household oriented approach for the optimization of resources management at the floating village in tonle sap lake region, cambodia

A large number of floating villages in floodplain live in low income generation from farming and fishing; likewise, inadequate to access safe water supply, lack sanitation system, and po

VNU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT DRESDEN

EAM SAM UN

HOUSEHOLD ORIENTED APPROACH FOR THE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

MASTER THESIS

Hanoi - 2011

VNU UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE TECHNISCHE UNIVERSITÄT DRESDEN

EAM SAM UN

HOUSEHOLD ORIENTED APPROACH FOR THE OPTIMIZATION

OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AT THE FLOATING VILLAGE

IN TONLE SAP LAKE REGION, CAMBODIA

Major: Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment Code:

MASTER THESIS

SUPERVISOR: DR ING CATALIN STEFAN

RESP PROFFESOR: PROF DR RER NAT DR H PETER WERNER

Hanoi - 2011

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My highly appreciation wishes to acknowledge to Dr Ing Catalin Stefan, Institute for Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment at the TU Dresden, provided me a great support for making this paper possible and I also contribute of my thanks to alls as following in the accomplishment of this paper existing;

• To Prof Dr –Ing Habil Dr h c Bilitewski and Prof Dr Nguyen Thi Diem Trang, who established the cooperation Master program on “Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment”

• To DAAD Hanoi provided me full support for both living allowance and tuition fee for duration 2 years of study

• To Prof Dr Le Thanh Son, Vice Dean at the Faculty of Chemistry, at the Hanoi University of Science always provided me a support

• To all professors, lecturers, and colleagues at the Hanoi University of Science and the Institute for Waste Management and Contaminated Site Treatment, at the TU Dresden for all the important assistances

• To Dr Carly Starr who kindly revised this paper with grammar and structures

• To very supportive lovely parents, brothers, and sister, for encouragement and inspiration

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ……… i

TABLE OF CONTENTS……… ii

ABBREVIATIONS……….v

LIST OF FIGURES………ix

LIST OF TABLES ………xi

LIST OF ANNEXES……….xii

ABSTRACT……… xiii

Chapter I INTRODUCTION ……… 1

I.1 Tonle Sap Lake Region………1

I.2 Poverty in Tonle Sap Lake Region……… 2

I.3 Objectives of Study ……….4

Chapter II ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONEMNAT RELAVANT FACTORS ……… 5

II.1 Data Mining and Collections……… 5

II.2 Socio-Economic Factors……….….5

II.2.1 Occupation and Income……….… 5

II.2.2 Education……….7

II.2.3 Sources of Energy for Consumption………7

II.2.4 Human Health ……….9

II.2.5 Environmental Pollution………10

II.2.6 Land Use Classification……….10

II.3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality……… 12

II.3.1 Sources of Drinking Water Supply………12

iii

II.3.2 Water Quality in the Tonle Sap Lake ……… 13

II.4 Household Water Treatment Systems (HWTS), Effectiveness and Cost Analysis……… 15

II.4.1 Solar Disinfection (SODIS)……… 16

II.4.2 Boiling Water………17

II.4.3 Flocculation………18

II.4.4 Simple Sand Filter (SSF)……… 19

II.4.5 Chlorination……… 20

II.4.6 Sedimentation………21

II.4.7 Ceramic Filter ……… 21

II.4.8 Bio-sand Filter ……… 23

II.4.9 Effectiveness of HWTS……….26

II.4.10 Cost Analysis of HWTS………28

II.5 Domestic Waste Generation ……….29

II.6 Sanitation Facilities……… 33

Chapter III DEVELOPMENT OF A CONCEPT FOR THE OPTIMIZATION OF RESOURCES MANAGEMENT ……….35

III.1 Optimization of Resources Management……… 35

III.2 Development of a Technical Concept for Safe Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation for Household-scale……… 35

III.2.1 Simple Sand Filter (SSF) and Solar Disinfection (SODIS)…… 35

III.2.2 Sanitation ……… 38

III.3 Development of Waste Management Concepts and Resource Recovery……… 40

III.3.1 3Rs Approach for Organic Waste Management and Agriculture Waste……… 40

III.3.2 Composting………41

III.3.3 Biogas Production……….42

III.3.4 Char Briquette Production……….43

III.4 Development of Socio-Economic……… 46

III.5 Quantification of the Environmental Impact of Technical and Socio-Economic Developments……… 50

III.5.1 Composting……… … 50

III.5.2 Biogas Production……… 53

III.5.3 Char Briquette……….56

Chapter IV CONCLUSIONS……… 58

IV.1 Socio-Economic Development……… 58

IV.1.1 Household’s Income……… 58

IV.1.2 Household Cost Expenditure……….59

IV.1.3 Household’s Time Expending……… 60

IV.2 Household’s GHG Emission ……….…61

REFERENCES ……….62

ANNEXES……….65

v

ABBREVIATIONS

Acronyms

3Rs : Reuse, Recycle, and Reduce

AUNP : Asian EU-University Network Program

AWWA : American Water Works Association

CWP : Ceramic Water Purifier

DDT : Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane

DNA : Deoxyribonucleic acid

EAWAG : Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science

EJF : Environmental Justice Foundation

HWTS : Household Water Treatment System

IDE : International Development Enterprise

IGES : Institute for Global Environmental Strategies IPCC : Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change JICA : Japan International Cooperation Agency

LPG : Liquefied Petroleum Gas

NaOCl : Sodium hypochlorite

NBP : National Biogas Program

NIS : National Institute for Statistic

vii

POPs : Persistent Organic Pollutants

RACHA : Reproductive and Child Health Allience

SANDEC : Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries

SODIS : Solar Disinfection

TCPMe : Tri 4-chlorophenyl methane

UNDP : United Nations Development Program

UNEP : United Nations Environment Protection

UNICEF : United Nations for Children’s Fund

USAID : United States Agency for International Development

WaterSHED : Water Sanitation Health Environment Development

Dimensions

µg/L : Microgram per litter

g/m3 : Gram per cubic meter

gCH4/kg waste : Gram methane per kilogram waste

Kg/hh/yr : Kilogram per household per year Kg/p/d : Kilogram per capital per day

L/hh/d : Litter per household per day L/min : Litter per minute

mg/L : Milligram per litter

mm/yr : Millimeter per year

t TN/yr : Ton Total Nitrogen per year

t TP/yr : Ton total phosphorous per year

TCO2E : Ton carbon dioxide equivalent US$/ha : US Dollar per hectare

US$/hh/yr : US Dollar per household per year

ix

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with five zones classification……… …2

