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It is the loss of water vapor from parts of plants similar to sweating, especially in leaves but also in stems, flowers and roots.. Lesson 3 The parts of plant and their function continu

HUE UNIVERSITY UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE AND FORESTRY

Unit 1

Lesson 1 The parts of plant and their function

I Reading

Plants are living organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae They include familiar

organisms such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extantspecies of plants, defined as seed plants, bryophytes, ferns and fern allies As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are flowering and 18,000

bryophytes Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight via a process called

photosynthesis

The basic parts of a plant are flower, fruit, seed, leaf, stem, root and shoot

A flower, sometimes known as a bloom or blossom, is the reproductive structure found in

flowering plants The biological function of a flower is to mediate the union of male sperm with female ovum in order to produce seeds

Fruit normally means the fleshy seed-associated structures of certain plants that are

sweet and edible in the raw state, such as apples, oranges, grapes, and bananas, or the similar-looking structures in other plants, even if they are non-edible or non-sweet in the raw state, such as lemons and olives In biology (botany), a "fruit" is a part of a flowering plant that derives from specific tissues of the flower, mainly one or more ovaries Often the botanical fruit is only part of the common fruit, or is merely adjacent to it On the other hand, the botanical sense includes many structures that are not commonly called "fruits", such as bean pods, corn kernels, wheat grains,

tomatoes, and many more However, there are several variants of the biological definition of fruit that emphasize different aspects of the enormous variety that is found among plant fruits

II Glossary

1 In biology, an organism is any contiguousliving system (such as

animal, plant, fungus, or micro-organism)

2 An herb is a plant that is valued for flavor, scent, medicinal or other

qualities other than its food value Herbs are used in cooking, as

medicines, and for spiritual purposes

3 A tree is a perennialwoody plant It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground

on a single main stem or trunk with clear apical dominance

4 A shrub or bush is distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and lower height, usually less than 5–6 m (15–20 ft) tall A large number of plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing

conditions they experience

5 Grasses are monocotyledonous, usually herbaceousplants with narrow leaves growing from the base They include the "true grasses", of the

Poaceae (or Gramineae) family, as well as the sedges (Cyperaceae) and the rushes (Juncaceae)

6 A vine in the broad sense refers to any climbing or trailing plant The

narrower and original meaning is the grapevine

7 A fern (dương xỉ) is any one of a group of about 12,000 species of plants Unlike mosses, they have xylem and phloem (making them vascular plants) They have stems, leaves, and roots like other vascular plants Ferns do not have either seeds or flowers (they reproduce via spores)

8 Mosses (rêu) are small, soft plants that are typically 1–10 cm (0.4–4 in) tall, though some species are much larger They commonly grow close together in clumps or mats in damp or shady locations They do not have flowers or seeds, and their simple leaves cover the thin wiry

stems

9 The green algae (tảo xanh) (singular: green alga) are the large group of

algae from which the embryophytes (higher plants) emerged

10 Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of

biology that involves the scientific study of plant life Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines concerned with the study of plants,

algae and fungi, including structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism,

development, diseases, chemical properties, and evolutionary

relationships between taxonomic groups Botany began with early

human efforts to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants,

making it one of the oldest sciences Today botanists study over 550,000

species of living organisms

11 Extant is a term commonly used in biology to refer to taxa (taxon) (such

as species, genera or families) that are still in existence (living) The

term extant contrasts with extinct For example, Brandt's Cormorant is

an extant species, while the Spectacled Cormorant is an extinct species

12 In biology and ecology, extinction is the end of an organism or group of

taxa The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death

of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point)

13 In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification

and a taxonomic rank A species is often defined as a group of

organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or

differing measures are often used, such as similarity of DNA,

morphology or ecological niche Presence of specific locally adapted traits may further subdivide species into subspecies

14 Seed plants, called the spermatophytes (from the Greek word ) (also

known as phanerogams) comprise those plants that produce seeds They are a subset of the embryophytes or land plants

