applicability of tasked-based language teaching to the teaching context in thai hoa upper secondary school = khả năng áp dụng phương pháp dạy học ngôn ngữ dựa vào nhiệm vụ trong bối cảnh trường thpt thái hòa

LÊ MINH QUÝ APPLICABILITY OF TASK – BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING TO THE TEACHING CONTEXT IN THAI HOA UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL KHẢ NĂNG ÁP DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC NGÔN NGỮ DỰA VÀO NHIỆM VỤ T

LÊ MINH QUÝ

APPLICABILITY OF TASK – BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING TO THE TEACHING CONTEXT IN THAI HOA

UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL

(KHẢ NĂNG ÁP DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC NGÔN NGỮ DỰA VÀO NHIỆM VỤ TRONG BỐI CẢNH TRƯỜNG THPT THÁI HÒA)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodology Code: 60.14.10

Hanoi, 2013

LÊ MINH QUÝ

APPLICABILITY OF TASK – BASED LANGUAGE TEACHING TO THE TEACHING CONTEXT IN THAI HOA

UPPER SECONDARY SCHOOL

(KHẢ NĂNG ÁP DỤNG PHƯƠNG PHÁP DẠY HỌC NGÔN NGỮ DỰA VÀO NHIỆM VỤ TRONG BỐI CẢNH TRƯỜNG THPT THÁI HÒA)

M.A MINOR PROGRAMME THESIS

Field: English Language Teaching Methodology Code: 60.14.10

Supervisor: Nguyễn Việt Hùng, MA

Hanoi , 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First and foremost, I am most grateful to my supervisor, Mr Nguyen Viet Hung

MA for his continual support, encouragement, guidance and ideas Without his tireless support, this thesis could not have been completed

Secondly, I would like to express my great gratitude to all the teachers and students at Thai Hoa secondary school for their participation and cooperation during the data collection process

Thirdly, it is my pleasure to acknowledge my friends, especially Bui Van Hau, , from whom I have received a lot of help, support and encouragement

Finally, my sincere thanks go to my family whose support has been of great significance to the success of my thesis

ABSTRACT

Recently task-based language teaching (TBLT) evolving from communicative language instruction has drawn the attention of many researchers towards itself To date, there have not had many studies on applicability of TBLT in a particular context This study has intended to explore the attitudes of students‟ towards TBLT It also seeks the understanding of teachers‟ of TBLT A sample of five teachers and three hundred students participated in this study A questionnaire was used to examine students‟ attitudes towards the friendliness of theoretical issues of TBLT Then, interviews and observations are employed to find out how teachers understand and implement task-based language learning

in their classroom The data were analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively The results of the study showed that while students in general had positive attitudes towards TBLT, teachers lacked conceptualizations of TBLT and their teaching practice did not match TBLT model Therefore, these findings led to the conclusion that it is impossible to apply TBLT to the teaching context in THSS successfully Finally, suggestions were made

in order to solve those problems mentioned above: teachers should attend seminars on ELT; they should train themselves through books and articles; there should have had competitions for both teachers and students to enhance teaching and learning English

LIST OF APPENDICES

A QUESTIONNAIRES FOR STUDENTS

B INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR TEACHERS

C OBSERVATION SHEETS

D QUANTITATIVE STATISTICAL DATA

E INTERVIEW DATA

LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES Tables

Table 1 Willis and Skehan‟s views of principles of TBLT

Table 2 Ellis and Nunan‟s views of principles of TBLT

Table 3 Teachers‟ background information

Table 4 Students‟ background information

Table 5 Summary of Statistical Models

Table 6 Unreliable Items that need being left out the analysis

Table 7 Correlation between domains in the whole questionnaire

Table 8 Reliability of each domain in the questionnaire

Table 9 Factor Analysis of domains in the Questionnaire

Table 10 Factor Analysis of Students‟ attitudes towards TBLT

Table 11 Descriptive statistics of domains and the whole questionnaire

Table 12 Frequency and Percentage of Students‟ Attitude towards domains and TBLT Table 13 Descriptive statistics of Items with unconfirmative answers

Table 14 Descriptive statistics of Items with highly confirmative answers

Table 15 Descriptive statistics of each item/question in Attitude towards Principles of Teaching domain

Table 16 Descriptive statistics of the items in Attitude towards Features of Teaching Table 17 Descriptive statistics of the items in Attitude towards Stages of Teaching

Table 18 Descriptive statistics of the items in Attitude towards Techniques of Teaching

Table 19 Summary of Mean difference of domains between groups according to age Table 20 Summary of T-Test Values of Mean difference of domains between groups according to age

Table 21 Summary of Mean difference of domains between groups according to sex

Table 22 Summary of T-Test Values of Mean difference of domains between groups according to sex Table 23 Mean difference in Attitude towards Task-Based Language Teaching according to Economic condition

Table 24 Multi linear regression analysis of Attitude towards Task-Based Language Teaching Table 25 Coefficients of multi linear regression analysis of Attitude towards Task-

Based Language Teaching

Table 26 Model SummaryStages of Teaching of multi linear regression analysis of Attitude towards Table 27 ANOVA table of multivariable linear regression analysis of Attitude towards Stages of Teaching Table 28 Teachers‟ conceptualizations of TBLT

Table 29 Pros and Cons of Task-based language teaching

Table 30 Factors affecting the TBLT implementation

Table 31 Summary of teachers‟ classroom practice

Table 32 Summary of the results in the questionnaire, semi-structured interview, and classroom observation

FIGURES

Figure 1 TBL Framework by Willis

Figure 2 Attitude towards Task - Based Language Teaching

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

THSS Thai Hoa Secondary School

TBL Task-Based Learning

TBLT Task-Based Language Teaching

MOET Ministry of Education and Training

CLT Communicative Language Teaching

TEFL Teaching English as Foreign Language

FL Foreign Language

L2 Second Language

DT Definition of Task

ET Examples of Task

TBLTM Task - Based Language Teaching Model

TGTBLT Teaching Grammar in Task – Based Language Teaching

TABLE OF CONTENT

CANDIDATE’S STATEMENTS……… i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……… ii

