite nominal group,

is usually referred to as Attribute The participants in identifying process are called Token and Value or sometimes they are called Identified and Identifier

2.2.3.4 Behavioural process

Behavioural process is the process of physiological and psychological behaviour such as crying, breathing, drinking, coughing, laughing, and dreaming Halliday describes this process semantically as a “half way house” between mental and material process The meanings it realizes are midway between the material on the one hand and the mental on the other hand They are in part about action, but it is action that has to be experienced by a conscious being Usually there is only one participant in a behavioural process which is called Behaver, and typically a conscious being, and not a lifeless thing

For example,

(e8)

We can say “She laughed” but not “The door laughed” or “The tree laughed”

Behavioural process can contain a second participant that is like a Range (a restatement

of the process) This participant is called Behaver

For example,

(e9)

If the second participant is not a restatement it is called a Phenomenon

(e10)

2.2.3.5 Verbal process

Verbal process is the process of saying such as saying, telling, talking, speaking The typical participants in this process are Sayer (the one who does the verbalization), Receiver (the one to whom the saying is addressed, Target (the one that the verbalization is directed to), and the Verbiage (the message itself)

For example,

(e11)

As with all processes, Circumstance can occur in verbal process, mostly is manner (e12)

They are talking about this problem

2.2.3.6 Existential process

Existential process is the process of existing, indicating that something or some

natural force exists It has normally one participant called Existent and some

circumstantial elements In an existential clause, the subject “There” is often used

although it does not receive any functional label in an existential process

(e13)

Process: existential Existent Circumstance

These process types can be summarized in the table below:

Process type Category meaning Participants

Actor, Goal, Recipient

Table 1: Process types, their meanings and key participants

(Source: Halliday 1994: 143)

2.2.4 The mood structure

An obvious thing is that people use their language to communicate with each other, to exchange information, or to influence their behaviour and get something done When one uses a language he plays a role such as questioner or an informant The roles

of “questioner” and “informant” tend to alternate between the interlocutors engaged in a conversation And the language here has an interpersonal metafunction

Interpersonal metafunction is concerned with the interaction between speaker and hearer or writer and reader The functions within this component include giving or demanding information, expressing intention, expressing attitude, etc These functions have more to do with social interaction than with content It is concerned with the clause

as exchange

As an exchange or an interactive event, a clause consists of two components: the Mood and the Residue The Mood is “the component that is bandied” (Halliday 1994: 72) Its function is to carry the argument forward The Mood comprises of two functional elements: the Subject and the Finite The Subject is a nominal group and the Finite is a verb element which has the function of making the proposition finite The Residue is the remainder of the clause It consists of three functional components: the Predicator, the Complement, and the Adjunct The Predicator is presented in all non-elliptical major clauses, and it is realized by a verbal group; the Complement is an element within the Residue that has the potential of being Subject, and is typically realized by a nominal group; and the Adjunct is an element that has not got the potential

of being a subject, and it is realized by an adverbial group or a prepositional phrase For example,

(e14)

Subject Finite Predicator Complement

As we know all the roles of speech are traced back to a form of either giving or demanding and these roles are simultaneously related to the two general things of commodity negotiated between people goods-&-services, or information, for example

giving information is a statement and demanding goods-&-service makes up a command, etc Giving information is typically realized by a declarative clause; demanding goods-&-services is typically realized by an imperative clause and demanding information is typically realized by an interrogative clause Therefore, we have different types of Mood which are represented in the figure below:

Mood indicative interrogative

declarative

imperative inclusive

exclusive

Figure 1 A fragment of the Mood system in English

Also we have different types of Modality such as ability (e.g., I can swim), possibility (e.g., Can I have an English book, please?), supposition (e.g., He must be the

thief), permission (e.g., May I go out?), etc

2.2.5 The thematic structure

As mentioned above, textual metafunction is about the verbal world and it is concerned with clause as message When we look at the clause from the perspective of what is being talked about we are turning to examine aspects which can only be properly understood by looking at the clause in its context in the rest of the language around it

Seeing language from the point of view of the textual metafunction, we are trying to see how speakers build up their messages in a way which makes them fit smoothly into the unfolding language event The speaker’s organization of the clause as message is represented through the thematic structure Thematic structure “gives the clause its character as message” (Halliday 1994: 37), and thus creates relevant to the context Relevant to the realization of the system of theme are two elements: Theme and Rheme