15 Bryophytes (rêu) are all embryophytes ('land plants') that are

non-vascular: they have tissues and enclosed reproductive systems, but they lack vascular tissue that circulates liquids They neither have

flowers nor produce seeds, reproducing via spores

16 Fern ally is a general term covering a somewhat diverse group of

seedless vascular plants that are not true ferns Like ferns, these

plants disperse by shedding spores to initiate an alternation of

18 Photosynthesis (from the Greek[photo-], "light," and [synthesis],

"putting together", "composition") is a process that converts carbon dioxide into organic compounds, especially sugars, using the energy from sunlight Photosynthesis occurs in plants, algae, and many

species of bacteria, but not in archaea Photosynthetic organisms are called photoautotrophs, since they can create their own food

19 The term bloom refers to one or more flowers on a flowering plant, to a cut flower, to the aesthetic experience derived from flowers or

comparable to that derived from flowers

20 Blossom is a term given to the flowers of stone fruittrees (genus Prunus) and of some other plants with a similar appearance that flower profusely for a period of time in spring Blossom normally appear in spring before the fruit actually grows Blossoms provide pollen to pollinators such as bees, and initiate cross-pollination necessary for the trees to reproduce by producing fruit

21 Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism Hence, a tissue is an ensemble of cells, not necessarily identical, but from the same origin, that together carry out a specific function Organs are then formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues The study of tissue

is known as histology or, in connection with disease, histopathology

III Comprehension Précis and Composition

Answer these questions in not more than 55 words

1 Plants are living organisms?

2 List the familiar organisms of the plant?

3 What are basic parts of a plant?

4 What is the biological function of a flower?

5 What is a fruit?

IV Practice

Fill each of the following gaps with suitable word/words

1 Plants are ……… belonging to the ……… Plantae They include familiar organisms such as ……… , …………,

………., ,………… , ………, ………… , …………., ………, and ………

2 The scientific study of plants, known as ……… , has identified about 350,000 ……… of plants, defined as ……….,

……… , ……… and ………

3 As of 2004, some 287,655 species had been identified, of which 258,650 are

……… and 18,000 ……… Green plants obtain most of

their energy from ……… via a process called ………

V Grammar review

Basic Question Types

There are 3 basic types of question:

1 Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")

2 Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")

3 Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")

1 Yes/No Questions

auxiliary verb subject main verb Answer

Yes or No

Do You Want dinner? Yes, I do

Has She Finished her work? Yes, she has

Did They Go home? No, they didn't

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Was Ram at home? No, he wasn't

2 Question Word Questions

question word auxiliary verb Subject main verb Answer

Information

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

3 Choice Questions

In the question

Did she go to London or New York? She went to London

Exception! verb be simple present and simple past

Is your car White or black? It's black

VI Home work:

Working Group: each group chooses one of topics as following, and presentation at next time: (1) trees, (2) herbs, (3) bushes, (4) grasses, (5) vines, (6) ferns, (7) mosses, and (8) green algae.(9) Flowers of a plant and their functions (10) Fruit

Lesson 2 The parts of plant and their function (continue)

Seeds serve several functions for the plants that produce them Key among these

functions are nourishment of the embryo, dispersal to a new location, and dormancy

during unfavorable conditions Seeds fundamentally are a means of reproduction and most seeds are the product of sexual reproduction which produces a remixing of genetic material and phenotype variability that natural selection acts on

In botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant organ specialized for photosynthesis For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat (laminar) and thin As an evolutionary trait, the flatness of leaves works to expose the chloroplasts to more light and to increase the absorption of

carbon dioxide at the expense of water loss Leaves are also the sites in most plants where

transpiration and guttation take place Leaves can store food and water, and are modified

in some plants for other purposes

II Glossary

22 Plant embryogenesis is the process that produces a plant embryo from a fertilised

ovule by asymmetric cell division and the differentiation of undifferentiated cells (các tế bào chưa phân hóa) into tissues and organs It occurs during seed development, when the single-celled zygote undergoes a programmed pattern of cell division resulting in a mature embryo

