a study on english translation of vietnamese traditional medicine texts = nghiên cứu việc dịch các tài liệu y học cổ truyền tiếng việt sang tiếng anh

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES PHẠM THỊ MINH CHIÊN M.A MINOR THESIS A STUDY ON ENGLISH TRANSLAT

VIETNAM NATIONAL UNIVERSITY, HANOI UNIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES

FACULTY OF POST – GRADUATE STUDIES

PHẠM THỊ MINH CHIÊN M.A MINOR THESIS

A STUDY ON ENGLISH TRANSLATION OF VIETNAMESE TRADITIONAL MEDICINE TEXTS

(Nghiên cứu việc dịch các tài liệu

Y học Cổ truyền tiếng Việt sang tiếng Anh)

Field : English Linguistics Code : 60.22.15

Hanoi, 2010

TABLE OF CONTENT

PART 1: INTRODUCTION 1

Background 1

The rationale of study 1

The aims of the study 2

Scope of the study 2

Methods of the study 2

The structure of the study 3

PART 2: DEVELOPMENT 5

Chapter 1: Literature review 5

1.1 Translation definition 5

1.2 Translation equivalence 5

1.2.1 Study of Jakobson (1959) 6

1.2.2 Study of Nida (1964) 6

1.2.3 Study of Baker (1992) 6

1.2.4 Study of Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) 6

1.2.5 Study of Catford (1996) 7

1.3 Translation methods and procedures 7

1.3.1 Word – for – word translation 7

1.3.2 Literal translation 8

1.3.3 Free translation 8

1.3.4 Idiomatic translation 8

1.3.5 Abbreviations 8

1.3.6 Loan word translation 8

1.4 Translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization 8

Chapter 2: Current situation of VTM translation and characteristics of language and English translation of VTM 10

2.1 Brief introduction of VTM 10

2.2 Necessities of VTM translation 11

2.2.1 For the integration of Western scientific medicine and VTM 11

2.2.2 For the modernization of VTM 12

2.3 Existing problems of English translation of VTM 13

2.3.1 Problems in translating VTM technological terms 13

2.3.2 Problems in translating classics of VTM 16

2.4 Reasons for problems 17

2.4.1 Objective reasons 17

2.4.1.1 Great differences between VTM and Western medicine 17

2.4.1.2 Cultural barriers 20

2.4.1.3 Language barriers 22

2.4.2 Subjective reasons 23

2.5 The characteristics of the language of VTM 25

2.5.1 The Chinese influence on VTM 25

2.5.2 The integration of VTM and ancient philosophy 26

2.5.3 The blending of concepts of VTM and western medicine 26

2.5.4 The incompatibility of the terminology of VTM with that of Western medicine 27

2.6 The characteristics of the English translation of VTM 27

2.6.1 Using word – for - word translation 27

2.6.2 Using literal translation 27

2.6.3 Using free translation 29

2.6.4 Using idiomatic translation 30

2.6.5 Using abbreviation 31

2.6.6 Using loan word translation 32

Chapter 3: Solutions for English translation of VTM and standardization of English translation of VTM 33

3.1 Solutions for English translation of VTM 33

3.1.1 Approaches applied to translate VTM 33

3.1.1.1 Literal translation or free translation 33

3.1.1.2 Domestication or Foreignization 33

3.1.2 Techniques to translate VTM 34

3.1.2.1 Using loan-word translation for unique basic terms in VTM 34

3.1.2.2 Using literal translation for VTM terms and expressions 35

3.1.2.3 Careful selection in word-for-word translation 36

3.1.2.4 Minimizing number of equivalents for one word 36

3.2 The solutions for standardization of English translation of VTM 37

3.2.1 Measures concerning the translators 37

3.2.2 Measures concerning the government 37

3.2.2.1 Establishing systematic translating theory 38

3.2.2.2 Formulating standard source terminology 38

3.2.2.3 Standardizing core concepts of VTM 39

3.2.2.4 Building up standardized reference database 39

PART 3: CONCLUSION 40

Summary and results of the study 40

Limitations of the study 41

Suggestions for further study 41

REFERENCES 43 APPENDIX

APPENDIX 1: Terms and phrases causing difficulties for English translation of VTM APPENDIX 2: Methods used in translating VTM texts