ABSTRACT……… iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS……… iv

LIST OF APPENDICES……… vii

LIST OF TABLES……… viii

LIST OF FIGURES……… ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ……… x

PART A INTRODUCTION……… 1

1.1 Rationale……… 1

1.2 Aim and objectives of the study……… 1

1.3 Research questions……… 2

1.4 Scope of the study……… 2

1.5 Significance of the study……… 2

1.6 Method of the study……… 2

1.7 Design of the study……… 2

PART B DEVELOPMENT……… 4

Chapter 1 LITERATURE REVIEW……… 4

1.1 Theoretical background of TBLT……… 4

1.1.1 The learning theory……… 4

1.1.2 Input and learning interactionist theory……… 5

1.1.3 Communicative language teaching……… 7

1.1.4 Research on communicative tasks……… 8

1.2 Task-based language teaching……… 9

1.2.1 Definition of a task……… 9

1.2.2 Task types……… 11

1.2.3 Teacher‟s roles in TBLT……… 12

1.2.4 Some problems in implementing TBLT in Asian context………… 14

1.3 Theoretical framework ……… 16

1.3.1 Working terminology……… 16

1.3.2 Principles of TBLT……… 17

1.3.3 Features of TBLT……… 19

1.3.4 Stages of TBLT……… 19

1.3.5 Techniques of TBLT……… 21

1.4 Summary……… 22

Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY……… 23

2.1 The fitness of research method……… 23

2.2 Context of the study……… 23

2.2.1 The setting of the study……… 23

2.2.2 Informants ……… 23

2.2.2.1 The teachers……… 23

2.2.2.2 The students……… 24

2.3 Data collection instruments……… 25

2.3.1 Questionnaires……… 25

2.3.2 Interviews……… 25

2.3.3 Class observations……… 26

2.4 Data collection procedure……… 26

2.4.1 Interviews……… 26

2.4.2 Questionnaires……… 27

2.4.3 Classroom observations……… 27

2.5 Data analysis……… 27

2.6 Reliability and validity of the research……… 27

Chapter 3 DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS……… 31

3.1 Students’ attitudes towards theoretical issues of TBLT……… 31

3.1.1 Students‟ attitudes towards TBLT……… 31

3.1.2 Students‟ attitudes towards each domain of TBLT……… 35

3.1.3 Difference of Students‟ attitudes towards theoretical issues of TBLT in groups 39 3.1.4 Main factors which affect students‟ attitudes towards TBLT……… 41 3.2 Findings from semi-structured interviews and classroom observations 46

3.2.1 Teachers‟ conceptualizations of task-based language teaching 48

3.2.2 Advantages and disadvantages of TBLT……… 48

3.2.3 Factors affecting the TBLT implementation……… 49

3.2.4 Teachers‟ practice in language classrooms……… 51

3.3 Matches and Mismatches……… 52

PART C: CONCLUSION……… 54

1.1 Summary of the major points of the study ……… 54

1.2 Pedagogical implications……… 54

1.3 Limitations and suggestions for further research……… 55

REFERENCES……… 56

Part A: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Rationale

Task-based teaching is an Anglo-American invention (Ellis, 2003) designed mainly for adult intermediate learners It opens new potential orientations and hopes to the EFL learners and teachers in some aspects of learning and teaching The task-based language syllabus, unlike other linguistic and structural syllabuses, takes learners‟ needs into account Bygate (1999) indicates how one can use tasks systematically as a context to develop learners‟ knowledge about language, their ability to use it, and the teachers‟ ability

to teach it He asserts that tasks are needed to improve learners‟ fluency, accuracy, and complexity in communication Due to many benefits of TBLT, the set of textbooks for secondary schools was passed by MOET in 2006 in which communicative learner-centred approaches and task-based language teaching are adopted Students can participate in activities through individual, pair, and group work, and they can interact with each other

„actively, creatively and cooperatively‟ (Van et al, 2006, p.10) Along the line with the innovative trend, departments of education and training in provinces and cities have declared that lower and upper secondary schools need follow the communicative approach and TBLT suggested by authors of textbooks and MOET In order to put this policy into pratice, it is necessary to have many researches about the applicability of TBLT in different contexts Thus, the question “Is Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) applicable the teaching context in Thai Hoa secondary school?” is worth being investigated before any decisions of TBLT implementation

The applicability of a teaching method into a specific teaching context is feasible in case three major factors are met: (1) There exist the textbooks or teaching materials friendly to that teaching method; (2) students have positive attitudes towards features of that method; and (3) teachers are aware of that teaching method The first factor is met because the textbooks of English for secondary schools are declared to adopt TBLT (Van,

2011, pp.96-106; Hung, 2011, pp.124-131)

Therefore, in order to decide whether the two other factors are met or not, the research has to investigate students‟ attitudes towards theoretical issues of TBLT and the teachers‟ perception of TBLT in Thai Hoa Secondary school

1.2 Aim and Objectives of the study

The main aim of the study is to find out how applicable task-based language learning (TBLL) is in the teaching context of Thai Hoa Secondary School (THSS); this aim

is subdivided into following objectives to be easier to manage:

To get investigate students‟ attitudes towards the friendliness of theoretical issues

of TBLT by a survey questionnaire

To find out how teachers understand and implement task-based language learning

in their classroom by case studies in which interviews and observations are employed

1.3 Research questions

In order to meet the objective of the study, the following research questions are raised:

1 What are students‟ attitudes towards theoretical issues of task-based language learning?

2 What are teachers‟ perceptions of task-based language learning?

1.4 Scope of the study

In order to find out the applicability of TBLT in the teaching context of Thai Hoa secondary school, the study is only focused the attitudes of students‟ towards TBLT and the understanding of teachers‟ of TBLT In addition, the study is only carried out in THSS

1.5 Significance of the study

The findings of the research will help teachers have a more comprehensible understanding of students‟ attitudes and teacher‟s perceptions towards TBLT Also, they will know benefits of TBLT but challenges facing them and their students when implementing TBLT Finally, some suggestions will be made in order to help them apply TBLT at THSS successfully

1.6 Method of the study

To achieve the aims of the study, both quantitative and qualitative methods are employed and the following steps are involved:

 Collecting data by survey questionnaires for students

 Conducting an interview and a class observation with teachers for further information of the study

All comments, remarks, recommendations and conclusion are based on the data analysis This data hoped to confirm and support the results obtained from other sources

1.7 Design of the study

This study is organized into three main parts as follows:

Part A: Introduction

This part presents the rationale, the aims and objectives, research questions, scope,

significance, method, and design of the study

Part B: Development

This part is divided into 3 chapters

Chapter 1 Literature review: it serves as the theoretical background for the study,

presenting the concepts and relevant theories

Chapter 2 Methodology: it discusses the context of the study, the data collection

instruments, the data collection procedure, and the data analysis

Chapter 3 – Results and Discussion: it presents significant findings of the study, a

discussion of the major findings

Part C: Conclusion

It summarizes the main issues addressed in the study, discusses limitations and some pedagogical implications In addition, it also offers suggestions for further researches

Part B: DEVELOPMENT Chapter 1 LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1 Theoretical Background of TBLT