23 Ovule literally means "small egg." In seed plants, the ovule is the structure that gives rise to and contains the female reproductive cells It consists of three parts:

The integuments forming its outer layer, the nucellus (or megasporangium), and

the megaspore-derived female gametophyte (or megagametophyte) in its center The megagametophyte (also called embryo sac in flowering plants) produces the

egg cell for fertilization After fertilization, the ovule develops into a seed

24 Gymnosperms are seed-bearing plants, whose seeds do not form inside fruits but outside the ovum (ovum, singular; ova, plural)

25 The flowering plants (angiosperms) are the most diverse group of land plants

Together with gymnosperms, they are the only extant groups of seed-producing plants, but they can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of derived characteristics These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds

26 Fertilisation (Sự thụ tinh) (also known as conception, fecundation and

syngamy), is the fusion of gametes to produce a new organism In flowering plant, After the carpel is pollinated, the pollen grain germinates in a response to a sugary fluid secreted by the mature stigma (mainly sucrose) From each pollen grain, a pollen tube grows out that attempts to travel to the ovary by creating a path through the female tissue The vegetative (or tube) and generative nuclei of the pollen grain pass into its respective pollen tube After the pollen grain adheres

to the stigma of the carpel (female reproductive structure) a pollen tube grows and penetrates the ovule through a tiny pore called a micropyle

27 A forest is an area with a high density of trees There are many definitions of a forest, based on the various criteria These plant communities cover approximately 9.4% of the Earth's surface (or 30% of total land area), though they once covered much more (about 50% of total land area), in many different regions and function as habitats for organisms, hydrologic flow modulators, and soil

conservers, constituting one of the most important aspects of the Earth's

biosphere Although a forest is classified primarily by trees a forest ecosystem is defined intrinsically with additional species such as fungi

28 Grasslands (also called greenswards) are areas where the vegetation is dominated by grasses (Poaceae) and other herbaceous (non-woody) plants (forbs) However, sedge (Cyperaceae) and rush (Juncaceae) families can also be found

29 Nourishment of the embryo, seeds protect and nourish the embryo or young plant Seeds usually give a seedling a faster start than a sporeling from a spore, because

of the larger food reserves in the seed and the multicellularity of the enclosed embryo

30 Dispersal to a new location, unlike animals, plants are limited in their ability to seek out favorable conditions for life and growth As a result, plants have evolved many ways to disperse their offspring by dispersing their seeds (see also

vegetative reproduction) A seed must somehow "arrive" at a location and be there

at a time favorable for germination and growth When the fruits open and release their seeds in a regular way, it is called dehiscent, which is often distinctive for related groups of plants, these fruits include; Capsules, follicles, legumes, silicles and siliques When fruits do not open and release their seeds in a regular fashion they are called indehiscent, which include the fruits achenes, caryopsis, nuts,

samaras, and utricles

31 A gamete is a cell that fuses (hợp nhất) with another gamete during fertilization

in organisms that reproduce sexually In species that produce two morphologically distinct types of gametes, and in which each individual produces only one type, a

female is any individual that produces the larger type of gamete—called an ovum

(or egg)—and a male produces the smaller (con nòng nọc) tadpole-like type—called a sperm

32 Liverworts Like other bryophytes, they have a gametophyte-dominant life cycle,

in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic information

33 In ecology, a niche is a term describing the relational position of a species or

population in its ecosystem to each other A shorthand definition of niche is how

an organism makes a living The ecological niche describes how an organism or population responds to the distribution of resources and competitors (e.g., by growing when resources are abundant, and when predators, parasites and pathogens are scarce) and how it in turn alters those same factors (e.g., limiting access to resources by other organisms, acting as a food source for predators and a consumer of prey)