The Theme serves as the departure of the message, which coincides with the initial elements of the clause in English The Rheme is the remainder of the message The theme can be realized by a nominal group, an adverbial group or a prepositional

phrase It may be single or multiple, marked or unmarked When the Theme “consists of two or more groups or phrases forming a single structure element”, it is single (Halliday 1994: 40) On the contrary, a multiple theme is the one that has a further internal structure of its own Here we distinguish between Topical theme, Textual theme and Interpersonal theme A topical theme is the one that is conflated with an experiential element of the clause It means that the theme ends with the first constituent that is either participant, circumstance, or process A textual theme is any combination of

continuative (yes, no, now), structure (and, but ), conjunctive (also, next, finally…) And within interpersonal theme, we may have a modal, the finite verbs (in Yes/No

interrogative clause) and also a vocative element

In the declarative clause, an unmarked theme “is the mapping of theme onto subject” (Halliday 1994: 43) And a marked theme “is something other than the subject” (Halliday 1994: 44) such as Complement, Adjunct, or even Predicator

Below are some examples to illustrate the thematic structure of the clause

Well but then Ann surely wouldn’t the best idea be to join

the group

continuative structural conjunctive vocative modal finite topical Rheme

Theme

2.2.6 Cohesion

2.2.6.1 The concept of cohesion

The concept of cohesion is a semantic one which refers to relations of meaning that exists within the text, and that defines it as a text Cohesion occurs where the interpretation of some element in the discourse is dependent on that of another The one presupposes the other, in the sense that it can not be effectively decoded except by recourse to it When this happens, a relation of cohesion is set up, and the two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed, are thereby at least potentially integrated into a text

There are four ways by which cohesion is created in English: by reference, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical organization We will mention these types of cohesion

in the next parts

2 2.6.2 Reference

According to Halliday, “a participant or circumstantial element introduced at one place in the text can be taken as a reference point to something that follows” Reference expresses the relationship of identity which exists between units in discourse

Reference can be divided into anaphoric reference, cataphoric reference, exophoric

reference, personal reference, demonstrative reference, and comparative reference

Anaphoric Reference is the item(s) that “point backwards to the preceding text.”

(Halliday 1994: 312)

For example,

This lady is a professor She works in a large university in New York

Cataphoric reference is a cohesive device which points the reader or listener

forwards –it draws us further into the text in order to identify the elements to which the reference items refer

For example,

He coughed all night The boy has been got a cold

Exophoric reference is “a mean of linking ‘outwards’ to some person or object

in the environment” (Halliday 1994: 312)

E.g.: The spaceship flew around the new planet several times

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech situation,

through the category of person

E.g The two astronauts put on their space suits

Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of

proximity It is expressed through determiner: this, that, these, those and adverbs here,

there

Comparative reference is expressed through adjectives and adverbs and serves

to compare items within a text in terms of identity or similarity Any expression such as

the same, another, similar, different, as small, smaller, less small, and related adverbs

such as likewise, differently, equally, presumes some standard of reference in the

preceding text According to Halliday (1994) comparative reference “set up a relation of contrast.”

E.g He then bought a smaller house

2.2.6.3 Substitution

According to Halliday and Hasan (1997), substitution is “a relation between linguistic item, such as words and phrases” It refers to the process or result of replacing one item by another at a particular place in discourse There are three types of substitution: nominal substitution, verbal substitution, and clausal substitution

Nominal substitution is the use of a substitute word to replace the Head of a

corresponding nominal group The noun which is functioned as the Head is always a

countable noun In English, nominal substitution is often realized by items such as one,

ones and same

For example,

I like the blue hat I do not like the red one

Verbal substitute in English is do This functions as head of a verbal group, in

the place that is occupied by the lexical verb Its position is always at the end of the group

E.g They don’t like this shirt but I do

Clausal substitution is the one “in which what is presupposed is not an element

with in the clause but an entire clause” (Halliday and Hasan 1997: 130) The words are

used as clausal substitute are so and not

E.g She said it would rain the following day but I didn’t think so

Will it rain tomorrow? – I think not

2.2.6.4 Ellipsis

Another form of cohesion is ellipsis Ellipsis can be thought of as the omission

of an item within the text Like substitution, ellipsis can be studied in terms of nominal ellipsis, verbal ellipsis and clausal ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis, at the experiential level, is typically realized by the structure of

“Deictic + Numerative + Epithet + Classifier + Thing” (Halliday 1994: 180), for example, the two floppy cotton hats When the Thing is omitted, the Head will be taken

on by the one of the other element

E.g - I like the blue shirt

- I like the green + ( 0)

Verbal ellipsis means ellipsis with in the verbal group

E.g – What are you doing?