Figure 2: Scheme of cycle of poverty and sanitation………3

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage……… 6

Figure 4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage……… 6

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region……… 7

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking……… …8

Figure 7: Sources of energy for lightening……… ………9

Figure 8: Sources of drinking water……… ………12

Figure 9: Solar Disinfection ……… ……… 16

Figure 10: Simple Sand Filter.……… ……… 19

Figure 11: Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP) ……… ……… 22

Figure 12: Bio-sand filter design components……… 24

Figure 13: Comparative cost production of HWTS per household per year ……… 29

Figure 14: Characterization of domestic waste in Siem Reap Province………30

Figure 15: Toilet Facility in Tonle Sap LakeRegion……… … ……34

Figure 16: Comparison of time spending between baseline–boiling water and optimized-SODIS/SSF……… ……… …36

Figure17: Comparison of cost production between baseline-boiling water and optimized-SSF/SODIS……… ……… ………37

Figure 18: GHG Emission from baseline-boiling water and optimized-SODIS/SSF …… ……37

Figure19: Complete single pit……… ……….39

Figure 20: Nutrient recovery from human waste……… ………39

Figure 21: Schematic of composting equation……… ……….…….41

Figure 22: Conversion of organic material without oxygen……… … 42

Figure 23: Influence factors on biogas and methane yield……….… …43

Figure 24: Kiln for powder making with burning process……….… …44

Figure25: Powder compressor for briquette making……… … ……44

Figure 26: Paper brick maker from paper waste ……… ………44

Figure 27: Material balance of mushroom growthsectors……… … …47

Figure 28: Comparison of income between baseline- farming, baseline-fishing, baseline-service, baseline-trade and optimized-mushroom……… ……… ……49

Figure 29: Comparison of mass reduction within baseline- before and optimized-after mushroom Growth……… ……… ……50

Figure 30: Cost benefit of compost per ton……… ………51

Figure 31: Default value of GHG emission from composting gCH4/kg waste ………51

Figure 32:Comparison of rice yield between baseline scenario and optimized scenario ………53

Figure 33: Capital cost of biogas systems in Cambodia ……… ……54

Figure 34: Comparison cost analysis between firewood and biogas……….…54

Figure 35: Comparison time spending for cooking and firewood consumption baseline scenario and optimized scenario of biogas system……… ……… 55

Figure 36: GHG Emission from baseline-firewood and optimized biogas for cooking…………56

Figure 37: Comparison of expense for baseline-firewood and optimized-char briquette…….…57

Figure 38: Comparison of GHG emission between baseline-firewood and optimized- char briquette……… ……… ….…57

Figure 39: Income generation between baseline and optimized scenario……… 58

Figure 40: Cost expenditure from household indicators………59

Figure 41: Household’s time spending for fuel cooking and water supply between baseline and optimized scenario……… …60

Figure 42: GHG emission from each household……….61

xi

LIST OF TABLES Table1: Land use classification ……… ……… 11 Table 1: Water quality parameters in the Tonle Sap Lake……… …….14 Table 3: Summary of potential effective by HWTS……… ……… 28 Table 4: The volume and nutrient loading of water consumption in household (g/m3) ……… 31

Table 5: Human waste flow……… ………32

Table 6: Agricultural waste generation from Zone 1, Zone 2, Zone 3, and Zone 4 ………….…33 Table 7: Characteristics of biogas composition……… ……… 42 Table 8: Fuel Characteristics……… ……… 45Table 9: Economic characteristic of mushroom production during 6 moths……… … 48

LIST OF ANNEXES

Annex1-Socio-economic indicators……… 65

Annex1-1 Components of Service Occupation in the region………65

Annex 1.2 Income from fishing……….65

Annex 1.3 Income from farming………65

Annex1.4: Income from trade………66

Annex15: Income from services………66

Annex 1.6: Income generation from total zones………67

Annex 1.7: Income generation from total zones by percentages……… 67

Annex2: Sources of energy consumption……… 68

Annex2.1: Energy for cooking……… 69

Annex2.2: Energy for lightening……… 69

Annex3: Drinking Water Supply –cost estimation ……… 70

Annex4: Fuel consumption and emission factors by household (Calculation by Shipbuilding GHG Emission Inventory Tool)………70

Annex5: Agricultural and household waste materials ……… 71

Annex6: Drinking Water Quality Index ……… 73

Annex 7: Household water treatment system (HWTS) for drinking water……… 74

Annex 8: Sanitation facility……… 74

xiii

ABSTRACT Tonle Sap Lake is known as a rich in natural resources where it engages the high population contribution throughout the floodplain up to 1.2 million and approximately 4.2 million in total of the region, and makes up the distribution density in average 58 persons per square kilometer Due to the high proportion of population depend on existing resources; fishing and farming are majority of region up to 70%, and has resulted 42.8% living in the poverty in the area A large number of floating villages in floodplain live in low income generation from farming and fishing; likewise, inadequate to access safe water supply, lack sanitation system, and poor understanding of environmental impacts, the Tonle Sap Lake basin is alarming to call for the sustainable management in terms of human health, socio-economic, and environmental issues Thus, the purpose of this paper is analysis of human and environmental relevant factors includes socio-economic, drinking water, sanitation system, and domestic waste Based on this relevant factor analysis, the key tasks are to develop a concept for optimization of household oriented resources and compile the oriented guideline for local community use As a result, it is indicated that mushroom is feasible option for socio-economic development up to 10,210 US$/hh/yr compare to baseline scenario comprised only 2,732.75US$/hh/yr or 5 times increasing The optimization scenario for the drinking water supply is SODIS and SSF, sanitation is dry toilet with single pit or bucket, and waste management is compost, biogas, and char briquette Those methods are recommended to use in the basin due to their not only low cost production, but also flexible, less time spending, and environmental- friendly In average of cost expenditure from each household is estimated that 107.5US$/hh/yr and it is reduced to 71.96US$/hh/yr respectively Time spending is also significantly reduced regarding to the optimization scenario

up to 935.5hrs/hh/yr if compare to the baseline scenario 1498.5hrs/hh/yr GHG emission from household oriented are 6.42TCO2E/yr, whilst, the application of the optimized scenario is reduced to 0.59 TCO2E/hh/yr

Chapter I INTRODUCTION

I.1 Tonle Sap Lake Region

Tonle Sap Lake is known as a largest lake in Southeast Asia It lies on the central plain ofCambodia where it covers 85 620km2 of land (Figure 1) The lake connects to the Mekong River

by the Tonle Sap River which is 120km long (Sokhem, P., & Sunada, K., 2006) As a complexity

of flowing and inter-linkage, the lake changes in size and volume depending on the season.During the wet season, the depth of the lake can rise from 1m up to 10 m Meanwhile, thesurface area enlarges from 2500km2 up to 15 000km2, extending the lake over the floodplainconsisting of flooded forests, shrubs, and rice field (Keskinen, M, 2006) The variation of watervolume in the lake is influenced by the increasing water level from the Mekong River where itcauses reversed flow of the Tonle Sap River during the wet season During the dry season, theTonle Sap Lake is reversed again and starts to empty into Mekong River