APPENDIX 3: Glossaries

Glossary of acupuncture and moxibusion

Glossary of herbs and prescriptions

Glossary of ancient works

PART 1: INTRODUCTION

Background

Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (VTM) is regarded as one shining pearl of the greatest cultural heritages of Vietnamese ancient civilization It is a comprehensive and unique scientific system with remarkable curative effects and few side effects during the several thousand years of medical practice and has proved to be an extremely useful method to prevent and treat diseases Because of the characteristics of VTM, World Health Organization recommended it as useful experience to the world and more and more people

in the world began to realize its importance

Actually, since the implementation of reform and opening policy in Vietnam, VTM has developed rapidly together with our country‟s economic property and it has gained world-wide attention through its amazing achievement

In spite of the great popularity in the world over last several decades and great amount of translation work done in the field of the English translation of VTM, there are still many obstacles lay ahead for the personnel of VTM in the field of medicine and foreign academic exchanges To a great degree, this is due to many historical and cultural factors, such as VTM‟s long history, its unique theoretical system and so on; all those cause difficulties in translating VTM into English

The rationale of study

English translation of VTM serves as a bridge for VTM to integrate into the world and help improve the treatment and prevention of diseases The accurate and standardized English translation of VTM has become more and more important Both the Vietnamese scholars who want to introduce VTM to the outside world and the enthusiastic foreign learners who want to draw the essence of VTM are calling for the standardization of the English translation of VTM, hence the trend of going standardize is becoming obvious and urgent

As an English major teacher, who has been teaching in Military Institute of Traditional Medicine for years, and has the opportunities to attend many lectures and courses given by the famous scholars in the field of VTM and has the experiences of doing some English translation of VTM, the writer of this thesis will make a systematic explosion on the

English translation of VTM on the basis of her own practical experiences and the valuable experiences of other translators and scholars

The aims of the study

The study is implemented with the following aims:

- To identify common problems in translation of VTM and the main causes

- To clarify typical characteristics of the language and English translation of VTM

- To find an angle from which to approach the translation

- To make some recommendations to translate VTM and some solutions for standardization of English translation of VTM

The research questions

These above aims of the study are supposed to be fulfilled by answering the four following questions:

1 What are the recommendations for English translation of VTM?

2 Which translation approach/ strategy to adopted in translating VTM?

3 What are the characteristics of language and English translation of VTM?

4 What causes difficulties for translators in translating VTM? Why?

Scope of the study

Medical translation is a huge field, each branch has its own characteristics, and therefore, the translator working on any branch of medical translation has to try his best to fulfill the job The translation of VTM texts is not an exception Within the scope of this study, a study on English translation of VTM texts is very exclusive to talk about However, due to the limitation of time and lack of experience, my minor thesis is only limited to dealing with some problems, characteristics, methods, strategies and recommendations in translating VTM texts

Methods of the study

Comparative analysis, quality analysis and conductive approach are used in this research Comparative analysis and quality analysis are employed in data collection and analysis while conductive approach is used in making conclusion: from theoretical background, previous relevant studies, analysis of collected data and personal observations the author comes to the conclusion

The structure of the study

The main body of this thesis is divided into three chapters, excluding introduction and conclusion

Chapter 1: Literature review

Part 1 deals with translation definition of Nida, Cartford, Bell, Hatim & Mason and Newmark Each has different dimension and emphasis but they come to a common target: Equivalence

Part 2 lists Translation Equivalence studies of Jacobson, Nida, Baker, Vinay & Barbelnet and Catford in accordance of the time they were published to see that Catford is reasonable

to define equivalence as cultural and linguistic equivalents Four studies prior Catford (Jakobson, Nida, Baker, and Vinay & Darbelnet) could be divided into two groups The first group included Jakobson's, and Vinay & Darbelnet's that mainly defined and focused

on linguistic aspects of equivalence The second group consisted of Nida's and Baker's that emphasized on the cultural dimensions of equivalence