– ( 0 ) watching TV

Clausal ellipsis is related to the question–answer process in dialogue There are

two kinds: Yes/No ellipsis and Wh –elipsis Besides, there may be ellipsis of the whole

clause or just one part of it

E.g – Mary broken this teapot

– Did she? She didn’t tell me ( 0)

2.2.6.5 Conjunctive cohesion

Conjunction is different from reference, substitution and ellipsis in that it is not a device for reminding the reader or listener of previously mentioned entities, actions, and states of affairs Conjunction is a type of cohesion that “constitutes a cohesive bond

between two clauses (Halliday 1994: 180) In English, four types of conjunction are recognized: adversative, additive, temporal, and causal Each of them will be discussed

as follows

Adversative

Adversative sense is expressed by a number of words, such as although, though,

however, yet, but, in spite of, in contrast, contrary to, adversely, nevertheless, despite

The basic meaning of the adversative relation is “contrary to expectation”, and the expectation may be derived from the content of what is being said, or from the communication process, the speaker–hearer situation

Additive

The additive relation is often expressed by and at the beginning of new sentence

is somewhat different from coordination proper, although it is no doubt derivable from

it The coordination holds the structural relations within a sentence and additive relation holds the relation within or between sentences However, when we are considering cohesive relations, we can group both of the two types that appears structurally in the

form of coordination, the “and” type and the “or” type under the heading of additive

The distinction between these two is not of primary significance for purposes of textual cohesion; and in any case, it is not the same distinction as that which is found between them in coordination The position of the two related items are interchangeable in most cases

by simple temporal markers such as then, next, after that, subsequently, then, at the

same time, earlier, before, then/that, previously, simultaneously

With complex temporal relation, the meaning is more specific, often in conjunction with some additional elements Temporal relation may be immediate, interrupted, repetitive, specific, durative, terminal, and punctiliar These relations are

realized by conjunctives such as at once, on which, just before, after a time, next time,

on another occasion, this time, meanwhile, by this time, until then, at this moment/point, presently, the previous moment and so on

Conclusive relation differs from those mentioned above in the sense that it is one –directional, for example, the event is subsequent to all events in a particular passage In

English this type of temporal relation is realized by conjunctive such as finally, at last,

in the end, eventually, to conclude with, to sum up with, in short, to resume, to get back

to the point, etc

Causal

The causal relation in English is expressed by so, thus, hence, therefore,

nevertheless, however, consequently, accordingly and a number of expressions like as a result, in consequence, because of that, etc The causal relation must consist of two

elements: cause and effect Logically, a cause precedes an effect, but sometimes people start with the effect and then find its root in the cause And parallel to the causal

relationship, there is a conditional relation with the formula “if a, then b, or b if a”

2.2.6.6 Lexical cohesion

When “the selection of items that are related in some way to those that have gone before’ lexical cohesion occurs (Halliday 1994: 330) Halliday and Hasan (1997) classify lexical cohesion into two main types: reiteration and collocation Under reiteration there are five subtypes: repetition, synonymy, antonymy, superordinate, and general word

Repetition refers to the same lexical item with the same meaning happening

more than one in the same discourse/text For example: Yesterday, I met a boy The boy

is at the same age with my son

Synonymy refers to the choice of a lexical item that in some sense bears the same

meaning or nearby the same meaning with a preceding one For example, Last night I

was woken up by a loud sound It is the noise of trotting horses

Antonymy refers to the lexical items which are opposite in meaning

E.g I often get up late in the morning but my parents often get up early

Superordinate can be understood to be synonyms of some higher level of

generality In this type of cohesion, there are two other items which are particular

variants of synonymy: hyponymy and meronymy Hyponymy present a specific/general relationship The relation between the two lower terms is that of co-hyponym For example:

Vehicle: car, bus, motorbike, coach

Tree: oak, pine,

Meronymy presents a part/whole relationship The relation between two parts is that of co-meronym For example:

Tree: trunk, branch, leaf, root

General word

According to Halliday and Hasan (1997), a general noun is “a small set of noun having generalized reference within the major noun class” such as “human noun”: people, man, woman, child; “object noun”: thing, object For example:

The boy is climbing the old oak This old thing is not safe for such a boy to climb

Collocation refers to lexical cohesion that “is achieved through the associate

lexical items that regularly co-occur” (Halliday and Hasan 1997: 284) There are three kinds of collocation: resultative, modificational, and contextual Resultative collocation

refers to the relation of one item leading to the outcome of another item such as kill-die,

dark-night Modificational collocation refers to the relation holding between an item

and one of its inherent qualities such as rain- heavily; run- fast/slowly and contextual

collocation refers to the co-occurrence of words in one context but in other context they

are not related, for example, student- learn/ study

2.3 Fairy tales

2.3.1 What is fairy tales?

According to Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia a fairy tale is a type of short

narrative that typically features such folkloric characters, such as fairies, goblins, elves, trolls, dwarves, giants or gnomes, and usually magic or enchantments However, only a small number of the stories refer to fairies The stories may nonetheless be distinguished from other folk narratives such as legends (which generally involve belief in the veracity of the events described) – and explicitly moral tales, including beast fables

2.3.2 History of fairy tales

Fairy tales are found in oral and in literary form The history of the fairy tale is particularly difficult to trace, because only the literary forms can survive Still, the evidence of literary works at least indicates that fairy tales have existed for thousands of years, although not perhaps recognized as a genre The name "fairy tale" was first introduced by Madame d'Aulnoy in the late 17th century Many of today's fairy tales have evolved from centuries-old stories that have appeared, with variations, in multiple cultures around the world Fairy tales, and works derived from fairy tales, are still written today