34 Chloroplasts are organelles found in plant cells and other eukaryotic organisms that conduct photosynthesis Chloroplasts capture light energy to conserve free energy in the form of ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH through a complex set

of processes called photosynthesis

35 Transpiration is a process similar to evaporation It is the loss of water vapor from parts of plants (similar to sweating), especially in leaves but also in stems,

flowers and roots Leaf surfaces are dotted with openings called, collectively,

stomata, and in most plants they are more numerous on the undersides of the foliage The stoma are bordered by guard cells that open and close the pore Leaf

transpiration occurs through stomata, and can be thought of as a necessary "cost" associated with the opening of the stomata to allow the diffusion of carbon dioxide gas from the air for photosynthesis Transpiration also cools plants and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients and water from roots to shoots

36 Guttation is the appearance of drops of xylem sap on the tips or edges of leaves

of some vascular plants, such as grasses Guttation is not to be confused with dew, which condenses from the atmosphere onto the plant surface

III Comprehension Précis and Composition

Answer these questions in not more than 100 words

1 What are a seed and the function of seed in flowering plant?

2 What are the functions of leaves?

3 What are an ovule and the function of ovule in flowering plant?

4 What is fertilization

5 What is transpiration?

IV Practice

Fill each of the following gaps with a suitable word/words

In botany, a leaf is an above-ground plant ………specialized for……… For this purpose, a leaf is typically flat (laminar) and thin As an evolutionary trait, the flatness of leaves works to expose the ……….to more ………… and to increase the ……… of ……… at the expense of water loss Leaves are also the sites in most plants where ……… and ……… take place Leaves can store ………… and …………, and are modified in some plants for other purposes

V Grammar review

1 The simple past, simple present and future simple tense

action that takes place

once, never or several

times

He played football every Tuesday

He plays football every Tuesday

He will / is going to play football every Tuesday actions that happen one

after another

He played football and then he went

He plays football and then he goes home

He will play football and then he will go

home home

State He loved football He loves football He will love football

Seeing some education films (the past tense, the present tense, be present tense negative,

do and did, The future tense),

2 WH Question Words

We use question words to ask certain types of questions (question word questions) We often refer to them as WH words because they include the letters WH (for example WHy, HoW)

What asking for information about

something

What is your name?

asking for repetition or confirmation

What? I can't hear you

You did what?

what for asking for a reason, asking

why

What did you do that for?

Where asking in or at what place or

position

Where do they live?

Which asking about choice Which colour do you want?

Who asking what or which person

or people (subject)

Who opened the door?

Whom asking what or which person

or people (object)

Whom did you see?

Whose asking about ownership Whose are these keys?

Whose turn is it?

Why asking for reason, asking

what for

Why do you say that?

why don't making a suggestion Why don't I help you?

asking about condition or quality

How was your exam?

how + adj/adv asking about extent or degree see examples below

how long length (time or space) How long will it take?

how many quantity (countable) How many cars are there?

how much quantity (uncountable) How much money do you

have?

how come

(informal)

asking for reason, asking why How come I can't see her?

VI Home work:

Working Group

Each group chooses one of topics as following, and presentation at next time:

(1) fertilization, (2) flowering plants (3) forests, (4) grasslands, (5) climates, (6) transpiration, (7) guttation

Lesson 3 The parts of plant and their function (continue)

to new fresh plant growth and does include stems but also to other structures like leaves

or flowers The other main structural axis of plants is the root In most plants stems are located above the soil surface but some plants have underground stems

Stems have four main functions which are: 1) Support for and the elevation of leaves,

flowers and fruits 2) The stems keep the leaves in the light and provide a place for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits 3) Transport of fluids between the roots and the shoots in the xylem and phloem Storage of nutrients The production of new living tissue 4) The normal life span of plant cells is one to three years Stems have cells called

meristems that annually generate new living tissue

In vascular plants, the root is the organ of a plant that typically lies below the surface of the soil This is not always the case, however, since a root can also be aerial (growing above the ground) or aerating (growing up above the ground or especially above water) Furthermore, a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either (see

rhizome) So, it is better to define root as a part of a plant body that bears no leaves, and

therefore also lacks nodes There are also important internal structural differences between stems and roots