Part 3 introduces two basic translation strategies, Domestication and foreignization through studies of Linfors and Vennuti

Chapter 2: Current situation of VTM translation and characteristics of language and English translation of VTM

Part 1 introduces briefly VTM, then the necessity of English translation of VTM English translation of VTM is very essential for the integration of Western scientific medicine and VTM and for the modernization of VTM in the age of globalization

Part 2 identifies the existing problems and the reasons in the process of translating VTM then analyzes the characteristics of language and English translation of VTM

Chapter 3: Solutions for English translation of VTM and standardization of English translation of VTM

Part 1 suggestions literal vs free translation and domestication vs foreignization strategies

to translate VTM Then, four techniques are proposed as the solution for translating VTM They are using loan – word translation for unique VTM terms, literal translation for VTM terms, carefully selecting words while using word – for – word translation and minimizing the number of equivalents for one word

Part 2 makes suggestions to standardize English translation of VTM on measures of translators and government

in translation studies should be put forward Cartford (1996) sees translation as “the replacement of a text in one language (SL) by an equivalent text in another language (TL) Equivalent text in Bell‟s translation definition (1991) is defined more detailed

“translation is the expression in another language (or TL) of what has been expressed

in another, SL, preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences” Hatim & Masonn

(1990), however, focuses more on the communication purpose of translation rather

than the semantic and stylistic features: “Translation is a communicative process which takes place within a social context” Meaning is the emphasis in Nida‟s definition (1975): “Translating consists of producing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent to the message of the SL, first in meaning and secondly in style” More simply, Newmark (1988) defines translation as “the rendering of a written text into another language in the way the author intended in the text”

In spite of differences in the expressions, the above definitions share common feature, which is to find equivalents that best preserve features of the original by the choice of appropriate TL‟s semantic, lexical, grammatical structures, cultural context or even communication situation

1.2 Translation equivalence

Translation defined by many scholars from different notions of view Some of translation scholars defined their theories a source-oriented theory, others regarded the target-oriented theories There are also theorists who chose a place in between;

however, all translation theories are related to the notion of equivalence in one way or another Hence, equivalence plays a crucial role in translation

1.2.1 Study of Jakobson (1959)

Jakobson (1959) makes a contribution to the theoretical analysis of translation He introduces the concept of equivalence in difference He suggests three kinds of equivalence known as:

- Intralingual (within one language, i.e rewording or paraphrase)

- Interlingual (between two languages)

- Intersemiotic (between sign systems)

1.2.2 Study of Nida (1964)

Nida (1964) argues that there are two different types of equivalence, namely formal equivalence- which in the second edition by Nida is referred to as formal correspondence and dynamic equivalence Formal correspondence focuses attention

on the message itself, in both form and content, unlike dynamic equivalence which is based upon the principle of equivalent effect

1.2.3 Study of Baker (1992)

Baker (1992) defines four kinds of equivalents as follows:

- Equivalence that can appear at word level and above word level, when translating from one language into another

- Grammatical equivalence, when referring to the diversity of grammatical categories across languages

- Textual equivalence when referring to the equivalence between a SL text and a

TL text in terms of information and cohesion

- Pragmatic equivalence, when referring to imprimaturs and strategies of avoidance during the translation process

1.2.4 Study of Vinay and Darbelnet (1995)

Vinay and Darbelnet (1995) view equivalence-oriented translation as a procedure which replicates the same situation as in the original, whilst using completely different wording

of types and shifts translation Catfrod proposes very broad types translation in terms

of three criteria:

1 The extent of translation (full translation vs partial translation)

2 The grammatical rank at which the translation equivalence is established (rank bound translation vs unbounded translation)