In cultures where demons and witches are perceived as real, fairy tales may merge into legends, where the narrative is perceived both by teller and hearers as being grounded in historical truth However, unlike legends and epics, they usually do not contain more than superficial references to religion and actual places, people, and events; they take place once upon a time rather than in actual times

Roots of the genre come from different oral stories passed down in European cultures The first significant person to record fairy tales was Charles Perrault who recorded stories such as Sleeping Beauty and Cinderella in his book of Mother Goose fairy tales The fairy tale emerged as an unquestioned genre in the works of the Brothers Grimm, who recorded various tales from different cultures and revised many of Perrault's The first edition (1812- 1815) of Brother Grimm remains a treasure for folklorists to rewrite the tales in later editions to make them more acceptable, which ensured their sales and the later popularity of their work

Originally, adults were the audience of a fairy tale just as often as children Literary fairy tales appeared in works intended for adults, but in the 19th and 20th centuries the fairy tale became associated with children's literature In the modern era, fairy tales were altered so that they could be read to children Sexual references were eliminated violence in later fairy tale revisions were cut out

2.3.3 Features of English fairy tales

In general, most fairy tales have the same features of characters and motif

Firstly, we talk about the beginning of English fairy tales “Once upon a time”/

‘long long time ago”/ “long ago” /“It happened that…”/ “Once there was… “in a far away place” are expressions that often appear at the beginning of an English fairy tale

The setting and details about when events took place are nearly always vague Time and place in fairy tales are undefined You know that it took place no where near here and now

At the end of fairy tales “they lived happily ever after” is often used ‘Fairy tale endings’ where everything turns out for the best are common Heroes overcome their adversaries and girls marry the prince of their dreams, for examples

There are often two groups of characters in a fairy tale which is opposite to each other: good and bad The good are usually poor, kind and beautiful but unhappy or unlucky in their life or they are treated badly or had problems The evil characters are often the rich, the mean, witches/ wizards, stepmothers or stepsisters Fairy tales always ends with the ending that the good would have a happy life and the evil would be defeated Moreover, in fairy tales, characters have no need to develop For example, Cinderella has one good night, but you never find out how it ends, except that they live

"Happily ever after." She never does learn to stand up to her evil stepsisters; she simply marries a prince and moves away So does Snow White, Sleeping Beauty and the chick

in the tower with the long hair

There is always a magical element in fairy tales, which makes up them as fairy tales Magic often happens when the good need the help or get problems such as a magic coach, broomstick, a wand by a fairy godmother, a wish made possible by a fairy, the kiss of a handsome prince

There is often transformation in fairy tales Cinderella is transformed into a princess; the frog is transformed into a prince, the beast is transformed into a man They can be under a spell which was cast by a villain, or brought on by their own selfish behavior (as in Beauty and the Beast, wherein the lord of the house was unkind to an old woman who asked for his help.)

Another characteristic of fairy tales is that things often happens in “three” or

“seven”, for example, ‘three cocks’, ‘seven dwarfs’

Royalty, castles, palaces with kings, queens, princes and princesses usually present in fairy tales

The language used in the fairy tales is very simple; they were born as oral tales and keep their features of immediacy and simplicity typical of the spoken language Some tales use rhymes and nursery rhymes (that is short dialogues or magic formulas)

in order to liven up the tale

CHAPTER 3 THE MEANING AND STRUCTURE OF THE FAIRY TALE

“CINDERELLA”

Cinderella

There was once a gentleman who lived in a fine house, with his kind and gentle wife and their pretty daughter His wife died, so the gentleman married again His new wife was not at all kind or pretty She had been married before and had two daughters who were known, behind their backs, as the Ugly Sisters

Although they had no reason to be unkind, the two sisters were horrid to their new stepsisters They ordered her, scolded her and made her do all the work in the big house Her clothes became ragged and thin and far too small The poor girl was always cold and tired In the evenings she would rest on a stool close to the fire, almost in the cinders and ashes

“Cinderella That’s the perfect name for you” Jeered the stepsisters when they saw her trying to keep warm Now the king and queen of their country had a son, and they planned a big ball for the prince in the hope that he might find a bride Invitations were sent to all the big houses When a large invitation card to the royal ball arrived at Cinderella’s house, there was a great flurry of excitement New dresses were chosen for the Ugly Sisters and their mother, and nobody talked about anything except the ball

“I am sure the prince will fall in love with me”, said one sister, smiling at herself in the mirror

“You silly fool”, said the other, pushing her aside “He won’t be able to resist falling in love with me Just think, one day I could be queen”, and she pretended she was the queen already as she ordered Cinderella to get another pair of shoes for her to try on No one thought of asking Cinderella if she would like to go to the ball They scarcely even noticed her as they rushed around trying on different wigs, fans and gloves to go with their new ball dresses