The extraordinary water regime of the Tonle Sap Lake and Tonle Sap River has providedoccasionally to biodiversity and highly productive aquatic food chain The migration of variousfish species and aquatic animals between the Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River is highlyremarkable due to the suitable conditions for feeding food, breeding and nursing in the floodedforest or shrubs The adult fish or aquatic animals might be moved to the Mekong River orhabitant in the lake throughout the year (Lamberts, 2006) More than 1.2 million people live inthe floodplain by deeply depending on the fishery and other existed resources Furthermore, it isestimated that an approximately half of total country’s population is direct or indirectlybeneficially from the lake’s resources Though, the rich of fisheries, forestry and water sourcesthat encourages the high opportunity for floating rice, seasonal rice cultivation and aquaculture, alarge number of population still live in a poverty

I.2 Poverty in the Tonle Sap Lake Region

Despite of the abundant natural resources, livelihoods in the Tonle Sap Lake region is known asthe poorest part of the country due to the strong dependences on the existing resources in thearea, and more than 70% of labor force employs in agriculture Rich in resources, it is engagedhigher proportion of population in floodplain more than 1.2 million and more than 4.2 million inthe Tonle Sap Lake region However, the high dependence on natural resources for dailylivelihoods has resulted in 42.8% of the population live in poverty in the basin (Malin M, 2009).The high poverty rate in this area is partially from unequal access to natural resources,insufficient rights for land usage, and less opportunity to increase productivity (Keskinen, M,2006) Living with a low income generation, the population lack food security and clean water;however, it is high aspect of poor awareness to pollute water and surrounding environment fromthe population The most significantly, in the floating community in the floodplain of Tonle SapLake region is appeared strongly closed to water resources for domestic consumption anddumping site for their household waste including excreta The high pollution is alarming, withFigure 1: Tonle Sap Lake Region with five zones classification ( Joha, S and J Koponen, 2003)

increased incidents of diarrhea, up to 22.4% in Tonle Sap Lake region (NIS, 2004), 54.1% inchildren under 5 years old in case study among 123 samples in the Chong Khnea District, SiemReap Province (USAID and RACHA, 2009), and is the known as cause death of children under 5

in 7% of cases (WHO, 2011) 81% of households in the floating villages in the Tonle Sap basincurrently have no sanitation system (NIS, 1998), and there is a low awareness of hygiene in thisarea The high incident of diarrhea among these populations requires both water and sanitationintervention to reduce human health risks that endangers the lives of adults and children As

shown in Figure 2 there is a strong link between poverty and poor sanitation The improved

sanitation may help to break the cycle by stopping human excreta entering the environment in away that influences human health Overcrowded, bad drainage, polluted water, unreliable andinsufficient water supplies and poor sanitation all contribute to poor health (Rebecca S, 2003)

Figure 2: Scheme of cycle of poverty and sanitation (Rebecca S., 2003)

increased incidents of diarrhea, up to 22.4% in Tonle Sap Lake region (NIS, 2004), 54.1% inchildren under 5 years old in case study among 123 samples in the Chong Khnea District, SiemReap Province (USAID and RACHA, 2009), and is the known as cause death of children under 5

in 7% of cases (WHO, 2011) 81% of households in the floating villages in the Tonle Sap basincurrently have no sanitation system (NIS, 1998), and there is a low awareness of hygiene in thisarea The high incident of diarrhea among these populations requires both water and sanitationintervention to reduce human health risks that endangers the lives of adults and children As

shown in Figure 2 there is a strong link between poverty and poor sanitation The improved

sanitation may help to break the cycle by stopping human excreta entering the environment in away that influences human health Overcrowded, bad drainage, polluted water, unreliable andinsufficient water supplies and poor sanitation all contribute to poor health (Rebecca S, 2003)

Figure 2: Scheme of cycle of poverty and sanitation (Rebecca S., 2003)

increased incidents of diarrhea, up to 22.4% in Tonle Sap Lake region (NIS, 2004), 54.1% inchildren under 5 years old in case study among 123 samples in the Chong Khnea District, SiemReap Province (USAID and RACHA, 2009), and is the known as cause death of children under 5

in 7% of cases (WHO, 2011) 81% of households in the floating villages in the Tonle Sap basincurrently have no sanitation system (NIS, 1998), and there is a low awareness of hygiene in thisarea The high incident of diarrhea among these populations requires both water and sanitationintervention to reduce human health risks that endangers the lives of adults and children As

shown in Figure 2 there is a strong link between poverty and poor sanitation The improved

sanitation may help to break the cycle by stopping human excreta entering the environment in away that influences human health Overcrowded, bad drainage, polluted water, unreliable andinsufficient water supplies and poor sanitation all contribute to poor health (Rebecca S, 2003)

Figure 2: Scheme of cycle of poverty and sanitation (Rebecca S., 2003)

Given characterization of Tonle Sap Lake region, livelihoods is significantly dependent onfisheries, forestry, water sources and rice cultivation; however, it is still high proportion living inpoverty that encourages the high rate of human health risks Likewise, it is partially from lack ofcleaned water supply, low sanitation and hygienic promotion program, and lack domestic wastemanagement from household Thus, it is an essential for this master thesis aims to address thelocal resources management in terms of human health, environmental impact, and socio-economic welfare for floating villages in Tonle Sap Lake region by analyzing of human andenvironmental relevant factors including socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and domesticwaste management Based on these factors, it is essential to develop a concept for theoptimization of resources management The compilation of household oriented guidelines is alsoimplanted for local community practices.

I.3 Objectives of Study

The terms of human health, environmental impact and socio-economic aspects, this mainlystudy’s purposes are concluded into three tasks;

Task I: Analyze of human and environmental relevant sectors by focusing on socio-economic,water supply, sanitation, and domestic waste management for household level

Task II: The study is to develop the concepts for optimization of resources management in region

by focusing on four main indicators description in Task I and;

Task III: Compiled the oriented guidelines for best practices in local community at the Tonle SapLake region

Chapter II ASSESSMENT OF HUMAN AND ENVIRONMENTAL

RELEVENT SECTORS

II.1 Data Collection

The methods of study are assessments of both human and environmental databases, focusing onrelevant factors included socio-economic, water supply, sanitation, and waste management in theregion Database analysis based on the reports from local organizations, government, andinternational organizations will be assessed Each sector is defined by the baseline scenarios andoptimized scenarios based on indicators In particular, time, cost, green house gas emission,nutrient recovery, and water quality are determined for the optimization of resources

II.2 Socio-Economic Factors

II.2.1 Occupation and Income

According to NIS (1998), employment in the Tonle Sap Lake Region is classified intoagriculture, small trade, fishing and services Agriculture is related to rice farming, floating rice,dry and wet rice farming and crops in which it plays the major roles in the total region (63.4%).The trade makes up 12%, fishing 5.7% and service 5.9% (Figure 3) Small trade is the activities

of small businesses in the region and includes shops, selling fish, and other trade Serviceoccupation is mentioned on the providing service sectors such as; motor taxi, boat service,restaurants, guest house, battery charging shop, rice milling sectors, workers and other service.The occupation varied from zone 1 to zone 5 In the zone 1, fishing activities raise up to 55%which is higher than other zones For zone 2, zone3, and zone 4 has found that agriculture issignificant jobs in these zones (average 80%) However, in zone 5 is the urban area, amongpopulation preferred the provided service (30%) and trade (30%)