3 The levels of language involved in translation (total translation vs restricted translation)

Catford (1996) studies the equivalence and finds out that there are two factors which affects the equivalence They are linguistic and cultural factors These two factors brought two equivalents They are linguistic and cultural equivalents This finding of Caford is very significant because it consists of both important approaches toward equivalence, namely, linguistic and cultural approaches

1.3 Translation methods and procedures

The central problem of translating has always been whether to translate literally or freely Newmark, P (1988) points out that the differences in the emphasis (SL or TL) have resulted in a variety of translation methods and procedures

Due to time constraint and within the framework of the thesis, the author presents only translation methods, procedures and strategies that match the content of the study,

or can serve as a firm foundation for the research according to the study of Newmark (1988)

1.3.1 Word – for – word translation

This is often demonstrated as interlinear translation, with the TL immediately below the SL words The SL word-order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context Cultural words are translated literally The main use of word – for – word translation is either to understand the mechanics of the SL or to construe a difficult text as a pre-translation process

1.3.2 Literal translation

The SL grammatical constructions are converted to the nearest TL equivalents but the lexical words are again translated singly, out of context As a pre-translation process, this indicates the problems to be solved

1.3.3 Free translation

Free translation reproduces the matter without the manner, or the content without the form of the original Usually it is a paraphrase much longer than the original, a so-called „intralingual translation‟, often prolix and pretentious, and not translation at all

1.3.4 Idiomatic translation

Idiomatic translation reproduces the „message‟ of the original but tends to distort nuances of the meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the original

1.3.5 Abbreviations

Abbreviations have been always been a common type of pseudo-neologism

1.3.6 Loan word translation

Loan word translation (emprunt, transference, transcription) is the process of

transferring a SL word to TL text as a translation process

1.4 Translation strategies: Domestication and Foreignization

In translation studies the two basic strategies are domestication and foreignization, which are in practice exclusive Lindfors (2001) summarizes the idea behind the basic strategies:

Translating a text form one culture to another usually requires that a choice is first made between two basic strategies, domestication and foreignization Domestication means making the text recognizable and familiar and thus brings the foreign culture closer to the reader in the target culture, while foreignization means the opposite, taking the reader over to the foreign culture and making him or her feel the cultural and linguistic differences This choice between domestication and foreignization is linked to questions of ethics, too: If target-cultural conventions are followed in the translation process, the text will be readily acceptable in the target culture, but it will inevitably lose some of the characteristics that would have given it a foreign or even exotic feeling

Translating is not a value-free action and choices are made at all the stages of the process: what to translate, to whom, how, etc as Venuti (1998) puts in:

Translation is often regarded with suspicion because it inevitably domesticates foreign texts, inscribing them with linguistic and cultural values that are intelligible to specific domestic constituencies This process of inscription operates a every stage in the production, circulation, and reception of the translation It is initiated by the very choice of a foreign text to translate, always an exclusion of other foreign texts and literatures, which answers to particular domestic interests It continues most forcefully in the development of a translation strategy that rewrites the foreign text in domestic dialects and discourses, always choice of certain domestic values to the exclusion of others And it is further complicated by the diverse forms in which the translation is published, reviewed, read, and taught, producing cultural and political effects that vary with different institutional contexts and social positions

In short, domestication refers to the target – culture oriented translation strategy by which unusual expressions to the TL are abandoned and turned out into some familiar ones so as to make the translated text intelligible and easy for the target readers Foreignization is a source – culture oriented translation strategy that strives to preserve the foreign flavor as much as possible in order to transfer the SL and source – culture into the target ones

In the past history of translation studies, many translation theorists held a one-sided attitude towards domestication and foreignization by viewing the two as incompatible and denouncing one in favor of the other As a matter of fact, drastic criticisms in either domestication or foreignization can only do harm to the study of the two strategies rather than advance the research The selection of translation strategies is not decided by which one is superior by decided by various factors operating at different levels where both strategies have their respective advantages The respectively serve different translation purposes and meet the needs of different types and readerships Therefore, given different factors influencing the translator‟s selection of translation strategies, the objective existence of cultural and linguistic differences and indispensable role respectively played by either domestication or foreignization in cultural communication and exchange, a dialectical and complementary relationship should be established between domestication and foreignization