The first person who has applied TBLT to teaching programs and practice is Prabhu It was in Bangalore of southern Indian in 1979 that Prabhu began his bold experiments to put his theories into practice which seemed radical at that time According

to Prabhu, students may learn more effectively when their minds are focused on the task, rather than on the language they are using (Prabhu, 1987) Therefore, Prabhu is thought to

be the originator of TBLT

The theoretical basis of TBLT dates back to cognitive psychology „the Learning theory‟ that has deeply affected the elementary education Allwright (1977) put that “If the language activities involve the learners in solving communicative problems in the target language, language learning will take care of itself” Also, the other theoretical foundations

of TBLT are Krashen‟s “Input and Interactionist Theory” and “Communicative Language Teaching”

1.1.1 The Learning Theory

In task-based language teaching, syllabus content and instructional processes are selected with reference to the communicative tasks which learners will (either actually or potentially) need to engage in outside the classroom and also with reference to theoretical and empirical insights into those social and psycholinguistic (cognitive) processes which facilitate language acquisition This approach to language teaching commonly includes the ideas of learning theories of Piaget‟s cognitive theory and Vygotsky‟s social constructivist theory

“Piaget described overall development as the result of children‟s interaction with their environment, with a complementary interaction between their developing perceptual cognitive capacities and their linguistic experience” (Brown 2002, p.29)

Piaget emphasized the constructive nature of the learning processes That is, individuals are actively involved right from birth in constructing personal meaning, which

is their personal understanding from their experiences

Vygotsky (1987) claims that cognitive development and learning originates in a social context Vygotsky believed that higher psychological functions, such as learning, develop in interaction between individuals He hypothesized the existence of a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), where functions learnt in a social dimension are transferred

to a cognitive dimension An implication of this theory is that a learner learns under the

guidance of an expert, who provides assistance and support by adjusting the difficulty of the task Since a language classroom can also be considered as a social environment, the phenomena of interaction which take place there can be analyzed in the light of this theory Vygotsky‟s the “zone of proximal development” is probably his best-known concept It argues that students can, with the help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own No one ever achieves the full extent of their learning potential, but people can continue to develop their cognitive capacity throughout their lives and their social interaction

Vygotsky (1978) shared many of Piaget‟s assumptions about how children learn, but he placed more emphasis on the social context of learning Piaget‟s cognitive theories have been used as the foundation for the discovery of learning models in which the teacher plays a limited role In Vygotsky‟s theories both teachers and older or more experienced children play very important roles in learning There is a great deal of overlap between cognitive constructivism and Vygotsky‟s social constructivist theory However, Vygotsky‟s constructivist theory, which is often called social constructivism, has much more room for

an active involved teacher For Vygotsky, the culture gives the child the cognitive tools (they are features of our minds that shape the ways we make sense of the world around us; the richer the cognitive toolkit we accumulate, the better the sense we make.) needed for his development The type and quality of those tools determine, to a much greater extent than they do in Piaget‟s theory, the pattern and rate of development Adults such as parents and teachers are conduits for the tools of the culture, including language The tools of the culture provides to a child include cultural history, social context, and language Today they also include electronic forms of information access

Supported by social-interactive and constructive theory, a social constructive model

of the teaching-learning process comes into being It emphasizes the dynamic nature of the interplay between teachers, learners and tasks, and provides a view of learning as arising from interactions with others In this model, a learner is an active meaning-maker and problem-solver and tasks involve input in the form of a piece of text or language They involve activities, which are what the learners are required to do; and they involve cognitive operations, which are the cognitive process needed in order to carry out the activities Together with the other two key factors, teachers and context, they interact as part of a dynamic, ongoing process

1.1.2 Input and Interactionist Theory

Rod Ellis thought that the theoretical base of task-based approach is Input and Interactionist Theory (Ellis, 1999) The explanation of Input and Interactionist Theory which Krashen emphasizes refer to using language to learn and then learning to use language Krashen and other second language acquisition theorists typically stress that language learning comes about through using language communicatively, rather than through practicing language skills That is to say, we acquire a language mostly is the result of using language in the process of communicative activities, not the result of conscious language drilling

According to Krashen (1982), we acquire a language through our subconscious acquisition process not our conscious learning process Language acquisition is a subconscious process not unlike the way a child learns language Language acquirers are not consciously aware of the grammatical rules of the language, but rather develop a “feel” for correctness In non-technical language, acquisition is “picking-up” a language Language learning, on the other hand, refers to the conscious knowledge of a foreign language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them Thus language learning can be compared to learning about a language

Krashen also points out the students to acquire a language must receive comprehensible input The input hypothesis states that a language acquirer who is at level

“i” must receive comprehensible input that is at level “i+1” We acquire, in other words, only when we understand language that contains structures that is „a little beyond‟ where

we are now This understanding is possible due to using the cultural background of the language we are hearing or reading and our knowledge of the world Interactionist critics pointed to some insufficiencies of Krashen‟s comprehensible input theory (Long, 1985) They doubted that mere exposure to input, even if comprehensible, could promote language learning When reading a book, watching a TV program, or listening to a radio broadcast learners do not interact with the source of language: the communication is unidirectional They do not have the opportunity to show that they have not understood the message, to ask for clarifications or repetitions On the basis of these considerations Long, although accepting the comprehensible input theory, decided to study how input is made comprehensible His researches showed that native speakers consistently modify their speech when they interact with non-native speakers

Most native speakers seem to adjust naturally their speech to the speakers needs, in order to facilitate communication (Long, 1983) Long (1983, pp.177-193) suggests that language acquisition can be gained only through the „conversational

non-native-interaction‟ Meanwhile, he also thinks that the necessary language acquisition device is

“modified interaction” , which concerns (l) the modified interaction may make the input comprehensible; (2) the comprehensible input is good for language acquisition; (3) modified interaction benefits language acquisition

Therefore, in ELT we should design the activity with the modified interaction (task) so that learners can naturally acquire language through the conversational interaction Task-based language teaching can make language learning in classrooms closer to the natural route and may reach a higher rate of language acquisition because it provides learners with a clear communicative goal, interaction is needed to reach the goal, and comprehensive input can occur, and then language acquisition is facilitated Nowadays, more and more designers of communicative syllabuses attempts to organize communicative language teaching around a specification of communicative tasks Some classroom activities are often designed to focus on completing tasks that are mediated through language or involve interaction or negotiation of information and information sharing

1.1.3 Communicative Language Teaching

Task-based language teaching can be regarded as one particular development within the broader “communicative approach” (Littlewood 2004, p.1) Communicative language teaching (CLT) has become the accepted orthodoxy theory of Teaching English

as a Foreign Language (TEFL) over the past ten years or more, and many, but not all, general courses include communicative goals, communicative practice or communicative methodology Its theoretical base, according to Richards and Rodgers (2001, p.71), includes these characteristics:

1 Language is a system for the expression of meaning

2 The primary function of language is for interaction and communication

3 The structure of language reflects its functional and communicative uses

4 The primary units of language are not merely its grammatical and structural features, but categories of functional and communicative meaning as exemplified in discourse

Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life Unlike the Audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses The real-life simulations change from day to day Students‟ motivation to learn comes from their desire

to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics

Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth‟s view that “language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society In this light, language study has to look at the use (function)

of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak) ” (Berns 1984, p.5)

1.1.4 Research on Communicative Tasks

There have been several researches about tasks for over two decades (for example Shavelson & Stern, 1981; Candlin, 1987; Long, 1989) The researchers try to characterize elements around tasks

Shavelson and Stern (1981, p.478) suggests that tasks design should take into consideration the following elements:

l) Content the subject matter to be taught

2) Materials the things that learners can observe/manipulate

3) Activities the things the learners and teacher will be doing during the lesson

4) Goals the teacher's general aim for the task (they are much more general and vague than objectives)

5) Students their abilities, needs and interests are important

6) Social community the class as a whole and its sense of “groupness”

Wright (1987) suggests that tasks minimally contain just two elements: input data which may be provided by materials, teachers or learners, and an initiating question which instructs learners on what to do with the data

Candlin (1987) characterizes that tasks should contain input, roles, settings, actions, monitoring, outcomes and feedback Input refers to the data presented for learners to work

on Roles specify the relationship between participants in a task Setting refers to the classroom and out-of-class arrangements entailed in the task Actions are the procedures and sub-tasks to be performed by the learners Monitoring refers to the supervision of the task in progress Outcomes are the goals of the task and feedback refers to the evaluation

of the task

Long (1989) discussed two commonly aspects of communication tasks-the distribution of task-essential information and the goal orientation of learners Regarding information distribution, Long discusses “one-way” tasks in which one learner holds all task- essential information and must communicate it to the others, and “two-way” tasks in which task-essential information is distributed between learners, enquiring them to share and integrate it Regarding goal orientation, Long discusses “open” task in which learners know that there is no “correct” solution to the task, and “closed” tasks in which learners

know that there is only one or a small range of solutions Pica, Kanagy, and Falodun (1993) combine these conditions to produce a typology of tasks based on the opportunities for interaction that they provide

Yule (1997) provided a second typology of communication tasks Yule proposes three task types (descriptive, instructional, and narrative) and argues that the discourse skills necessary for descriptive task are entailed in instructional task, and that the skills for both are entailed in narrative tasks Whereas the typology of Pica et al (1993) helps to understand how learners need to interact on individual tasks, Yule‟s (1997) typology provides a basis for sequencing tasks developmentally Although new approach is emerging (Skehan:1998), the typology of Pica et al (1993) and Yule (1997) provide a basis for organizing foreign language instruction, and are relatively representative of current practice

Lambert (2004) introduced an approach to planning sequences of communication tasks that require becoming personally involved in their learning By drawing on their own ideas and experience, as a product of earlier tasks in a given sequence, learners generate the content and resource material on which subsequent tasks operate Lambert‟s idea is intended to increase understanding of the potential of tasks as a planning tool in FL/L2 education, and to provide practical examples for teachers and materials designers

1.2 Task-based language teaching

1.2.1 Definition of a task

How to define what a task is, which has attracted a considerable amount of concern

of researchers and educators for decades It seems that the continuum of definitions of task

is longer and longer Therefore, the term task has been defined from different perspectives

In terms of real world task, Long (1985) states that a task is:

A piece of work undertaken for oneself or for others, freely or for some reward Thus examples of tasks include painting a fence, dressing a child, filling out a form, buying a pair of shoes, making an airline reservation, borrowing a library book, taking a driving test, typing a letter, weighing a patient, sorting letters, talking a hotel reservation, writing a cheque, finding a street destination and helping someone across a road In other words, by „task‟ is meant the hundred and one things people do in everyday life,

at work, at play, and in between (p.89)

The prominent feature of the task in this definition is that a task can be either linguistic or non linguistic one When a task is converted from outside world into classroom, it becomes pedagogical task Breen (1987, p.23) defines a task is:

Any structured language learning endeavour which has a particular objective, appropriate content, a specified working procedure, and a range of outcomes for those who undertake the task „Task‟ is therefore assumed to refer to a range of workplans

which have the overall purposes of facilitating language learning – from the simple and brief exercise type, to more complex and lengthy activities such as group problem-solving or simulations and decision-making

This definition is very large, implying as it does, that just about anything the learner does in the classroom qualifies as a task It could, in fact, be used to justify any procedure

at all as „task-based‟, and, as such, is not particularly helpful Also, Nunan (1989, p.10) argues that a task is “a piece of classroom work which involves learners in comprehending, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focused

on meaning rather than form”

One of the definitions of task advocated much among researchers is Willis‟s definition (1996) indicates that „tasks are always activities where the target language is used by the leaner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome‟ (p.23) Drawing on Breen‟s (1987) definition, Littlejohn (1998) proposed a broader definition: „A task refers to any proposal contained within the materials for action to be undertaken by the learners, which has the direct aim of bringing about the learning of the foreign language‟ (p 198)

With this definition, each three aspects of task: process, participation and content [Process means what teachers and learners go through; classroom participation concerns whom learners work with in the process Content is something that learners focus on (Littlejohn, 1998)]

Skehan (1998) generalizes features of a task as follows:

1) Meaning is primary;

(2) Learners are not given other people‟s meaning to repeat;

(3) A task has some connection to the real-world;

(4) Task completion has some priority;

(5) The assessment of the task is in terms of outcome (p.95)

Finally, stressing both meaning and form, Ellis (2003), drawing on the research, also defines task in a pedagogical way:

A work plan that requires learners to process language pragmatically in order to achieve an outcome that can be evaluated in terms of whether the correct or appropriate propositional content has been conveyed To this end, it requires them to give primary attention to meaning and to make use of their own linguistic resources, although the design of the task may predispose them to choose particular forms A task is intended

to result in language use that bears a resemblance direct or indirect to the way language

is used in the real world Like other language activities, a task can engage productive or receptive, and oral or written skills and also various cognitive processes (p.16)

Ellis‟s (2003) definition is very pedagogical because it includes attention to meaning and engagement with grammar in addition to other major points in language teaching, such as inclusion of pragmatic properties, use of authentic language and cognitive process

In summary, while these definitions vary somewhat, they all emphasize the fact that tasks involve communicative language use in which the user‟s attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form But this does not mean that form is not important” (Nunan, 2006, p.17) I totally agree with Hung (2012c) defining that a task as:

the basis for teaching and learning, is goal – oriented, meaning – focused first and form – focused then, and is implemented by students with a clear procedure or mechanism in combination with enough authentic and comprehensible input The task doing is through interactions (in pairs or in small groups) in which their own experiences of target language are exploited, and lastly access the completeness through the outcome (p.24)

1.2.2 Task types

In the literature on TBLT, several attempts have been made to group tasks into categories, as a basis for task design and description However, for the properness of this section, only several ones are described According to Prahu, cited in Nunan (2004, p.56), identifies three types of task: information gap, reasoning gap, and opinion gap