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998)

Depending on the NIS (1998) and ADB survey (2008), it is important to estimate the incomefrom each activity in the region The farming activities can result in income less than otheractivities (832 US $/hh/yr) This result is defined by total cost of rice yields minus total cost ofproduction On the other hand, the income from fishing, service and trade are ranged from 1596

US $/hh/yr, 4,093.21 US $/hh/yr and 4,409.81US$/hh/yr The total income for the region isshown in (Figure 4) All zones, trade and farming is ranging in highest percentage (38%), 17%for service, 7% for fishing The income from zone 1, fishing (47%) is potential function in totalregion if compare to other sectors, however, for zone 2, zone 3, and zone 4, agriculture are moresignificant(average 59.66%)

Figure 4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998, ADB 2008)

12

63466

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998)

Depending on the NIS (1998) and ADB survey (2008), it is important to estimate the incomefrom each activity in the region The farming activities can result in income less than otheractivities (832 US $/hh/yr) This result is defined by total cost of rice yields minus total cost ofproduction On the other hand, the income from fishing, service and trade are ranged from 1596

US $/hh/yr, 4,093.21 US $/hh/yr and 4,409.81US$/hh/yr The total income for the region isshown in (Figure 4) All zones, trade and farming is ranging in highest percentage (38%), 17%for service, 7% for fishing The income from zone 1, fishing (47%) is potential function in totalregion if compare to other sectors, however, for zone 2, zone 3, and zone 4, agriculture are moresignificant(average 59.66%)

Figure 4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998, ADB 2008)

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5 26.1

21.5 55.2

706347

33167

249192647

38

1618141143

17

40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 3: Occupation among population in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998)

Depending on the NIS (1998) and ADB survey (2008), it is important to estimate the incomefrom each activity in the region The farming activities can result in income less than otheractivities (832 US $/hh/yr) This result is defined by total cost of rice yields minus total cost ofproduction On the other hand, the income from fishing, service and trade are ranged from 1596

US $/hh/yr, 4,093.21 US $/hh/yr and 4,409.81US$/hh/yr The total income for the region isshown in (Figure 4) All zones, trade and farming is ranging in highest percentage (38%), 17%for service, 7% for fishing The income from zone 1, fishing (47%) is potential function in totalregion if compare to other sectors, however, for zone 2, zone 3, and zone 4, agriculture are moresignificant(average 59.66%)

Figure 4: Income from sectors in the Tonle Sap Lake Region by percentage (NIS 1998, ADB 2008)

Services Trade Fishing Agriculture

FarmingFishingTradeService

II.2.2 Education

There is low literature rate in the region Due to poverty, only 11.7% of girls attend school infrom grade 6- 12 across all zones For boys, the opportunity to attend school is significantlyhigher than girls with 40% attending from grade 6-12 The distinct relationship between literacy

in males and females is gender issue Females are required to spend more time assisting in home,

whilst males are considered more responsible for generation income Figure 5 shows more detail

literacy from zone 1 to zone 5 The relationship between poverty and literacy is declined Zone 1

to zone 4 is lower income (mostly farming and fishing) community which has lower education.However, Zone 5 has a higher and easier access to school, and the rate is significantly higher

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region (NIS 1998)

II.2.3 Sources of Energy for Consumption

Sources of Energy for Cooking

In Cambodia, 83% of the population use firewood for cooking, 9% use charcoal, and 9% rely onLPG (NIS 2008) Cooking with an old custom stove, firewood is a major source for burning ineach household across the country Figure 6 shows that, about 90% from Zone 1 to zone 4commonly use firewood; this is because in rural areas it is most accessible sources Only 80% in

Never

6-12

>12 Never

6-12

>12

37.5 40 5.4 47.2 11.7 1.9

17.5 1.2

1

0.4 7.3

in males and females is gender issue Females are required to spend more time assisting in home,

whilst males are considered more responsible for generation income Figure 5 shows more detail

literacy from zone 1 to zone 5 The relationship between poverty and literacy is declined Zone 1

to zone 4 is lower income (mostly farming and fishing) community which has lower education.However, Zone 5 has a higher and easier access to school, and the rate is significantly higher

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region (NIS 1998)

II.2.3 Sources of Energy for Consumption

Sources of Energy for Cooking

In Cambodia, 83% of the population use firewood for cooking, 9% use charcoal, and 9% rely onLPG (NIS 2008) Cooking with an old custom stove, firewood is a major source for burning ineach household across the country Figure 6 shows that, about 90% from Zone 1 to zone 4commonly use firewood; this is because in rural areas it is most accessible sources Only 80% in

57.1 17.5 1.2 66.3 0.4

44.5 20

0.8

54.4 0.3

41.1 31.1

2

51.2 15.2

0.7

38.7 36.5

3.6

48.8 19.6

1.2

25 63.3 13.2

34 41

in males and females is gender issue Females are required to spend more time assisting in home,

whilst males are considered more responsible for generation income Figure 5 shows more detail

literacy from zone 1 to zone 5 The relationship between poverty and literacy is declined Zone 1

to zone 4 is lower income (mostly farming and fishing) community which has lower education.However, Zone 5 has a higher and easier access to school, and the rate is significantly higher

Figure 5: Education Level in the Tonle Sap Lake Region (NIS 1998)

II.2.3 Sources of Energy for Consumption

Sources of Energy for Cooking

In Cambodia, 83% of the population use firewood for cooking, 9% use charcoal, and 9% rely onLPG (NIS 2008) Cooking with an old custom stove, firewood is a major source for burning ineach household across the country Figure 6 shows that, about 90% from Zone 1 to zone 4commonly use firewood; this is because in rural areas it is most accessible sources Only 80% in

100%

All zones Zone1 Zone2 Zone3 Zone4 Zone 5 Male

Female

Zone 5, firewood is used, however, about 15% in this zone is replaced by charcoal LPG andCharcoal are considered popular energy sources for cooking across the zones in the region.