Chapter 2: Current situation of VTM

translation and characteristics of language

and English translation of VTM

2.1 Brief introduction of VTM

For several thousand years, VTM has evolved under the shadows of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), culture, and rule At this point in time, it is nearly impossible to separate out and delineate VTM from TCM because their developments were so inter-twined

Emily King in her case study Finding the words: Literacy and Traditional Vietnamese Medicine (2007) stated that historians believed that VTM, which is now very similar

to TCM, started independently of TCM and may have predated the Chinese occupation, VTM and TCM are believed to have undergone mutual exchange in that VTM incorporated the theories of TCM and TCM incorporated many of the local Vietnamese medicines

According to Thai (2003) in Traditional Vietnamese Medicine: Historical background and Current usage, VTM and TCM differ in practice, yet they share the same

theoretical foundation TCM practitioners would spend more time giving their patients a sort of theoretical explanation of what‟s going on, whereas VTM practitioners would use a more practical approach and concentrate less on theory

The cornerstone of VTM theories is based on the observed effects of qi (energy) Although there are as many different forms of qi as there are different kinds of functions (Source or Essence qi, Food qi, qi of the Mind or Shen, etc.), they are all related to the original Source or Essence and Food qi The Essence is inherited from our parents, while Food qi is extracted from food Furthermore, we see that qi

encompasses more than just Energy It is also blood and “fuel” gathered and stored by

the body So, qi is also the substance we call matter As in Einstein‟s theory of energy and matter, that E=MC2, or that matter is essentially energy Blood and qi are like

matter and energy; they are different states of the same element (Thai, 2003)

VTM‟s major theories are: Yin and Yang, Five Elements, 12 Organs and 14 regular meridians These theories are often combined to explain a health condition I will be

explaining these theories in 2.4.1.1 while giving the reasons for the difficulties in translating VTM into English

2.2 Necessities of VTM translation

2.2.1 For the integration of Western scientific medicine and VTM

VTM is a unique medical system in the world It was established on the basic concepts of the correspondence between man and nature, the integrity of the human body and mind, and maintenance of a dynamic balance of life activities under the influences of the internal and external environments Now, in coordination with modern medicine, it presents the advantages and distinguishing features of Vietnamese care The curative techniques as herbal medication, acupuncture, moxibustion (application of heat to the acupuncture points by burning a piece of the

Vietnamese plant named Artmisia moxa (ngải or ngải cứu) on the skin by

acupuncture needles) and diet-therapy, as well as the theory of maintaining good health – integration between man and nature, harmonization between body and mind, and combination of action and stability, are attracting attention among medical circles all over the world

As Vietnam develops its modern medical system, active efforts are being made to synthesize Western and Vietnamese techniques and theories, with emphasis on the respective strengths and weakness of both approaches Vietnamese, Western medicine and integrated Vietnamese and Western medicine exist side by side Medical workers working on the integration of Vietnamese and Western medicine have done a lot of research work on the basic theories and principles of treatment of VTM with advanced techniques and modern methods For example, scientific annotations have

been made on the principles of the zang-fu organs, stasis of blood and acupuncture

Great achievements have been made by Vietnam in the fields of acupuncture anaesthesia, extensive burn treatment, acute abdominal diseases, and fracture treatment

In recent years, great successes have been made by using combined Vietnamese and Western techniques to treat cardiac and cerebral vascular diseases, immunological diseases, tumors, fractures and some other diseases For example, many doctors have witnessed that tumor patients recover aster when they receive VTM treatment after operation

The doctors of both VTM and Western medicine feel that it is most beneficial to society to incorporate the best of two forms of medical practice into one and minimize the amount of present bias This would lead to use of the most effective form of medical practice, complimentary medicine, for the future