At last the day of the ball came, and Cinderella worked harder than ever, helping the Ugly Sisters and her stepmother to get ready They quarreled with each other all day,

and by the time the carriage drove away to the king’s palace, with all the family in it, Cinderella was glad to have some peace But as she sat on her stool by the fire she could not help a tear falling onto the ashes, for she wished that she could have gone with them Suddenly she realized that she was not alone A beautiful lady stood before her with a silver wand in her hand

“Cinderella”, she said “I am your fairy godmother Tell me, what are those tears for?” Cinderella looked away

“I wish, oh how I wish, I could have gone to the ball, too.”

“So you shall”, said her fairy godmother “, but first we have some work to do For if you are to go to the ball, I can not send you as you are Fetch me the largest pumpkin you can find in the garden.”

Cinderella fetched the largest pumpkin she could see and with just a wave of her wand, her fairy godmother turned it into a gleaning golden coach

“Now we need a few houses”, said her godmother “Look in the mouse trap and see if there is anything we can use.”

Cinderella ran to the larder and found six mice running around in a cage She watched her godmother wave her wand and suddenly, harnessed to the coach, there were six shining dappled horses, stamping their feet

“Those horses need a coachman”, decided her godmother “Look in the rat trap, Cinderella.” There were three rats in the trap and as the godmother touched the largest rat with her wand, it disappeared But now up at the front of the coach sat a fine plump whiskery coachman in a smart uniform

“Go and look behind the water barrel, Cinderella”, said her godmother, “and see if you can find something we can use for footmen.”

Cinderella ran to the water barrel and brought two lizards to her godmother At the wave

of her wand they were transformed into splendid footmen

“There now, Cinderella, your coach is ready”, said her godmother with a smile “You will be able to go to the ball after all.”

“How can I go like this?” sighed Cinderella, looking down in despair at her ragged clothes and bare feet Her godmother touched her with her wand – her rags turned into a shimmering gown and on her feet she was wearing the prettiest pair of glass shoes she had ever seen

As Cinderella stepped into the coach her godmother gave her a strict warning “The magic will only last until midnight, and then everything will return to what it was before Be sure you leave the ball before midnight, Cinderella.”

When Cinderella’s coach arrived at the palace the word went round that a beautiful lady had arrived in such a splendid coach that she must be a princess The prince himself came down the steps to greet her and led her to the ballroom As they entered, the other guests fell silent in wonder and the musicians stopped playing The prince signaled to the musicians to play again and danced with Cinderella

The prince stayed at Cinderella’s side all evening No one knew who she was Not even the Ugly Sisters recognized her Cinderella was so happy that she did not notice how quickly the time was flying by

Suddenly she heard the clock strike the first stroke of midnight With a cry she left the prince and ran out of the ballroom As she flew down the steps, one of her shoes fell off, but she could not stop to pick it up

Although the prince tried to follow Cinderella through the crowd, he soon lost sight of her He questioned everyone carefully but no one had seen the beautiful lady leave The guards said that the only person who had gone out was a young raggedly-dressed girl

No one noticed the pumpkin in the corner of the courtyard or some mice, a rat and a pair

of lizards that slunk into the shadows But the prince did find the glass shoe on the steps, and he recognized it as one of the elegant shoes the mysterious and lovely lady had worn

The next day the Ugly Sisters could talk of nothing but the beautiful lady who had captured the prince’s heart and how she had disappeared so suddenly and how no one recognized her name

The palace issued a proclamation that the prince was looking for the lady who had worn the glass shoe His servants would tour the country with it until they found the lady whose foot it fitted and the prince would marry that lady The prince traveled around with his servants but time and again he was disappointed as the shoe failed to fit any lady’s foot

At last they came to Cinderella’s house The Ugly Sisters were waiting

“Let me try first”, cried one, holding out her foot, and pushing as hard as she could to squeeze it into the shoe But it was no good She gave up and laughed at her sister’s

efforts as she, too, tried to force her foot into the tiny glass shoe When she had failed, Cinderella stepped forward

“You!” sneered the Ugly Sisters “But you were not even at the ball.”