+ Information – gap activity, which involves a transfer of given information from one person to another – or from one form to another, or from one place to another – generally calling for the decoding or encoding of information from or into language

+ Reasoning – gap activity, which involves deriving some new information from given information through processes of inference, deduction, practical reasoning, or a perception of relationships or patterns

The activity necessarily involves comprehending and conveying information, as an information – gap activity, but the information to be conveyed is not identical with that initially comprehended There is a piece of reasoning which connects the two

+ Opinion – gap activity, which involves identifying and articulating a personal preference, feeling, or attitude in response to a given situation One example is story completion; another is taking part in the discussion of a social issue The activity may involve using factual information and formulating arguments to justify one‟s opinion, but there is no objective procedure for demonstrating outcomes as right or wrong, and no reason to expect the same outcome from different individuals or on different occasions Another classification of task types, proposed by Richards, cited in Nunan (2004, p.58), specifying 5 kinds of task:

+ Jigsaw tasks: These tasks involve learners in combining different pieces of information to form a whole

+ Information – gap tasks: these are tasks in which one student or group of students has one set on information and another student or group has a complementary set of information They must negotiate and find out what the other party‟s information is in order to complete an activity

+ Problem – solving tasks: students are given a problem and a set of information They must arrive at a solution to the problem There is generally a single resolution of the outcome

+ Decision – making tasks: Students are given a problem for which there are a number of possible outcomes and they must choose one through negotiation and discussion

+ Opinion exchange tasks: Learners engage in discussion and exchange of ideas They don‟t need to reach agreement

Willis (1996) classifies tasks into six types and they are introduced briefly below: The first task type is listing which involves such processes such as brainstorming and fact-finding and the outcome would be a list or a draft mind map The second one is ordering and sorting including processes: sequencing, ranking, categorizing, and classifying items The third type, comparing tasks, composes processes: matching and relating to identify specific points, finding similarities and differences The fourth task type is problem solving tasks which often require learners‟ intellectual and challenge The length of time in tasks depends in the complexity and type of the problem The fifth type of task is sharing personal experiences encouraging learners to talk more freely about themselves and share their experiences with others The last task type is creative tasks involving learners in some kinds of freer creative work These tasks including the combination of other task types: listing, ordering and sorting, comparing and problem solving The outcome can often be appreciated by wider audience than the students who produced it It seems that Will‟s classification of task types is more specific in comparison to Prahu‟s classification and Richard‟s classification of tasks

Overall, the purpose of classifying tasks is to generate a variety of tasks on whatever topic is selected Simple tasks may consist of one type such as listing while complex types of tasks may incorporate two or more types like creative tasks

1.2.3 Teacher’s roles in TBLT

Teachers and learners are considered as the key element in pedagogical researches Roles of teacher are an important factor for the success of a method, and in some teaching methods, such as TBLT, teachers‟ role changes a lot when compared with traditional teaching methods As Willis and Willis (2007, pp.148-151) points out teachers do play various roles in task-based classroom; these ones will be discussed in turn as follows:

Leader and organizer of discussion: The teacher leads students to work individually on questionnaires Then the teacher and students discuss the questionnaires and students summarize their ideas in each stage They can also share their ideas with others However, a teacher-led class needs a lot of preparations For example, you should predict difficulties facing learners and strategies in managing them

Manager of group/pair work: One of the advantages of pair work and group work

is that it creates opportunities to use spoken language The teacher carefully organizes the work to make sure that students are on track when they work in groups Problems need to

be dealt with before continuing Changing groups are sometimes a good way to repeat the task New members of the groups can share they what they have from previous groups

Facilitator: Teacher, in this role, involves balancing the amount of exposure and use of language, and ensuring they are both of suitable quality

Motivator: Encouragements help to enhance students‟ motivation They should be done in two ways The first way is that you should be be as positive as you can in that feedback For instance, you should give out some comments on useful phrases in students‟ group work or you can pick out something positive to say about their peformance Encouragement is important but you should not ignore students‟ mistakes they make The important thing is that you should put a postitive gloss on things whenever you can Another way to motivate students is encourage them regularly For example, useful words they can acquire or new topics are available for discussion You help them to identify their achievements and to take a pride in them

Language knower and adviser: You should be the one with higher language knowledge and experience participates in learner discourse You can paraphrase students‟ sentences to highlight their contribution and do not try to correct their mistakes if they don‟t really need It is useful to think of yourself as a conversing with a group of friends rather than being a teacher

Language teacher: At the end of a task sequence, teacher acts as a language teacher who explains, demonstrates, and elicits appropriate forms However, preparation and thought should be carefully considered

In short, teachers have many roles in the task-based classroom Richards & Rodgers (2001) has pointed out that „the success of a method may depend on the degree to which the teacher can provide the content or create the conditions for successful language learning (p 24)‟ Therefore, there should be a careful consideration before enabling students to work on tasks

1.2.4 Some problems in implementing TBLT in Asian context

Much of research on TBLT has been in an ESL context, but it has received an increase in interest from EFL Asian countries However, the implementation of TBLT in EFL contexts has not been without its difficulties

Although educational policy in Asia heavily favours TBLT and other communicative, holistic approaches to language teaching, a large body of classroom-based research on current teaching in Asia indicates that these policies have not always been implemented consistently Research conducted across Asian contexts has overwhelmingly suggested that curricular policies have had limited overall impact on English language teaching, which remains traditional with an explicit grammar – teaching focus (Carless, 2007; Hu, 2005; Zhang, 2007) Because the size of this section, only few of factors that are commonly reported as difficulties in implementing TBLT and other communicative language teaching approaches: factors connected to the institutional culture, the classroom teaching, and the teacher development

The first factor, the institutional culture, includes a non supportive environment for teachers to experiment TBLT, grammar and vocabulary – focused exams (Chow and Mok-Cheung, 2004; Hu, 2002; Shim and Biak, 2000; Zhang, 2007) According to Hu (2002) has pointed out grammar and vocabulary knowledge – focused national examinations are the most influential factors preventing teaching innovation in China Also, Chow and Mo-Cheung (2004) indicate that the summative, knowledge-based high stakes exams used in Hong Kong to be the main barriers to implementing TBLT Similarly, curricular communicative objectives are not reflected in the Korean national exams, so washback from tests pressures teachers to revert to traditional, rote-learning approaches to teach to the test (Shim and Biak, 2000) It is clear that the national exams and the curriculums adopting TBLT are inconsistent in many countries Therefore, at the government level, there should be appropriate education policies implementing TBLT successfully