However, it is a pity that both Western and VTM doctors feel it difficult to communicate with each other when it comes to specific concepts of VTM because of cultural and language barriers Properly translated texts of VTM are in urgent demand

to fasten the communication and integration of Western medicine and VTM

2.2.2 For the modernization of VTM

Vietnamese people are proud of their millennia old form of medicine However, in the age of science, we cannot deny that there exists controversy about its effectiveness For instance, some foreign psychiatrists have pointed out that the scientific proof of acupuncture is neither sufficient nor well designed, but rather based on the observation of the practitioners

As more and more scholars show interest in VTM and its theories, various attempts have been made to prove VTM theories with Western laboratory techniques For instance, the ancient medical men found that most patients felt easy in the early morning and even better before late afternoon, and felt painful in the dusk and even

worse at night This is because of “in the morning the vital qi begins to grow stronger while pathogenic factors become weaker; at midday the vital qi is predominant over the pathogenic factors; in the late afternoon the vital qi is weakened while the pathogenic factors grow stronger; at midnight, the vital qi restores to the internal

organs, thus the pathogenic factors come into the leading place.” (Wu Changguo, 2002) Though these statements sound like mere guess-work to westerners, it is observed by modern scientists that there exist biorhythms in the human body of the pulse conditions, temperature, and the amount of oxygen consumed, carbon dioxide release and hormone secreted during the 24 hours of a day

Additionally, new progress has been made in the investigation of folk prescriptions, in planting and processing herbal medicines and in the development of drugs Now, more cooperation with international medical circle is desired to eliminate bias against VTM and to modernize it

It goes without saying that translation plays an essential role in the process of cooperation The more efforts we put into VTM translation, the better the world will understand VTM and the faster VTM will approach modernization

2.3 Existing problems of English translation of VTM

2.3.1 Problems in translating VTM technological terms

Due to its long history and complex cultural background, VTM is incredibly hard to

be perfect and time consuming to understand Poor translation of the basic VTM concepts sometimes causes malpractice and thus does harm to the acceptance and development of VTM

There are many terms in VTM to which no equivalence can be found in western culture or western medicine, including those in basic theories, anatomy, therapy

methods, etc Take yin and yang for example, the medical application of yin and yang the doctrine of yin and yang, which will be explained latter, may sound very

confusing to westerners First, there are not concepts the same as or similar to them in Western medicine theories; second, the terms are too abstract to understand because it

is not easy for a westerner to tell which symptoms pertain to yin or yang

The inconsistency can be explained by the fact that VTM terminologies consists a

great number of poly-semantic ones Take the Vietnamese word hư (a common world

in VTM) for example; different versions of translation of it can be listed as following:

Feeble pulse Thirst due to aesthetic heat

These following examples are in similar situation: VTM noun terminology itself has the phenomenon that one word has several meanings For example:

Nội tiêu (1) internal dispersion: one of three main methods of

treating sores It involves the use of dispersing and dissipating medicinal herbs to eliminate sores in the initial stage prior to suppuration

(2) internal dispersion <thirst>: one form of dispersion thirst (a disease characterized by thirst and emaciation) Thất tình (1) seven affects: joy, anger, anxiety, though, sorrow,

fear and fright

(2) seven relations: seven relationships or interactions

of medicinal herbs, namely: going alone, mutual need, empowering, fear, aversion, killing and clashing

(2) precipitate qi

The pulse terms provide another example for the inconstancy in VTM translation on the aspect that different translators use different terms in translating VTM terms The following table shows pulse names taken from five different sources, as follow:

(1) Hoàng Duy Tân (2006) Vietnamese Dictionary on Acupunture Terms Dong Nai

Publishers

(2) Hữu Ngọc, Lady Borton (2008) Traditional Medicine Hanoi: Thế Giới Publishers (3) Vietnamese Traditional Medicine (1999) Hanoi: The Gioi Publishers

(4) Hoàng Bảo Châu (1998) Present Situation of Vietnamese Integrated Medicine

Chinese Journal of Integrated Medicine , 64-78

(5) David Wang & Joseph F.Audette (2008) Acupuncture in Pain Management In

Contemporary Pain Medicine (pp 379-416)