Cinderella slipped her foot into the glass shoe – it fitted perfectly Then she drew from behind her back a second shoe which she put on the other foot At the same moment the fairy godmother appeared and touched Cinderella with her wand Instantly her ragged clothes changed back into the beautiful shimmering dress, and Cinderella once again became the lovely stranger

The delighted prince asked Cinderella to marry him and Cinderella replied that there was nothing she would like more The Ugly Sisters begged Cinderella to forgive them for their unkindness and she happily agreed There was a fine royal wedding for Cinderella and the prince, and they lived happily ever after

Cinderella found two husbands for the Ugly Sisters at court, and they too lived happily ever after

3.1 Introduction

A question that many linguists have been trying to have an accurate answer is that “what is a text?” Let us look at the following quotes which are taken from different sources:

1 Text: A stretch of language interpreted formally, without context” (Cook 1989: 158)

2 Text: A piece of naturally occurring spoken, written or signed language identified for purposes of analysis It is often a language unit with a definable communicative function, such as a conversation, a poster (Crystal 1992: 72 cited in Nunan 1993: 6)

3 “We shall use text as a technical term to refer to the verbal record of a communicative act” (Brown & Yule 1983: 6)

4 “Text: the formal product of selections of options from the Theme system of the grammar; a unit which carries the semantic sense of the proposition (the propositional content and illocutionary force of the speech act) through sentences which are linked by means of cohesion” (Bell 1991: 163)

5 “I shall use the term text to refer to any written record of a communicative event The event itself involves oral language (for example, a sermon, a casual conversation, a shopping transaction) or written language (for example, a poem,

a newspaper advertisement, a wall poster, a shop list, a novel) I shall reserve the term discourse to refer to the interpretation of the communicative event in context.” (Nunan 1993: 7-8)

In Language, Context, and Text: Aspects of Language in Social-semiotic

Perspective, Halliday and Hasan define text as follows: “ We can define text in the

simplest way perhaps, saying that it is language that is functional But functional, we simply mean language that is doing some job in some context as opposed to isolated words or sentences that I might put on the blackboard (These might also be functional

of course, if I was using them as linguistic examples) So any instance of living language that is playing some part in a context of situation, we shall call a text It may

be either spoken or written, or indeed in any other medium of expression that we like to think of (Halliday & Hasan 1989: 10) “ A text is a unit of language in use It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence” (Halliday & Hasan 1976: 1) A text is best regarded as a Semantic unit: a unit not of form but of meaning.” (Halliday & Hasan 1976: 2) From Halliday & Hasan’s point of view we understand that text is a unit of meaning and is functional; it is functional in the sense that it occurs in a context of situation

Hoang Van Van in his work “The meaning and structure of a science fiction story: a systemic functional analysis” starts with the answering this question by exploring the grammar and meaning of a science fiction story as a text He analyzes the context of the chosen text, clauses and clause complexes, the transitivity patterns, the grammatical and lexical cohesion for the cohesive harmony of the text in order to improve the chosen text is a text indeed To sum up, it can be seen that to understand appropriately and correctly what a text is is not easy

In this study, with the attempt to answer the question “the chose text is a text indeed”, the analysis of the meaning and structure of the chosen text is being processing The procedures and conventions used in the analysis are based on the

framework of Halliday’s (1994) An Introduction to Functional Grammar, Halliday and

Hasan’s (1985) Language, Text and Context: Aspect of Language in Social-Semiotic

Perspective; Hasan’s (1984) Coherence and Cohesive The analysis will proceed from

the context of the chosen text; clauses and clause complexes analysis, the transitivity

pattern, the mood pattern, the theme-rheme pattern, the grammatical and lexical cohesion analyses for the harmony of the text

3.2 The chosen text

This text is taken from an English book that has been written for Vietnamese

students who have been studying English as a second language: Học Tiếng Anh qua

truyện cổ tích- Learn English through fairy tales by a group of EIF, Hanoi and

published by NXB Thanh Nien, 2006 It is written in English and then Vietnamese

3.3 Contextual configuration of the text

In the systemic functional model, context is seen as an integral part of language Halliday (1978, 1994) believes that one can predict not everything but still a great deal about the language that will occur, with reasonable probability of being right

And three parameters to characterize context are field, tenor and mode

These features of the chosen text under study can be summarized as follows:

1 Field

 An English fairy tale written in the form of story-telling

 Participants types: actors, sensors, behavers, and sayers

 Process types: predominantly material, with past events characterizing the features of narrative

2 Tenor:

 Writer and readers, with writer adopting the role of a recounter

 Cinderella (a poor girl), Ugly stepsisters, fairy godmother, prince with information exchanging roles

 Mood: mostly declarative in both narrative and dialogic portion, and nine imperative and two interrogative

 Modality: ability on the part of the characters

3 Mode :

 Medium: written

 High lexical density and parataxis and low grammatical intricacy

 Not high sufficient (this fact is shown in the number of exophoric references)

3 4 Clause and clause complex analysis

I 1.There was once a gentleman who lived in a fine house with his kind

and gentle wife and their pretty daughter

II 2 His wife died,

3 so the gentleman married again III 4 His new wife was not at all kind or pretty