The first root that comes from a plant is called the radicle The three major functions of roots are 1) absorption of water and inorganic nutrients, 2) anchoring of the plant body to the ground and 3) storage of food and nutrients In response to the concentration of nutrients, roots also synthesise cytokinin, which acts as a signal as to how fast the shoots can grow Roots often function in storage of food and nutrients The roots of most vascular plant species enter into symbiosis with certain fungi to form mycorrhizas, and a large range of other organisms including bacteria also closely associate with roots

Shoots are new plant growth, they can include stems, flowering stems with flower buds, leaves The new growth from seed germination that grows upward is a shoot where

leaves will develop In the spring, perennial plant shoots are the new growth that grows from the ground in herbaceous plants or the new stem and/or flower growth that grows on woody plants

II Glossary

37 Vascular plants (also known as tracheophytes or higher plants) are those plants that have lignified tissues for conducting water, minerals, and photosynthetic products through the plant Vascular plants include the ferns, clubmosses, flowering plants, conifers and other

gymnosperms Scientific names for the group include Tracheophyta[2]and Tracheobionta,[3] but neither name is very widely used

38 In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of the stem Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately

39 An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem

that is composed of a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches Strictly, it is the part of the shoot of seed plants where

flowers are formed and which is accordingly modified The modifications can involve the length and the nature of the internodes

and the phyllotaxis, as well as variations in the proportions, compressions, swellings, adnations, connations and reduction of main and secondary axes

40 A cone (in formal botanical usage: strobilus, plural strobili) is an organ

on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the

reproductive structures The familiar woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds The male cones, which produce pollen, are usually herbaceous and much less conspicuous even at full maturity The name "cone" derives from the fact that the shape in some species resembles a geometric cone The individual plates of a cone are known

as scales

41 Shoots are new plant growth, they can include stems, flowering stems with flower buds, leaves The new growth from seed germination that grows upward is a shoot where leaves will develop In the spring,

perennial plant shoots are the new growth that grows from the ground

a stem normally occurring below ground is not exceptional either (see

rhizome) So, it is better to define root as a part of a plant body that bears no leaves, and therefore also lacks nodes There are also important internal structural differences between stems and roots

43 Underground stems are modified plant structures that derive from

stem tissue but exist under the soil surface

44 A meristem is the tissue in all plants consisting of undifferentiated cells (meristematic cells) and found in zones of the plant where growth can take place

45 Aerial roots are roots above the ground They are almost always

adventitious They are found in diverse plant species, including

epiphytes such as orchids, tropical coastal swamp trees such as

mangroves, the resourceful banyan trees, the warm-temperate rainforest rātā (Metrosideros robusta) and pōhutukawa (M excelsa) trees of New Zealand and vines like Common Ivy (Hedera helix) and irritating poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans)

46 In botany, a rhizome (from Ancient Greek: rhízōma "mass of roots",[1]from rhizóō "cause to strike root")[2] is a characteristically horizontal

stem of a plant that is usually found underground, often sending out

roots and shoots from its nodes Rhizomes may also be referred to as creeping rootstalks or rootstocks

47 A stem is one of two main structural axes of a vascular plant The stem

is normally divided into nodes and internodes, the nodes hold buds

which grow into one or more leaves, inflorescence (flowers), cones or other stems etc The internodes distance one node from another

48 In botany, the radicle is the first part of a seedling (a growing plant embryo) to emerge from the seed during the process of germination The radicle is the

embryonic root of the plant, and grows downward in the soil (the shoot emerges from the plumule) Above the radicle is the embryonic stem or hypocotyl,

supporting the cotyledon(s)