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

NIS (1998) reported that popular sources of energy for lightening in Cambodian concluded leadacid batteries (38%), kerosene lamps (36%) and public-provided electricity power (23%).However, public-provided electricity power can only provide 15.5% of the population across thezones, and especially in zone 5 (42.8%, urban area) of the Tonle Sap Lake Region.Approximately 77% of household use kerosene lamps in all zones; zone 1 65.5%, Zone 2 97%,zone 3 92.3%, and zone 4 85.4%, (Figure7)

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

NIS (1998) reported that popular sources of energy for lightening in Cambodian concluded leadacid batteries (38%), kerosene lamps (36%) and public-provided electricity power (23%).However, public-provided electricity power can only provide 15.5% of the population across thezones, and especially in zone 5 (42.8%, urban area) of the Tonle Sap Lake Region.Approximately 77% of household use kerosene lamps in all zones; zone 1 65.5%, Zone 2 97%,zone 3 92.3%, and zone 4 85.4%, (Figure7)

83 92.7 95.5 96.2 97.4 95.5 81.8

9 4.6 3.1 0.1 0.4 1.8 14.9

9 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sources of Energy for Cooking

Charcoal Kerosene Petroleum (LPG)

Zone 5, firewood is used, however, about 15% in this zone is replaced by charcoal LPG andCharcoal are considered popular energy sources for cooking across the zones in the region

Figure 6: Sources of energy for cooking (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

Sources of Energy for Lightening

NIS (1998) reported that popular sources of energy for lightening in Cambodian concluded leadacid batteries (38%), kerosene lamps (36%) and public-provided electricity power (23%).However, public-provided electricity power can only provide 15.5% of the population across thezones, and especially in zone 5 (42.8%, urban area) of the Tonle Sap Lake Region.Approximately 77% of household use kerosene lamps in all zones; zone 1 65.5%, Zone 2 97%,zone 3 92.3%, and zone 4 85.4%, (Figure7)

4.6 3.1 0.1 0.4 1.8

9 0 0 0 0 0 0

Petroleum (LPG) Electricity

Figure 7: Sources of energy for lightening (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

II.2.4 Human Health

Surveys in Chong Khneas District, Siem Reap Province in Cambodia, by USAID and RACHA,(2009) reported that amongst 123 children, 54.1% were infected by diarrheal disease 60% ofchildren become sick from drinking the lake water, 50% who drink house hold filtered water,44.4% for children who drink boiling water, and 38% for children who drink purified water Inthis resident area, the majority of households have no toilet 88.8% and their faecal wastes aredisposed directly into river or lake

Likewise, NIS, (2001) reported that the Tonle Sap Lake Area is covered by large surface waterfrom 2500km2- 11000 km2depending on dry season to rainy season, 22.4% of cases of diarrheadisease occurred across the population 4, 109, 137 Similarity, Tep Chhakda et al., (2006) hasindicated the information in the same region, approximately 44.5% of 1,584 samples has infected

by diarrhea The risk factors caused of persons who directly contact with the contaminated waterand eliminate pathogens into water; 68.1% no latrines at home, 35.4% recreational swimming,8% fishing, 32.6% wearing shoes, and 65.2% wearing shoes during defecation

Cambodia

All zones

Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5

23 15.5 5 1.2 3.8 9.5 1 2.3 2.5

Sources of Energy for Lightening

Publicly-Provided Electricity PowerBatteries

Figure 7: Sources of energy for lightening (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

II.2.4 Human Health

Surveys in Chong Khneas District, Siem Reap Province in Cambodia, by USAID and RACHA,(2009) reported that amongst 123 children, 54.1% were infected by diarrheal disease 60% ofchildren become sick from drinking the lake water, 50% who drink house hold filtered water,44.4% for children who drink boiling water, and 38% for children who drink purified water Inthis resident area, the majority of households have no toilet 88.8% and their faecal wastes aredisposed directly into river or lake

Likewise, NIS, (2001) reported that the Tonle Sap Lake Area is covered by large surface waterfrom 2500km2- 11000 km2depending on dry season to rainy season, 22.4% of cases of diarrheadisease occurred across the population 4, 109, 137 Similarity, Tep Chhakda et al., (2006) hasindicated the information in the same region, approximately 44.5% of 1,584 samples has infected

by diarrhea The risk factors caused of persons who directly contact with the contaminated waterand eliminate pathogens into water; 68.1% no latrines at home, 35.4% recreational swimming,8% fishing, 32.6% wearing shoes, and 65.2% wearing shoes during defecation

23

42.8

38 3.8

22.8

2.5

3.7

36 76.9

65.5 97

92.3 85.4

45.3

Sources of Energy for Lightening

Publicly-Provided Electricity Power Privately generated electricity

Kerosene lamp

Figure 7: Sources of energy for lightening (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

II.2.4 Human Health

Surveys in Chong Khneas District, Siem Reap Province in Cambodia, by USAID and RACHA,(2009) reported that amongst 123 children, 54.1% were infected by diarrheal disease 60% ofchildren become sick from drinking the lake water, 50% who drink house hold filtered water,44.4% for children who drink boiling water, and 38% for children who drink purified water Inthis resident area, the majority of households have no toilet 88.8% and their faecal wastes aredisposed directly into river or lake

Likewise, NIS, (2001) reported that the Tonle Sap Lake Area is covered by large surface waterfrom 2500km2- 11000 km2depending on dry season to rainy season, 22.4% of cases of diarrheadisease occurred across the population 4, 109, 137 Similarity, Tep Chhakda et al., (2006) hasindicated the information in the same region, approximately 44.5% of 1,584 samples has infected

by diarrhea The risk factors caused of persons who directly contact with the contaminated waterand eliminate pathogens into water; 68.1% no latrines at home, 35.4% recreational swimming,8% fishing, 32.6% wearing shoes, and 65.2% wearing shoes during defecation

100%

Privately generated electricity

II.2.5 Environmental Pollution

Destruction of natural resources

The rapidly increasing population surrounding the Tonle Sap Lake is approximately 4.2 million,equal to 29% of the country total population The average density is 58 people per km2, and isincreasing at 1.75% in 2009 (Marlin M, 2003) This has resulted in an increased demand forresources Keskinen, M, (2006) reported that 90% of the populations is dependent on naturalresources for their livelihood Overharvesting of fisheries, forestry products, and daily pollutionfrom households are major concern, and more sustainable development and resourcemanagement is critically important in the Tonle Sap basin

II.2.6 Land Use Classification

Land use In the Tonle Sap Lake region is classified into 5 zones Urbanized area is defined aszone 5 and from zone 1 to 4 is characterized as rural area (Table1) The accuracy of zones isidentified based on above sea level (asl), ranging from Zone 1 (0-6m asl), zone 2 (6-8 m asl),zone 3 (8-10m asl), zone 4 (10 m asl to national roads) and zone 5 is urban area which it locates

in centre of six provinces; Kompong Chhnagn, Pur Sat, Kompong Thom, Siem Reap, BattamBang, and Bonteay Meanchey The usages of the land are given more detail in Table1

Table1: Land use classification (Keskinen, M (2006)