IV 5 She had been married before

6 and had two daughters who were known, behind their backs, as the Ugly Sisters

V 7 Although they had no reason

8 to be unkind,

9 the two sisters were horrid to their new stepsisters

VI 10 They ordered her,

11 scolded her

12 and made her do all the work in the big house

VII 13 Her clothes became ragged and thin and far too small

VIII 14 The poor girl was always cold and tired

IX 15 In the evenings she would rest on a stool close to the fire, almost in

the cinders and ashes

X 16 “Cinderella That’s the perfect name for you”,

17 jeered the stepsisters

18 when they saw her trying to keep warm

XI 19 Now the king and queen of their country had a son

20 and they planned a big ball for the prince in the hope

21 that he might find a bride

XII 22 Invitations were sent to all the big houses

XIII 23 When a large invitation card to the royal ball arrived at Cinderella’s

house,

24 there was a great flurry of excitement

XIV 25 New dresses were chosen for the Ugly Sisters and their mother,

26 and nobody talked about anything except the ball

XV 27 “I am sure

28 the prince will fall in love with me”,

29 said one sister,

30 smiling at herself in the mirror

XVI 31 “You silly fool”,

32 said the other,

33 pushing her aside

XVII 34 “He won’t be able to resist falling in love with me

35 Just think,

36 one day I could be queen”,

37 and she pretended

38 she was the queen already

39 as she ordered Cinderella

40 to get another pair of shoes for her

41 to try on

XVIII 42 No one thought of asking Cinderella

43 if she would like to go to the ball

XIX 44 They scarcely even noticed her

45 as they rushed around

46 trying on different wigs, fans and gloves

47 to go with their new ball dresses

XX 48 At last the day of the ball came,

49 and Cinderella worked harder than ever,

50 helping the Ugly Sisters and her stepmother

51 to get ready

XXI 52 They quarreled with each other all day,

53 and by the time the carriage drove away to the king’s palace, with all the family in it,

54 Cinderella was glad

55 to have some peace

XXII 56 But as she sat on her stool by the fire

57 she could not help a tear falling onto the ashes,

58 for she wished

59 that she could have gone with them

XXIII 60 Suddenly she realized

61 that she was not alone

XXIV 62 A beautiful lady stood before her with a silver wand in her hand XXV 63 “Cinderella”, she said

64 “I am your fairy godmother

65 Tell me,

66 what are those tears for?”

XXVI 67.Cinderella looked away

XXVII 68 “I wish,

69 oh how I wish,

70 I could have gone to the ball, too.”

XXVIII 71 “So you shall”,

72 said her fairy godmother

73 “, but first we have some work

74 to do

XXIX 75 For if you are to go to the ball,

76 I can not send you

77 as you are

XXX 78 Fetch me the largest pumpkin

79 you can find in the garden.”

XXXI 80 Cinderella fetched the largest pumpkin

82 and with just a wave of her wand, her fairy godmother turned it into a gleaning golden coach

XXXII 83 “Now we need a few houses”,

84 said her godmother

XXXIII 85 “Look in the mouse trap

86 and see

87 if there is anything

88 we can use.”

XXXIV 89 Cinderella ran to the larder

90 and found six mice running around in a cage

XXXV 91 She watched her godmother wave her wand

92 and suddenly, harnessed to the coach,

93 there were six shining dappled horses,

94 stamping their feet

XXXVI 95 “Those horses need a coachman”,

96 decided her godmother

XXXVII 97 “Look in the rat trap, Cinderella.”

XXXVIII 98 There were three rats in the trap

99 and as the godmother touched the largest rat with her wand,

100 it disappeared

XXXIX 101 But now up at the front of the coach sat a fine plump whiskery

coachman in a smart uniform

XXXX 102 “Go

103 and look behind the water barrel, Cinderella”,

104 said her godmother,

105 “and see

106 if you can find something

107 we can use for footmen.”

XXXXI 108 Cinderella ran to the water barrel

109 and brought two lizards to her godmother

XXXXII 110 At the wave of her wand they were transformed into splendid

footmen XXXXIII 111 “There now, Cinderella, your coach is ready”,

112 said her godmother with a smile

XXXXIV 113 “You will be able to go to the ball after all.”

XXXXV 114 “How can I go like this?”

115 sighed Cinderella,

116 looking down in despair at her ragged clothes and bare feet XXXXVI 117 Her godmother touched her with her wand –

118 her rags turned into a shimmering gown

119 and on her feet she was wearing the prettiest pair of glass shoes

120 she had ever seen

XXXXVII 121 As Cinderella stepped into the coach

122 her godmother gave her a strict warning

XXXXVIII 123 “The magic will only last until midnight,

124 and then everything will return to what

125 it was before

XXXXIX 126 Be sure

127 you leave the ball before midnight, Cinderella.”