(2) Renderings of Pulse Terms

Hoãn Moderate - - Relaxed Moderate

Phù Floating Superficial Floating at

surface

Surface Floating

Trầm Sunken Deep Deep - Sunken

Thực Full Excess Full - Replete

Hoạt Smooth Rolling Slippery - Slippery

Hồng Swollen - - Vast Surging

Huyền Strung String-taut Wiry - Stringlike

Khẩn Tense - - Tense Tight

Nhu Soft -

Weak-floating

Nhược Weak Weak Weak Weak Weak

For each Vietnamese term, there are differences in the English terms used Some translators use the same term but there is little consistency between two or more translators over the whole field Taking the words at face value (as of course many readers do), it is possible to observe synonyms not only for different writers‟

equivalents for different terms For example, in (2), (3) deep means trầm; while it is sunken in (5) The foreign students reading multiple authors might be confused by the existence of accelerated, rapid, hurried and hasty, which in fact describe two distinct, faster-than-normal pulses – số Furthermore, some of the terms are untraceable in

some of the sources

It is quite easy to see how the conflation of concepts due to inappropriate word choices exacerbates the lack of terminological standardization Let us take the

example of two similar pulse terms vô lực and nhược A pulse that describes vô lực, literally having no force, is not the same as the pulse describe nhược, weak It is a

descriptive term that can be applied to many pulses lacking in strength in addition to

their other qualities The term nhược (weak), by contrast, in most Vietnamese literature specifically denote a pulse that apart from being forceless is also sunken (trầm) and according to some definition is fine (tế). (Hoàng Duy Tân, 2006)

The challenge we face in the creation of an English terminology of VTM is to ensure the conceptual distinctions made in the SL and the TL, and this can only be done satisfactorily when terminologicaldistinctions in the SL are reflected in the TL If the

translator is unaware of the distinction between vô lực and nhược, or even though he

is aware of it, he fails to reflect it in translation and draw the readers‟ attention to it,

then the reader might not grasp it If translator A translates vô lực and nhược as forceless and weak respectively, but translator B translates both terms as weak, and translator C translates them both as forceless, the distinction will not get through to all

readers Of course, the reader who only reads translator A‟s works will understand it clearly But those who have learned the distinction in A and who try to apply their understanding of the distinction when reading B and C will have a distorted

understanding of B and C And again, students who read B and C without reading A

will not have any notion of the distinction at all They will likely think that forceless and weak mean roughly, if not exactly, the same things Unless all writers distinguish

vô lực and nhược and consistently use the same English terms, they might as well not

bother making any distinction in name at all

Until now, the methods of translation in VTM are still varied, such as literal or free translation, word – for – word or loan word translation, or so on In order to translate VTM Vietnamese into English properly, a discussion concerning the standards of translation should be raised

2.3.2 Problems in translating classics of VTM

The Sino-Vietnamese language, commonly used in VTM documents, poses another difficulty for translators Vietnamese ancient language tends to be highly comprehensive The modern Vietnamese has great differences from the ancient one Thus an ancient text, especially when it loads scientific information, is beyond comprehension for the one that has little knowledge about Vietnamese ancient language This will definitely pose great difficulties for the westerners who are relatively unfamiliar with the content A translator with a good sense of responsibility may accurately transcode the language by trying his best, but it is not at all an easy job

Furthermore, translating VTM text would be a time consuming task and even an impossible task if the translator wishes the target texts could accomplishing the same literary achievement as that of the source, since modern Vietnamese and English have distinctively different conventions in language use

Take tắc in âm thịnh tắc hàn, dương thịnh tắc nhiệt for example If the translator has

no idea that the Sino-Vietnamese tắc in this case means cause he fails to translate these two phrases correctly into predominance of yin causes coldness and predominance of yang causes heat

2.4 Reasons for problems

2.4.1 Objective reasons

2.4.1.1 Great differences between VTM and Western medicine

VTM has a very long history of several thousand years The practice of VTM, highly influenced by the development of Vietnamese culture, involved physical therapy using acupuncture and moxibusion, and chemical therapy using materials of animals, mineral and plan origin in the form of decoction of combined VTM natural products