49 Cytokinins (CK) are a class of plant growth substances (plant

hormones) that promote cell division, or cytokinesis, in plant roots and shoots They are primarily involved in cell growth and differentiation, but also affect apical dominance, axillary bud growth, and leaf

senescence Their effects were first discovered through the use of

coconut milk in the 1940s by a scientist at the University of Wisconsin–Madison named Folke Skoog

50 A fungus (pronounced /ˈfʌŋɡəs/; pl fungi)) is a member of a large group

of eukaryotic organisms that includes microorganisms such as yeasts

and molds, as well as the more familiar mushrooms These organisms are classified as a kingdom, Fungi (pronounced /ˈfʌndʒaɪ/ or /ˈfʌŋɡaɪ/), that is separate from plants, animals and bacteria One major difference is that fungal cells have cell walls that contain chitin, unlike the cell walls of plants, which contain cellulose

51 A mycorrhiza (Gk.,: fungus roots[1], pl mycorrhizae, mycorrhizas) is a

symbiotic (generally mutualistic, but occasionally weakly pathogenic) association between a fungus and the roots of a vascular plant.[2]

In a mycorrhizal association, the fungus colonizes the host plants' roots, either intracellularly as in arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF), or extracellularly as in

ectomycorrhizal fungi They are an important component of soil life and soil

chemistry

52 Germination is the process in which a plant or fungus emerges from a seed or

spore and begins growth The most common example of germination is the

sprouting of a seedling from a seed of an angiosperm or gymnosperm However the growth of a sporeling from a spore, for example the growth of hyphae from

fungal spores, is also germination In a more general sense, germination can imply anything expanding into greater being from a small existence or germ

53 A perennial plant or simply perennial (Latin per, "through", annus, "year") is a

plant that lives for more than two years.[1] The term is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter lived annuals and biennials When used by gardeners or

horticulturalists, perennial applies specifically to winter hardy herbaceous plants Scientifically, woody plants like shrubs and trees are also perennial in their habit

54 A herbaceous plant (in botanical use simply herb) is a plant that has leaves and

stems that die down at the end of the growing season to the soil level They have

no persistent woody stem above ground A herbaceous plant may be annual,

biennial or perennial

Annual herbaceous plants die completely at the end of the growing season or when they have flowered and fruited, and they then grow again from seed

III Comprehension Précis and Composition

Answer these questions in not more than 150 words

1 What is a stem?

2 What are main functions of stems?

3 The root is the organ of a plant, isn’t it?

4 What are major functions of roots?

5 What are shoots?

6 The term shoots is often confused with stems, isn’t it? What are differences?

IV Practice

Fill each of the following gaps with suitable word/words

Stems have four main ………… which are: 1) Support for and the elevation of

………., ……… And …………, 2) The stems ………… the leaves in the light and provide a ……… for the plant to keep its flowers and fruits 3) Transport

of ……… between the roots and the shoots in the ……… and ……… Storage of ……… The production of new ………… 4) The normal life span of plant cells is one to three years Stems have cells called ……… that annually generate new living tissue

V Grammar review

1 Past progressive

2 Present progressive

3 Future I progressive

action going on at

that moment

He was playing football He is playing football

He will be playing football

actions taking place

at the same time

He was playing football and she was watching

He is playing football and she is watching

He will be playing football and she will be

watching

Seeing some education films

Past progressive , present progressive and future progressive

Problems with the English tenses?

Have a look at the time line, it might help you understand when to use which tense As there is a similarity between past, present and future tenses, there are just a few rules to keep in mind

If you know how to use the present progressive correctly to express present actions, you will as well be able to use the past progressive correctly to express past actions

Legend

moment in time

 action that takes place once, never or several times

 actions that happen one after another

 actions that suddenly take place

period of time

 action that started before a certain moment and lasts beyond that moment

 actions taking place at the same time

Result

 action taking place before a certain moment in time

 puts emphasis on the result

Course/ Duration

 action taking place before a certain moment in time

 puts emphasis on the course or duration of the action

VI Home work:

Working Group

Each group chooses one of topics as following, and presentation at next time in class: (1) buds, (2) leaves, (3) inflorescence, (4) shoots,(5) root, (6) underground stems, (7) aerial, (8) rhizome, and (9) nodes

VII Glossary Review of Unit 1

1 Structure of a tree

Structure of a tree: large ligneous plant whose stem is bare lose to the ground

and carries branches at its top

Branches: branches and boughs of a tree

Top: the highest part of the tree

Foliage (leaves): the leaves of a tree

Branch: strong offshoot of the trunk of a tree

Trunk: body of the tree

Lateral roots: roots that grow outward from the tree, underground, holding the

tree in place and nourishing it

Taproot: main root that grows vertically into the ground

Root hair zone: small thread like parts of the root

Radicle: small roots

Bole: part of the tree between the ground and the first branches

Twig: divisions of the branches

Crown: part of the tree from the first branch to the top

2 Structure of a plant

Structure of a plant: living being with cellulose walls, and often chlorophyll and

starch; it has neither a mouth nor a nervous system; its mobility and sensitivity are weaker than those of animals

Flower: coloured and usually scented product of a plant

Fruit: product of a plant that follows the flower

Seed: part of the plant essential for reproduction

Leaf: part of the plant that is an offshoot of the stem and is usually green

Stem: part of the plant that carries the leaves

Root: underground structure which feeds the plant and holds it in place

Shoot: above ground part of the plant

3 Branch with alternate buds

Branch with alternate buds: small branch

Terminal bud: plant formation that develops into a leaf, and is situated at the side of the

end of the branch

Lateral bud with three sets of bud scales: plant formation that develops into a leaf and

is covered with three rows of small protective scales

Lateral bud with two sets of bud scales: plant formation that develops into a leaf and is

covered with two rows of small protective scales

Spongy pith (core): centre part of a branch

Auxiliary bud: part of a leaf that secretes a substance

Blade: main part of the leaf

Central vein: line dividing the leaf in two

Lateral vein: line dividing, but not completely, the leaf into sections

Tip: end of the leaf

4 Branch with opposite buds

Branch with opposite buds: small branch

Terminal bud: but at the end of a branch

Ventilating area (lenticel): ventilating pore

Lateral bud with three sets of bud scales: plant formation that develops into a leaf and

is covered with three rows of small protective scales

Woody pith (core): central core of the plant

Bud scale scars from the preceding year: marks left by the terminal bud from the

previous year

Petiole: part of the plant connecting the leaf to the stem

Venation: the veins of the leaf

Blade: main part of the leaf

VIII Further reading

Selective Breeding

Agronomy involves selective breeding of plants to produce the best crops under various conditions Plant breeding has increased crop yields and has improved the nutritional value of several crops, including corn and wheat It also has led to the development of new types of plants For example, a hybrid grain called triticale was produced by crossbreeding rye and wheat Triticale contains more usable protein than does either rye

or wheat

Agronomy and Soil

Agronomists study ways to make soils more productive They classify soils and test them

to determine whether they contain substances vital to plant growth Such nutritional substances include compounds of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium If certain soil is deficient in these substances, fertilizers may provide them Agronomists investigate the movement of nutrients through the soil, and the amount of nutrients absorbed by a plant's roots Agronomists also examine the development of the roots and their relation to the soil

Soil Preservation

In addition, agronomists develop methods to preserve the soil and to decrease the effects

of erosion by wind and water For example, a technique called contour plowing may be used to prevent soil erosion and conserve rainfall Researchers in agronomy also seek ways to use the soil more effectively in solving other problems Such problems include the disposal of human and animal wastes; water pollution; and the build-up in the soil of chemicals called pesticides, which are used to kill insects and other pests

Employment of Agronomists

Most agronomists are consultants, researchers, or teachers Many work for agricultural experiment stations, federal or state government agencies, industrial firms, or universities Agronomists also serve in such international organizations as the Agency for International Development and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Features