Zone Classification

Cambodia

All zones Zone 1 Zone 2 Zone 3 Zone 4 Zone 5

15 4

13

11 1 1 7 9

8 24

Sources of Drinking Water

Piped in dwelling Pond, lake, river, or stream Others

II.3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality

II.3.1 Sources of Drinking Water Supply

The sources for drinking water are provided in Figure 8 25% of people consume water fromtube/piped well, 21% from dug well pond, 18% from lake, river or stream, 5% rain water, 18%from piped dwelling , and 8% purchase filter water In the Tonle Sap Lake region, 41% consumewater from a dug well, 31% from water sources from the lake, pond, river or stream Waterconsumption from the lake, pond, river, or stream is larger proportion in zone 1 (up to 87%) anddecrease dramatically to 67% in zone 2, 41% in zone 3, 23% in zone 4 and 13% in zone 5 Inzone 5, water consumption are shared in similarity in percentage among population who usewater from piped in dwelling (25%), tube well (25%), dug well (22%), and bought (25%) (Figure8)

Figure 8: Sources of drinking water (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

25 11

25

21 41

24

45 55 22

18 31 87

67

41 23 13

8 2

5 25

Sources of Drinking Water

Tube/piped well or borehole Dug well Pond, lake, river, or stream Rain water Bought

II.3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality

II.3.1 Sources of Drinking Water Supply

The sources for drinking water are provided in Figure 8 25% of people consume water fromtube/piped well, 21% from dug well pond, 18% from lake, river or stream, 5% rain water, 18%from piped dwelling , and 8% purchase filter water In the Tonle Sap Lake region, 41% consumewater from a dug well, 31% from water sources from the lake, pond, river or stream Waterconsumption from the lake, pond, river, or stream is larger proportion in zone 1 (up to 87%) anddecrease dramatically to 67% in zone 2, 41% in zone 3, 23% in zone 4 and 13% in zone 5 Inzone 5, water consumption are shared in similarity in percentage among population who usewater from piped in dwelling (25%), tube well (25%), dug well (22%), and bought (25%) (Figure8)

Figure 8: Sources of drinking water (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

8 2

Dug well Bought

II.3 Drinking Water Supply and Quality

II.3.1 Sources of Drinking Water Supply

The sources for drinking water are provided in Figure 8 25% of people consume water fromtube/piped well, 21% from dug well pond, 18% from lake, river or stream, 5% rain water, 18%from piped dwelling , and 8% purchase filter water In the Tonle Sap Lake region, 41% consumewater from a dug well, 31% from water sources from the lake, pond, river or stream Waterconsumption from the lake, pond, river, or stream is larger proportion in zone 1 (up to 87%) anddecrease dramatically to 67% in zone 2, 41% in zone 3, 23% in zone 4 and 13% in zone 5 Inzone 5, water consumption are shared in similarity in percentage among population who usewater from piped in dwelling (25%), tube well (25%), dug well (22%), and bought (25%) (Figure8)

Figure 8: Sources of drinking water (NIS, 1998 and NIS, 2008)

II.3.2 Water Quality in Tonle Sap Lake

Chemical contaminants in freshwater from the Tonle Sap Lake are from the Organochlorines(OCs) group and pathogen group OCs group includes DDT, PCBs, HCHs, and HCLs which areknown as Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) and polluted levelDDTs>PCBs>HCHs>HCBs>HCLs>TCPMe These substances are accumulated in fish and birds

in the region (Monirith et al., 2003)

Monirith et al., (2003) found DDT (3200 ng/g) accumulation in birds (white breast waterhen) inthe Tonle Sap Lake Region This concentration is two times higher than those in the MekongRiver (1500ng/g) and approximately four times higher in coastal areas (610ng/g) It is also found

in fish (450ng/g fat wt) in the Tonle Sap Lake Region DDT is currently used for agriculture andaquaculture purposes In Cambodia, DDT has been used for the control of parasite on fish body

in cage cultures and as an insecticide before the wet season

The concentration of PCBs detected in birds (white breast waterhen) 120 ng/g is slightly higherthan bird specimens from the Mekong River and coastal areas (33ng/g) The concentration in fish(21ng/g) is not significantly different from freshwater fish (Tonle Sap Lake region), MekongRiver and coastal areas

The Concentration of HCHs (range from 7.3-73ng/g) in the Tonle Sap Lake region is significanthigher than the Mekong River (1.6-23ng/g) and coastal area (2.7-5ng/g), (Monirith et al., 2003).The use of pesticide to control lepidopteran pests attacking mung bean crops at shore of theTonle Sap Lake region (Witten 1999) may be the reason for the HCHs concentrations In fish,the residue level of HCHs, HCLs, and HCB were low in 1999 (Monirith et al., 1999) However,HCLs accumulated in birds in the Tonle Sap Lake region were found (27ng/g) in 2003 Theincreasing use of pesticide in agriculture in the Tonle Sap Lake region is of concerns (EJF,2002) The following, HCBs concentrations were detected in birds ranging from 3.5 -53ng/g inthe region The use of HCBs in the region is considered essential to keep insects away from driedfish HCBs used as the trace elements in several pesticides contain chlorines (Bailey, 2001) Thepresent of concentration of TCPMe ranged from 0.16.6.6ng/g

The other trace elements were lower and still under the limitation of national water quality

significantly higher than national water quality standard (maximally 1000mg/L during dry)(Joha, S and J Koponen 2003) In Table 2 describes detail for each parameter.

Pathogens are an essential issue in the region due to concerns of human health Though, there is

no data available on the water contaminants by pathogens, several reports on diarrheal diseaseindicate they occur frequently The major vectors for diarrheal disease are bacteria, viruses, andprotozoas Rotavirus in group of the viruses is major vectors for the diarrheal diseases Report onRotavirus in Phnom Penh, Cambodia from March 2005 through February 2007 by Nyambat, B.,

et al ,(2009) indicated that 2817 persons were tested for diarrhea diseases In this amount, 81%equal to 2281 persons are tested 56% of specimens were found positive of Rotavirus vectors.Approximately 94% of children are found diarrhea less than 2 years old and 61% are less than12months old 2281 children who provided the stool, a total of 1278 (56%) children age less than

5 years old had confirmed of Rotavirus positive A 97% of Cambodian children identified withrotavirus diarrhea (<2years) The sex ratio between young boy and girl who are detected therotavirus is 3:2

Table 2: Water quality parameters in the Tonle Sap Lake

Chemical Parameters Concentration National Water Quality Standard (Lake and

DDT (ng/g fat wt in fish) 4 450 <10 µg/L (Health Protection)

1 Sub-degree 1999 on Water Pollution Control

2 Campbell et al., 2006

3 Joha, S and J Koponen 2003

4 Monirith et al., 1999

DDT (ng/g in bird) 5 3200 <10 µg/L (Health Protection)

II.4.1 Solar Disinfection (SODIS)

Description and Implementation

Solar disinfection (SODIS) was developed in the 1980’s to inexpensively disinfect water In