The three main theories of VTM, yin yang, Five Elements, and 12 Organs and 14

Regular Meridians vividly present the differences between the two medical systems

The Yin and Yang is probably the oldest and the most significant theory in VTM It

describes the existence of and the importance for balance between opposite states

(cold and hot, inaction and action) Yin and Yang can be divided into three divisions: 1) Cold versus Hot; 2) Interior versus Exterior; and 3) Deficiency versus Excess Yin

conditions are typically manifested by symptoms of cold, interior, and deficient while

Yang conditions are typically manifested by symptoms of heat, exterior, and excess

Invariably, chronic deficiencies in one organ/element typically lead to an excess or deficiency in another organ/element It is believed that some organs naturally possess

more Yin while other organs more Yang, but all organs have a Yin and a Yang counterpart Consequently, when one‟s Yin within an organ is weak, one‟s organ function is affected In the case of stomach Yin deficiency, one will see a Yin type of mal-digestion, whereas Stomach Yang deficiency will lead to a Yang type of mal- digestion Each syndrome requires a specific form of treatment A Yang or qi deficiency of the Stomach can be exacerbated by supplementing Yin tonics and vice versa The use of acupuncture, moxibustion and herbal medidries rectifies the yin- yang imbalances by supplementing the deficient elements Nearly all symptomatic diagnoses are based on the philosophy of yin and yang

The Vietnamese believe that yin and yang control the working of the Universe, which

is made up of the five symbolic elements: Wood, Fire, Earth, Metal and Water The

proper balance of the Five Elements is the working principle of the Five Elements theory Everything in the Universe (or on Earth) is dominated by one of the Five

Elements Observing these elements in nature, VTM medical theorists keenly relate these same concepts to our health Thus, organs with complementary functions, or

have similar symbolic relationships, are paired In the light of all these relationships,

the heart and small intestine are considered Fire The stomach, pancreas and spleen are designated as Earth The lungs and colon are Metal The kidneys and reproductive system are Water The Liver and the Gall Bladder represent Wood (See the figure

by breaking up soil with their roots and depleting its nutrients; Earth destroys Water

by soiling its clarity after mixing in; Water subjugates Fire by extinguishing it, while Fire destroys Metal by melting it, and Metal subjugates Wood by cutting it The vital organs, and physiological and psychological functions of the body, are related to the Five Elements according to the Five Elements theory

For example ancient Vietnamese associated liver with Wood because they believed

liver promote the spreading of qi and blood vessels like a tree spreading out freely

Trees produce green leaves, so green corresponds to Wood Immature fruit, green in color, is usually sour, and so sourness is related to Wood Trees germinate in spring, and the weather in spring is neither too hot nor too cold, but is often windy So spring

is the season pertaining to Wood, and wind is also related to Wood The eyes and tendon all pertain to Wood, because the condition of the liver can be reflected in the eyes And the liver controls the tendons Anger is apt to impair the liver, and patients with liver troubles are usually irascible Therefore, among the various emotions, anger

is classified into the category of Wood

The classification of things and phenomena provides a basis for the conformity of man with nature It is believed that the disorder of one certain organ is accompanied

or caused by disorders of other organs because each organ corresponds to one element that promotes or overrides another

The 12 organs and the corresponding 14 regular meridians are paired with each other

based on their energetic functions that are beyond the scope of this paper Both

organs and meridians are organized into Yin and Yang partners The functions of the Yin organs and meridians are generally associated with structures, quiescence, extracting pure substances and nourishing The Yin meridians are in the front and on the inner side of the limbs In contrast, Yang organs and meridians are generally associated dynamic functions, movement of Qi, and processing wastes All organs and

elements have a physical, emotional and spiritual component to health Thus disturbances in each element can affect any level of health VTM practitioners go

back and forth between Yin and Yang, the Five Elements, the organs and meridian theories to explain illnesses