Another factor, considered as a barrier for implementing TBLT in Asia, relates to the classroom teaching Large class sizes mentioned in researches are difficult for teachers

to make changes to teaching (Carless, 2002; Li, 1998; Zhang, 2007) When students are

engaged in tasks, noise cannot be avoided, and teachers almost loose his/her control over them As Carless (2004) inserted that „concerns over noise and discipline inhibited task-based teaching‟ (p.656) However, these are not as constrained as with other interactions such as in pairs or small group works and the tasks targeted at listening and reading comprehension, or written production mentioned by Littlewood (2007)

One more issue is multi-level classes in which students do not have the same proficiency levels This makes it difficult for teachers to select appropriate tasks for their class (Chao and Wu, 2008) In order to deal with this problem, cooperative learning proposed as a solution by which high-level students can help low ones (Sachs, 2007) Cortazzi & Jin (2001) indicated that good class room management is often defined in terms

of volume, with students individually working quietly and causing no disruption It is, however, teachers who are challenged by participatory structures of TBLT in a way that they have to struggle with noise from pair and group works (Carless, 2004; Ellis, 2003) Students are also unwilling to use English in classes because they get used to using traditional methods promoting accuracy over fluency Therefore, traditional methods are in preferences to TBLT there, or even in oral classes where speaking is mainly focused, such motivated students only use a very simple form of language to communicate in order to avoid making mistakes through speaking and save their faces (Chang, 2004; Eguchi and Eguchi, 2006)

Another concern related to TBLT in Asia is that teachers do not have enough understanding of tasks and task-based teaching to implement TBLT in their own classrooms successfully Because TBLT requires teachers to understand the nature of tasks and the ways they can promote learning (Ellis, 2003) Some findings have also shown that uncertainty about the tasks and vague understanding of TBLT are considered as the principal factor that limited teachers implementing the curriculum (Bulter, 2005; Clark et al., 1999; Jeon, 2006; Zhang, 2007) Besides, some researchers argue that teacher roles in TBLT have put on some kinds of pressure on teachers to response to learner communication and needs As Jeon (2006) concluded that the role of facilitator in TBLT constitutes a psychological burden Furthermore, although some teachers aware and understand tasks and TBLT, they are unwilling to implement TBLT in their classrooms Tasks are regarded as something motivating students, but not a way of promoting interlanguage competence (Jeon, 2006)

The last factor is teachers‟ language proficiency, i.e the degree of skill which they can use a language, such as how well they can read, write, speak, or understand language

They avoid the implementation of TBLT as a result of their lacking language proficiency (Bulter, 2005; Jeon, 2006) Overall, many researchers have pointed out challenges facing language educators when they implement TBLT in Asian context, so they will have a greater insight into TBLT in practice

According to Skehan (1996), task-based learning holds some dangers if implemented carelessly Especially, it is likely to create pressure for instant communication rather than interlanguage change and growth Speakers may resort to use some communication strategies such as paraphrase, repetition, word coinage, etc

1.3 Theoretical Framework

1.3.1 Working terminology

The purpose of this part is to provide terminologies, the framework, and domains of language teaching used in this research before moving to specific parts

The definition of task from Willis

Moving along the continuum, many definitions of task are created by researchers and educators (for example, Long, 1985; Breen, 1987; Prahu, 1987; Nunan, 1989, 2003; Crooks & Gass, 1993; Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1998; Ellis, 2003) This result shows that it is not easy to reach an agreement due to the complexity of task However, Willis‟ definition

of task makes an exception in that „tasks are always activities where that target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome‟(Willis, 1996, p.23) Ellis (2000, p.195) states that this task definition represents

„a broad consensus among researchers and educators‟ Also, this is the chosen definition for secondary textbooks, which is mentioned in researches (see Hung, 2011; Van, 2011)

The framework of TBL by Willis

The literature proposes a number of frameworks for task-based language instruction (for example Nunan 1985; Prahu 1987; Skehan 1996; Willis 1996; Nunan 2003) These frameworks consist of three stage: pre-task, task, and post-task stages For example, Willis‟s task-based framework instruction is shown in the figure 1 below

Figure1 TBL Framework by Willis 1.3.2 Principles of TBLT

Many researchers (for example Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1998; Ellis, 2003; Nunan , 2003) generalize principles of task-based teaching All these principles relate to not only the design of task-based course but also methodology issues Some of the typical composite view points are put as follows:

Table 1 Willis and Skehan‟s views of principles of TBLT (Adapted from Ellis, 2003, p.276)

Willis (1996)

1 There should be exposure to worthwhile

and authentic language

2 There should be use of language

3 Tasks should motivate learners to engage

in language use

4 There should be a focus on language at

some points in a task cycle

5 The focus on language should be more or

less prominent at different times

Skehan (1998)

1 Choose a range of target structures, i.e

ensure systematically in language development without adhering rigidly to a structural syllabus

2 Choose tasks which meet the utility

criterion, i.e make it „useful‟ for students to perform the target structures

3 Sequence tasks to achieve balanced goal

development, i.e prioritize fluency, accuracy, and complexity at different times

4 Maximize the chances of a focus on form

through international manipulation

5 Use cycles of accountability, i.e mobilize

students, metacognitive resources to keep track of what has been learned

Ellis and Nunan also suggest lists of principles underlying the instructional sequence and the selection of options for designing lessons shown in the table below

Table 2 Ellis and Nunan‟ views of principles of TBLT Ellis (2003)

1 Ensure an appropriate level of task

difficulty

Teachers ensures that the task in only a little

above students‟ level and their students can

possess the necessary strategies to engage in

task-based interaction

2 Establish clear goals for each task-based

lesson

Skehan states that it is not sufficient to engage

learners with tasks on the basis that they will

develop their interlanguages simply as a result

of using the second language

Different aspects of language can be

prioritized by choosing methodological

Nunan (2003)

1 Scaffolding

Lessons and materials should provide supporting frameworks within which the learning takes place

2 Task dependency

Within a lesson, one task should grow out of, and build upon, the ones that have gone before

3 Recycling

Recycling language maximizes opportunities for learning and activates the „organic‟

options

3 Develop a appropriate orientation to

performing the task in the students

Students need to be aware of the goals of

performing tasks They need to know that it is

not fun, but serious

4 Ensure that students adopt an active

role in task-based lessons

One of the main goals of task-based teaching

is to provide learners with an opportunity to

participate fully by playing an initiating as

well as a responding role in classroom

discourse A key element of being „active‟ is

negotiating meaning when communicative

problems arise

5 Encourage students to take risks

Methodological choices that encourage the

use of private speech when performing a task,

which creates opportunities for „pushed

output‟ and helps to create an appropriate

level of challenge in an affective climate that

is supporting of risk-taking will assist this

6 Ensure that students are primary

focused on meaning when they perform a

task

Language is used as a mean, not as an object

when students perform a task Thus, when

students perform a task they must be primarily

concerned with achieving an outcome, not

with displaying language

7 Provide opportunities for focusing on

form

The need to attend to form is emphasized in a

task-based lesson It has been emphasized that

attention to form is both possible and

beneficial in the during-task phase and need

not conflict with 6

8 Require students to evaluate their

performance and progress

Students need to be made accountable for how

they perform a task and for their progress

All principles above have put the emphasis on the language used as a mean to achieve the outcome of the task Besides, meaning focused is more important than form-focused, and Ellis and Nunan share a view that students‟ performance should be evaluated