1991, the Swiss Federal Institute for Environmental Science and Technology (SANDEC,EAWAG) began to investigate and implement SODIS as an HWTS option, to prevent diarrhea indeveloping countries Users of SODIS fill 0.3-2.0 liter plastic soda bottles with low turbiditywater, shake them to oxygenate, and place the bottles on a roof or rack for 6 hours (if sunny) or 2days (if cloudy) The combined effects of UV-induced DNA alteration, thermal inactivation, andphoto-oxidative destruction inactivate disease causing organisms (Figure 9) SODIS method canpotentially remove bacteria, viruses, and protozoa in up to 99.9% of cases (Daniel et al., 2007;Oxfarm 2009) This simple method has been widely recommended and has the potential toreduce diarrhea from 9-86% of cases (CDC, 2008), and 86% reduction in cholera cases duringoutbreaks in Maasai (Conroy, et al., 1996, 1999, 2001) The potential reduce diarrheal diseases

by up to 35% among children below five (Hobbins, 2003) and in an urban slum in Tamil Naduthe risk of diarrhea was reduced by 40% by using SODIS (Rose et al., 2006) Further healthevaluation studies showed a reduction of 13 to 39% in Pakistan (Gamper, 2004), by 53-57% inUzbekistan (Grimm, 2004; Grimm, 2006) SODIS is zero cost option to user, an exception thatcost for plastic bottle The estimation of usage SODIS system is approximately US $3.15/hh/yr

Figure 9: Solar Disinfection

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of SODIS are (CDC 2008);

• Reduction of viruses, bacteria, and protozoa;

• Reduction of diarrheal disease;

• Simple and feasible for users;

• Zero cost to the user exception that’s plastic bottles;

• Low influence on taste changing of water;

• No recontamination occurred and chemical residue

The drawbacks of SODIS are:

• In case high turbidity water, pretreatment is required

• Limited volume and length of time required;

• The clean, suitable plastic bottles required

II.4.2 Boiling

Description and Implementation

Boiling is the traditional and most commonly practiced method to treat water in households Ithas been widely promoted for decades Many programs recommend boiling water in developingcountries, and to provide safe drinking water in emergency situations throughout the world.However, boiling time has been recommended from 0-20 minutes in order to make water safefrom 70 to 100C The World Health Organization (WHO) also recommends that water boilingshould be reached until boiling point This suggestion is to ensure an inactivation of thepathogens that cause diarrheal disease According to Brian Skinner and Rod Shaw and Oxfarm(2008) boiling water can potentially remove almost all bacteria, viruses, fungi, helminthes andprotozoa by using an average duration of 10 min and temperature of 70oC Water should bestored in the same container in which it was boiled, handled carefully, and consumed within 24hours to prevent recontamination Boiling also can improve the taste of water by aeration,stirring and increased air content in the water The disadvantages of boiling water are the use offuel, high costs involved, and the residue from burning (e.g firewood, charcoal or LPG) Thecost for boiling with firewood is approximately $0.012 for the treatment of 10L water IDE

(2003) also conducted a pilot project in Cambodia on boiled water, and identified for eachhousehold (ca.5 persons in a household) it would cost approximately 17.4 US$/year on firewoodand 32$ US/year using PLG.

Benefits and Drawbacks (CDC 2009)

The benefits of boiling are:

• Practical method in many households in rural areas;

•Available materials for boiling

•Proven inactivation of all bacteria, viruses and protozoa, even in turbid or contaminatedwater;

• Socio-cultural acceptance of boiling for water treatment

The drawbacks of boiling are:

• No residual protection from fuel burning;

• Human health impact by sorption of CO, NOx, smoke, small particles

• High cost on fuel sources

II.4.3 Flocculation (CDC 2009)

Description and Implementation

Aluminum sulfate is widely used as a flocculants in both developed and developing countries It

is sold in blocks of soft white stone and generally called alum Alum is used in various ways Itmay be crushed into a powder before adding to water and stirring and decanting Secondly, thewhole stone can be stirred in water for a few seconds; waiting for the solids to settle.Flocculation is an option which is potentially able to remove pathogens and turbid water (BrianSkinner and Rod Shaw) CDC (2008) identified flocculants can reduce diarrhea from 16-90%.The flocculation method also reduces Fe & Mn, organic substances, and improves the taste ofwater

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of alum are they are widely available, proven to reduce turbidity, and are notexpensive The drawback of alum is the necessary dosage varies unpredictably Research iscurrently underway to determine the necessary alum dosage for different waters, and theeffectiveness of alum to reduce turbidity in water

II.4.4 Sample Sand Filter (SSF)

Filtration is a simple and fast pre-treatment method Water is poured through the container ofclean sand and gravel with spigot at the bottom (Figure 10) The water then flows into a storagecontainer The benefits are it is effective in removing some bacteria It is both an easy and fastoption for users It is also inexpensive if sand is available in locally The drawback is threecontainers are needed In laboratory studies, the use of sand filtration significantly reduced boththe turbidity and the chlorine demand of turbid water.

Figure10: Simple Sand Filter

II.4.5 Chlorination (Daniel et al., (2007)

Description and Implementation

Chlorination was first used to disinfect public water supplies in the early 1900s, and helpedreduce waterborne disease in cities in Europe and the United States (Gordon et al., 1987).Although it is the point-of use (POU) chlorination (Mintz et al., 1995), larger-scale trials began

in the 1990s as part of the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) and the U.S Centers forDisease Control and Prevention (CDC) response to epidemic cholera in Latin America (Tauxe,1995)

The sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) solution is packaged in a bottle with directions instructingusers to add one full bottle cap of the solution to clear water (or two caps to turbid water) in astandard-sized storage container, agitate, and wait 30 minutes before drinking In fourrandomized controlled trials, the SWS reduced the risk of diarrheal disease from 44 to 84%(Luby et al., 2004; Quick et al., 1999, Semenza et al., 1998) At concentrations used in HWTSprograms, chlorine effectively inactivates bacteria and some viruses (American Water WorksAssociation, 1999); however, it is not effective at inactivating some protozoa, such ascryptosporidium

The benefits and drawbacks

The benefits of Chlorination:

 To reduce bacteria and most viruses;

 Residual protection against contamination;

 Improved of taste and odor

 Easy to use and acceptable to users;

 Low cost

The drawbacks of Chlorination:

 Limitation of protection against some viruses and parasites;

 Lower effectiveness on contaminated water by organic and inorganic compounds;

 Long-term carcinogenic effects of chlorination by-products

II.4.6 Sedimentation

Settling and decanting is a way to reduce the turbidity of water by letting the water sit from 2-24hours Therefore, the particulates settle to the bottom of the container The clear water is thendecanted off the top into a second container The benefit of settling and decanting is notrequiring equipment other than buckets However, settling and decanting requires two containers,and time for water to settle The difficulty is to observe the effects of decanting in storagecontainers In laboratory studies, the use of settling and decanting significantly reduced theturbidity of water, and also significantly reduced the chlorine demand of turbid waters Thus, it isrecommended to add only a single dose of sodium hypochlorite solution after settling anddecanting (CDC, 2009)