XXXXX 128 When Cinderella’s coach arrived at the palace

129 the word went round

130 that a beautiful lady had arrived in such a splendid coach

131 that she must be a princess

XXXXXI 132 The prince himself came down the steps

133 to greet her

134 and led her to the ballroom

XXXXXII 135 As they entered,

136 the other guests fell silent in wonder

137 and the musicians stopped playing

XXXXXIII 138 The prince signaled to the musicians

139 to play again

140 and danced with Cinderella

XXXXXIV 141 The prince stayed at Cinderella’s side all evening

XXXXXV 142 No one knew

143 who she was

XXXXXVI 144 Not even the Ugly Sisters recognized her

XXXXXVII 145 Cinderella was so happy

146 that she did not notice

147 how quickly the time was flying by

XXXXXVIII 148 Suddenly she heard the clock strike the first stroke of midnight

XXXXXIX 149 With a cry she left the prince

150 and ran out of the ballroom

XXXXXX 151 As she flew down the steps,

152 one of her shoes fell off,

153 but she could not stop

154 to pick it up

XXXXXXI 155 Although the prince tried to follow Cinderella through the crowd,

156 he soon lost sight of her

XXXXXXII 157 He questioned everyone carefully

158 but no one had seen the beautiful lady leave

XXXXXXIII 159 The guards said

160 that the only person who had gone out was a young raggedly-dressed girl

XXXXXXIV 161 No one noticed the pumpkin in the corner of the courtyard

or some mice, a rat and a pair of lizards

162 that slunk into the shadows

XXXXXXV 163 But the prince did find the glass shoe on the steps,

164 and he recognized it as

165 one of the elegant shoes the mysterious and lovely lady had worn

XXXXXXVI 166 The next day the Ugly Sisters could talk of nothing but the

beautiful lady who had captured the prince’s heart

167 and how she had disappeared so suddenly

168 and how no one recognized her name

XXXXXXVII 169 The palace issued a proclamation

170 that the prince was looking for the lady who had worn the glass shoe

XXXXXXVIII 171 His servants would tour the country with it

172 until they found the lady whose foot it fitted

173 and the prince would marry that lady

XXXXXXXIX 174 The prince traveled around with his servants

175 but time and again he was disappointed

176 as the shoe failed to fit any lady’s foot

XXXXXXX 177 At last they came to Cinderella’s house

XXXXXXXI 178 The Ugly Sisters were waiting

XXXXXXXII 179 “Let me try first”,

180 cried one,

181 holding out her foot,

182 and pushing as hard as she could

183 to squeeze it into the shoe

XXXXXXXIII 184 But it was no good

XXXXXXXIV 185 She gave up

186 and laughed at her sister’s efforts

187 as she, too, tried to force her foot into the tiny glass shoe XXXXXXXV 188 When she had failed,

189 Cinderella stepped forward

XXXXXXXVI 190 “You!” sneered the Ugly Sisters

191 “But you were not even at the ball.”

XXXXXXXVII 192 Cinderella slipped her foot into the glass shoe –

193 and it fitted perfectly

XXXXXXXVIII 194 Then she drew from behind her back a second shoe which

she put on the other foot

XXXXXXXIX 195 At the same moment the fairy godmother appeared

196 and touched Cinderella with her wand

XXXXXXXX 197 Instantly her ragged clothes changed back into the beautiful

202 that there was nothing

203 she would like more

XXXXXXXXII 204 The Ugly Sisters begged Cinderella

205 to forgive them for their unkindness

206 and she happily agreed

XXXXXXXXIII 207 There was a fine royal wedding for Cinderella and the prince,

208 and they lived happily ever after

XXXXXXXXIV 209 Cinderella found two husbands for the Ugly Sisters at court,

210 and they too lived happily ever after

The analysis shows that the text consists of 210 clauses which make up 84 clause complexes The clauses in the clause complexes are in both paratactic and hypotactic relation Many clause complexes is a mixture of paratactic and hypotactic sequences, either of which are be nested inside the other Their semantic relations are mainly of elaboration, extension and enhancement 19 clause complexes are of quoting and quoted relation characterizing the dialogic portion of the text, and among these clause complexes, one in reported speech Table 2 represents the clause and clause

complexes of the text See Appendix 1

3.5 The transitivity pattern of the text

The text is a fairy tale, a narrative about a poor girl, Cinderella who is unhappy

in her life because of her being badly treated by her stepsisters The “what is going on?”

of the text is well presented in the experiential component of meaning

From the point of view of transitivity, of the 210 clauses 113 clauses are

material process (for example, died in 2, married in 3, planned in 20, arrived in 23,

ordered in 29, rushed in 45, came in 48, worked in 49, quarreled in 52, stood in 62, traveled in 174, came in 177, tried in 187, etc) These are used to describe the actions of

the actors (main characters in the story) 31 clauses are mental process ( for example,

saw in 18, smiling in 30, think in 35, pretended in 37, thought in 42, like in 43, wished

in 58, realized in 60, look in 85, see in 86, look in 97, see in 105, knew in 142, notice in

146, noticed in 161, recognized in 164, knew in 168, like in 203, etc) characterizing the

perception, cognition and feeling of the characters when they were in different