1.3.3 Features of TBLT

An important feature which Willis (1996) states is that „learners are free to choose whatever language forms they wish to convey what they mean, in order to fulfil, as well as they can, the task goal‟(p.24) Some features are mentioned in TBL by Willis:

 The class activities have a perceived purpose and clear outcome

 In TBLT, the learning must go through three stages: pre-task, task implementation/ cycle, and post-task

 The students complete a task in pairs or groups

 Students prepare a short oral or written report to tell the class what happened during their task

 Teacher reviews language and possible problematic areas

 Tasks more representative of the real world can then be integrated into the

classroom

 Tasks engage learners in problem-solving matters as purposeful activities

 Tasks should then be systematically linked to the things learners need to do in the real world

 Tasks encourage participants to constantly negotiate meaning through oral

interaction routines

 The problem-solving matter should be a little beyond the current level of students

in order to avoid the cognitive overload

To sum up, all features of TBLT show that firstly they can use the language as a mean to attain an outcome Secondly, real life tasks are put into pedagogical tasks and students engage in negotiate meaning through interaction activities Finally, students participate in three stages of learning to complete tasks

1.3.4 Stages of TBLT

According to Hung (2012c), TBLT framework is in fact the favorable way to sequence elements within tasks proposed by researchers and methodologists There are many TBLT frameworks found in the literature (for example Willis, 1996; Skehan, 1996; Nunan, 2003), and they generally suggest that task implementation or completion involves three stages: pre-task, task, and post-task stages However, only the TBL framework from Willis chosen for English text book for secondary school is mentioned below:

The framework consists of three phases: pre – task, task cycle and language focus (Willis, 1996, p.40)

The first phase in the framework, the pre – task, is usually the shortest stage in the framework Depending in the learners‟ degree of familiarity with the topic and the type of task, it could last between two and twenty minutes First of all the teacher will need to help

learners define the topic area so that they do not find it difficult to understand The second step is to help students recall and active words and phrases that will be useful both during the task and outside the classroom The teachers may also need to introduce a few vital topic – related words and phrases that students are unlikely to know Usually these are introduced and illustrated in the textbook (Willis, 1996, p.42-43)

The next phase, task cycle, includes three components: task, planning and report In moving from one component to the next, we are placing different linguistic demands on students, but they are demands which reflect natural language use

In the task stage students gain fluency and confidence in themselves as communicators But because it is a „private‟ situation, where meaning is paramount, and communication is real – time, there is often little concern for grammatical accuracy

The planning stage gives learners the time and support they need to prepare for the linguistic challenge of going public Composing with the support of their group and the teacher, they have time to experiment with language and check on grammar This is the process that drives their language development forward

The report stage gives students a natural stimulus to upgrade and improve their language It encourages them to think about form as well as meaning; accuracy as well fluency and to use their prestige version of the target language It allows other students to hear or read what they have done, which provides useful exposure

We saw how the teacher‟s role changes with each stage of the cycle By monitoring the task, teachers encourage learners to work independently to achieve the set goals By giving language support at the planning stage, teachers help learners organize their conclusions into a form suitable for presentation in public And by chairing the reports, teachers facilitate public use of language (Willis, 1996, pp.53-59)

The last phase of the TBL framework, language focus, follows the report stage of the task cycle and adds an opportunity for explicit language instruction A range of analysis and practice activities are illustrated focusing the learner on different aspects of language form and use The aim of such activities is not to perfect learners‟ production of the target language and make it automatic, but to draw their attention to the surface forms realizing the meanings they have already become familiar with during the task cycle and so help them to systematize their knowledge and broaden their understanding

During the language focus phase, the teacher should give students as much focused thinking time as possible Once the purpose of the analysis activity is clear, the teacher should let learners get on with learning and making discoveries for themselves, without

inference During the teacher – led review stage, students listen to and benefit from each other‟s ideas on classification It is then that the teacher can add any points you feel students have failed to notice, or perhaps redress an imbalance by adding a few examples He/she might then lead the class in two or three practice activities

Finally the teacher can choose whether to end the teaching cycle on a quiet, reflective note, perhaps with students writing their personal selection of useful words and phrases in their notebooks, or on lively one, perhaps a choral practice activity Either way should give learners a sense of security and consolidation (Willis, 1996, p.114)

The most noticeable feature of this framework is that it moves learners from fluency tasks to accurate production rather than from accurate production of target structures to fluency tasks (Izadpanah, 2010, p 51)

1.3.5 Techniques of TBLT

The differences between teaching techniques for TBL and other methods, as Willis (1996) said, „lie in the ordering and weighting of activities and in the fact that there is a greater amount of student activity, and less direct, up-front teaching‟ (p.40) These techniques are used in 6 types of tasks and are discussed in turn below:

The listing task is the first one in which teacher can use techniques, for example, he/she brainstorms to complete the list or to draft the mind map The second task type is the ordering and sorting tasks As the name given, techniques such as sequencing, ranking, categorizing, and classifying are used to set of information or data that has been ordered and sorted according to specified criteria An example, found in English grade 11, is task 1 (English grade 11, p 83) Some techniques like matching and finding similarities are very common in matching tasks being the next task type In English grade 11, one typical example of matching task is task 1 (English grade 11, p 68) The fourth and fifth task types are problem-solving and sharing personal experiences, respectively While the former focuses mainly on techniques such as analysing real or hypothetical situations, reasoning and decision making, the latter‟s techniques are narrating, describing, exploring and explaining attitudes, opinions, reactions The sixth task type is creative tasks reffered

to as „projects‟ These include many techniques such as brainstorming, fact-finding, ordering and sorting, comparing, problem solving and many others In addition, there are many techniques that can be applied during stages of TBL such as scaffolding, memory challenge games, etc

In short, techniques are imbedded into tasks and stages of TBL Most techniques are also found in other methods, but as Willis mentioned that the weight and the order of activities are different

1.4 Summary

This chapter reviews the literature on TBLT First, theories underlying TBLT are provided This is followed by the task definitions and concerning issues Finally, the theoretical framework underpinning TBLT are reviewed

Chapter 2 METHODOLOGY 2.1 The fitness of research method

The reason for choosing the mixed research method is that survey research is used

to explore students‟ attitude towards factors related to TBLT while case study helps to investigate teachers‟ perception of TBLT Besides, Hung (2012b) states that „neither quantitative nor qualitative methods are sufficient, by themselves, to capture the trends and details of a situation‟ (p 166) He adds:

Mixed approaches observations and interviews (qualitative data) are combined with traditional questionnaire surveys (quantitative data) with the hope of reducing limitations of approaches and methods if they are used alone; the biases inherent in any single method can neutralize the biases of other methods (p 166)

Therefore, the mixed method is the best choice for the purpose of the study

2.2 Context of the study

2.2.1 The setting of the study

Thai Hoa secondary school is in the North of Tuyen Quang provinve, 30 km from the centre Tuyen Quang city The school has 30 classrooms and a large school yard Besides, it has 3 experiential rooms for chemistry, biology and physics, and six projectors are equipped for students to learn power point lessons Also, wireless internet is available

in the school area, which is comfortable for both teachers and students to access useful information on the internet The school had more than 940 students and an average of 36 students per class for the 2012-2013 academic year There are seven teachers of English and forty nine other teachers teach different subjects at school Most of teachers at THSS are young and enthusiastic, so they are always willing to adapt with new things such as applying informatics technology in secondary schools Moreover, a problem facing most of them is that they are lack of teaching experience

2.2.2 Informants

2.2.2.1 The teachers

Five teachers participate in the research All of them have been teaching English more than 5 years, of which two teachers have been teaching English more than 10 years They all graduated from English department Moreover, they are female teachers and their ages ranged between 29 and 38 Table 3 summarizes teacher‟s background information such as levels of education, sexes, ages, years of teaching experience

Table 3 Teachers’ background information (N=5)

education Master degree 0 0

a result, it was not surprising that the majority of students (95.6%) had their parents who were peasants and only 4.3% of the students‟ parents did other jobs such as workers, dealers, state officers About 3.4% of the respondents were omitted by the SPSS

Interestingly, most of them (71%) learnt English more than 9 years, another (24.7%) learnt English from 7 to 9 years The rest of respondents (4.3%) learnt English less than 6 years Table 4 summarizes the background information of students such as sexes, ages, living

areas, economic conditions of families, jobs of students‟ parents, number of years of learning English

2.3 Data collection instruments

2.3.1 Questionnaires

McDonough,J & McDough,S (1999) suggest that questionnaires are commonly used in educational research in general and in ELT research in particular Some advantages

of questionnaires are shown as follows:

+ Questionnaires do not take time to prepare and administer

+ The collected data is standard and accurate since the same questionnaire is given to all the subjects

+ In terms of time, questionnaires are economical

Questionnaires, however, have some disadvantages:

+ Respondents may answer superficially especially if the questionnaire takes

along time to complete

+ They may not be willing to answer the questions They might not wish to reveal the information or they might think that they will not benefit from responding perhaps even be penalised by giving their real opinion

To sum up, Smith & Brown (1995, p.50) point out the purposes of questionnaires are to find out the facts, the respondents‟ opinions or attitudes, to rate their abilities etc, and to evaluate various aspects Thus, these purposes meet the need of the study that explores students‟ attitudes toward TBLT at THSS The questionnaire was adapted from Hung‟s (2012c) study The reason I have chosen to adapt this questionnaire is that domains

in the questionnaire applied TBLT in accordance with Willis‟ perspective, which is one of the core approaches used by the authors of the current set of textbooks in secondary schools The questionnaire consisted of two main sections The first section composed of 6 open-ended questions to collect students‟ background information The second section contained 47 Likert-type items using a 5-point scale ranging from „strongly dislike‟ to

„strongly like‟, and both English and Vietnamese were used to make sure students understood items clearly Four parts constitutes the second section: the first part asked questions to gain students‟ attitudes toward language teaching The second part included questions to collect students‟ attitudes toward features of teaching The third and fourth sections were questions asking about students‟ attitudes toward stages and techniques of teaching

2.3.2 Interviews

The main reason for choosing the interview was that it has some obvious advantages The first advantage its flexibility If the interviewee has a problem with questions, they can be explained Another advantage is that it allows a deep exploration of issues Besides, according to Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2007) an interview has some purposes as follows:

+ to evaluate and access a person in some respect

+ to select or promote an employee

+ to effect therapeutic change, as in psychiatric interview

+ to test or develop hypothesis

+ to gather data, as in surveys or experimental situation

+ to sample respondents‟ opinions, as in doorstep interviews

Some disadvantages can be found in an interview The first one is its consuming, particularly if it is recorded and fully transcribed In addition, the sample size, for example in an unstructured interview, is generally small and may not be representative

time-of a particular population

In spite of advantages and disadvantages of an interview, this tool is suitable for the purpose of the research That is, find out students‟ attitudes toward TBLT in THSS

2.3.3 Class observation

Cohen et al (2007, p.397) features the classroom observation is that “it offers an

investigator the opportunity to gather „live‟ data from naturally occurring social situation” Observation has some advantages The first advantage is that data gathered can be highly reliable Another advantage is that observation is less expensive compared to other

techniques According to Cohen et al (2007) describes some drawbacks of classroom

observation as follows:

+ It may take a long time to catch the required behavior

+ It may be costly in time and effort

+ It is prone to difficulties of interpreting or inferring what the data mean

Whatever disadvantages of class observation are mentioned, classroom observation fits well to the research since the advantages of classroom observation fits the purpose of the research

2.4 Data collection procedure

2.4.1 Interviews

The researcher conducted a semi-structured interview with five teachers of English

to explore in-depth information about their perceptions of TBLT Semi-structured

interviews of 15 to 25 minutes were administered in Vietnamese with each participant in a friendly atmosphere to minimize their anxiety The interviewer asked 12 questions to investigate teachers‟ perceptions of TBLT All interviews will be recorded and kept secretly by the researcher

2.4.2 Questionnaires

The data were collected during the period of six weeks First, the first version of the questionnaire was piloted with 35 students at THSS Then, it was carefully revised to ensure its accuracy, conciseness, comprehensiveness and focus After that, the questionnaires were administered randomly to 300 students in ten classes

2.4.3 Classroom observations

In this study, the classroom observation was conducted from September 2012 to October 2012 While the researcher observed, a checklist adapted from Hung (2012b) was used and the classroom observations were also video-recorded by the assistant After that, those video files were watched again and evaluated based on the checklist

questionnaire

Difference between group scores

Qualitative

Techniques

Categories of teachers‟ perception Interview texts Teachers‟ perception of composite views of TBLT Teachers‟

classroom practice

views of TBLT into teaching

2.6 The Reliability and Validity of Research

First, the questionnaire was piloted in 35 students to check the reliability Next, 300 students were chosen to engage in answering questionnaire items Also, another test was done to check the reliability again, and ten unreliable items were left out of the analysis The omitted items did not affect the analysis of results since there were more than five items in each domain

Table 6 Unreliable Items that need being left out the analysis

Cronbach's