II.4.7 Ceramic Filter

Description and Implementation

The ceramic filter was first introduced by John Doulton in1827 (WHO 2009) Currently, thereare two designs, firstly the ceramic candle filter and secondly the ceramic pot style filter Bothmodels are currently used in Central America, Africa, and Asia The Ceramic Water Purifier(CWP) was developed by International Development Enterprise since 2000 in Cambodia TheCWP consists of a porous, pot-shaped filter element made of kiln-fired clay and impregnatedwith colloidal silver The ceramic filter element is set in a plastic receptacle tank with a plasticlid and a spigot The filter element is filled with water from a contaminated source which canseep through the clay at a rate of 2 to 3 liters per hour The filter element holds approximately 10liters This amount can supply a household to produce 20 to 30 liters of water per day with two tothree fills (IDE, 2003) Ceramic filtration is an effective method to remove almost all pathogens,turbid water, and some other organic matters It is also known to improve the taste of the water.CDC (2008) identified that the Ceramic filter can be reduce the occurrence of diarrhea from 60-70% (CDC, 2008) The 0.2 micron ceramic filter made in Switzerland has been identified toreduce diarrhea by up to 64% in Bolivia (Clasen et al., 2004) Figure 11 shows the components

of CWP design

Benefits and Drawbacks

The benefits of ceramic filtration are:

 Proven removal of bacteria and protozoa in water;

 Simple and acceptable to users;

 Reduction of diarrheal disease incidence in users;

 Durable for up to 3 years and,

 A low cost with a one-off cost;

The drawbacks of ceramic filtration are:

 Lower effectiveness on removal of viruses;

 Limitation of residual protection causes recontamination if treated water is storedunsafely;

 Differentiation of quality control depending on local filtration production;

 Required maintenance when breakage parts;

 Filters and receptacles regularly clean, especially when using turbid source waters

 At low flow rate of 1-3 liters per hour in non-turbid waters

Figure 11: Ceramic Water Purifier (CWP) developed by IDE, (2003)

II.4.8 Bio-sand Filter

The components of bio-sand filters are containers, lid, diffuser plate, filtrate standpipe andstanding water level, medium bed (sand and gravel) Containers can be purchased or constructed

in various shapes (squares or round) and materials (concrete, metal, plastic, or ferro-cement,brick, or clay jars) The lid is made from any material It should be cleaned and fit to thecontainer A filter lid is essential to prevent excess bio-film growth by blocking sunlight andguarding against insects and other contaminants entering the filter Diffuser plate is possible tomake from different materials such as plastic and metal If it made from sheet metal, ensure it isconstructed out of good quality galvanized metal or it will rust, either prematurely plugging thediffuser holes with rust or gradually increasing the diffuser whole size Avoid wood, as it willattract mold growth and tend to shrink or warp, ultimately not fitting tightly inside the filtercontainer, and allowing potential disruption of the top sand layer A drip grid is a requiredfeature of all diffusers to evenly distribute the water without disturbance of sand media On thebottom of the diffuser plate, measure and mark a 2.5 cm × 2.5 cm grid At each intersection onthe grid, pound a 3 mm diameter hole through the diffuser material, using a hammer and nail.Smaller holes will restrict the flow through the filter; larger holes will result in disturbance ofsand media The primary functions of the diffuser plate are protecting the surface zooglealbiofilm and top layer of sand by dispersing the energy of water as it enters the filter, andfacilitating the addition of critical oxygen to the supernatant water through aeration process

Filtrate standpipe and the standing water level (supernatant)

The standpipe is the essential component in all bio-sand filters This simple but key designcomponent automatically maintains the standing water level (the supernatant) to a constant depthwhen installed 5cm above the top of the filtering sand As a Figure 12, it is the bio-sand filter forhousehold-scale that can be made in various ways, but each configuration share this one simple.The standpipe can be made out of 6 mm tubing which is 1 meter long The materials can beplastic or metal, copper, PVC pipe fittings, polyethylene, or vinyl tubing The primary function

of the supernatant is set by the standpipe placed

Media (sand and gravel) bed

The media layer is composed of the sand and gravel Filtering layer consists of fine sand in 3.15

mm or less diameter sand The depth of the filtering sand bed is 40 to 50 cm This is theminimum fine sand requirement to ensure the best quality of water The actual volume of finesand required is 25 liters The upper fine sand (Filtering layer) is responsible for removal ofpathogens and the establishment of the biological zone The support layer (coarse sand) uses3.125 to 6.25 mm diameter sand, with a depth of 5 cm Coarse sand volume required is 3 litters.The purpose of the middle support layer is to prevent the sand mixing with the under drain layer.Under-drain layer (fine gravel) use 6.25 to 12.5 mm diameter gravel, depth should coverstandpipe inlet about 5 cm or more Gravel volume required is 3 liters The purpose of the lowergravel layer is to allow unrestricted water flow out of the filter via the standpipe

Figure 12: Bio-sand filter design components by CAWST, (2008)

The bio-sand filter is effectively for drinking water treatment One study found thatapproximately 95% removal of coliforms and a 99% removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardiacysts (WEDC) Initial research has shown that the BSF removes less than 90 percent of indicatorviruses The bio-sand filter is also highly effective at treating Arsenic, organic matter and it alsoimproves the taste and odor of water It has also been shown that Biosand filters are capable ofcontinuing to deliver 1-2 log reductions in microbial pathogens more than five years after theywere first used (Clasen, 2007) The cost to construct a Bio-sand filter varies from $12 to $40 or

$10 per household per year

Benefits and Drawbacks

Benefits of bio-sand filtration are that they are functional, user-friendly, durable, affordable, andproduce sufficient water quality (CAWST, 2008)

Functional: The bio-sand filter is a ‘point of use’ or household treatment device Water can be

obtained from the closest water supply point, whether that is a river, a stream or a well, and usedimmediately after filtering The water supply, treatment, and distribution are all within thecontrol of the individual householder Effective use of the technology does not require usergroups or other community support which are sometimes difficult to develop and sustain Theindependence of the household makes this technology extremely suitable for developingcountries which often lack the governance and regulatory processes needed for effective andefficient community water systems

High user acceptability: The bio-sand filter is easy to use and it improves the look and taste of

water Also, the filter takes up very little space and can easily fit into most rooms In fact,previous experience has shown that the filter normally occupies a place of significance in theliving room because it is so important to the individual household

User-friendly: it is simple to operate and maintain the filter There are no moving parts that

require skill to operate When the water flow through the filter becomes too slow, themaintenance consists simply of washing the top few centimeters of sand Operating andmaintaining the filter is well within the capacity of the household users

Durable: The filter box is made of cement concrete with a built-in pipe It is very durable since

there are no moving parts during operation The filter may need occasional replacement of iron