The four different stages of a plant's life cycle start with germination, either from seeds or

bulbs Seeds are fertilized, ripened ovules or eggs of a plant Each contains a rudimentary plant that is protected by a coat and is supplied with stored-up food sufficient to start its life A bulb is an encased bud surrounded by layers fastened to a base from which roots are produced

Germination

Germination is the resumption of activity by the dormant young plant Four factors are essential to germination: viable seeds or bulbs, moisture, air and favorable temperature The embryo absorbs water that enables enzymes to convert stored starches into sugars This increases the size of the embryo, which bursts through the water-softened coat Planting time and depth at which to sow seeds and bulbs are influenced by the moisture

in the soil and its temperature

Growth Period

The second stage in the life cycle is the growth period This is when the plant produces leaves, so it can absorb sunlight to make sugars during photosynthesis The plant also produces roots, which absorb water and minerals How well a plant grows is influenced

by its environment It needs the right quantity, quality and duration of light; the right temperature; and enough water and nutrients to grow effectively Each plant can have different needs in these areas

Reproduction

The third stage in the plant life cycle is reproduction In sexual reproduction, the mature male part of a flower makes pollen and the female makes ovules When pollen reaches the ovules, either by wind or insects, the plant can produce seeds to allow new plants to grow These new seeds have to be carried away to a new location to grow new plants This is accomplished by animals, wind, water or explosion (when the plant expels the seeds)

Death

The final stage in the cycle is the death of the plant Plants are classified by the number of growing seasons they require to complete their life cycle Annuals pass from seed to death in one growing season Biennials produce vegetative structures the first season In the second season, flowers, fruit and seed develop and the plant dies Perennial plants live for many years, usually producing flowers and seeds each year

Read more: The Primary Life Cycle of a Plant | eHow.com

http://www.ehow.com/about_6728414_primary-life-cycle-plant.html#ixzz0xixSeYHK

IV Glossary

55 Reproduction is the biological process by which new "offspring" individual

organisms are produced from their "parents" Reproduction is a fundamental feature of all known life; each individual organism exists as the result of

reproduction The known methods of reproduction are broadly grouped into two main types: sexual and asexual

56 In asexual reproduction, an individual can reproduce without involvement with

another individual of that species The division of a bacterial cell into two

daughter cells is an example of asexual reproduction Asexual reproduction is not, however, limited to single-celled organisms Most plants have the ability to

reproduce asexually

57 Sexual reproduction typically requires the involvement of two individuals or

gametes, one each from opposite type of sex

58 A bulb is a short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases[1] The leaves often

function as foodstorage organs during dormancy A bulb's leaf bases generally

adverse conditions The leaf bases may resemble scales, or they may overlap and surround the center of the bulb as with the onion A modified stem forms the base

of the bulb, and plant growth occurs from this basal plate Roots emerge from the underside of the base, and new stems and leaves from the upper side Other types

of storage organs (such as corms, rhizomes, and tubers) are sometimes

erroneously referred to as bulbs The correct term for plants that form

underground storage organs, including bulbs as well as tubers and corms, is

geophyte Some epiphytic orchids (family Orchidaceae) form above-ground storage organs called pseudobulbs, that superficially resemble bulbs

59 All plants that form true bulbs are monocotyledons, and include:

Onion, garlic, and other alliums, family Alliaceae

Lily, tulip, and many other members of the lily family Liliaceae

An embryo (irregularly from Greek: ἔμβρυον, plural ἔμβρυα, lit "that which

grows," from en- "in" + bryein "to swell, be full"; the proper Latinate form would

be embryum) is a multicellulardiploid eukaryote in its earliest stage of

development, from the time of first cell division until birth, hatching, or

germination In humans, it is called an embryo until about eight weeks after

fertilization (i.e ten weeks LMP), and from then it is instead called a fetus

The development of the embryo is called embryogenesis In organisms that

reproduce sexually, once a sperm fertilizes an egg cell, the result is a cell called the zygote that has half of the DNA of each of two parents In plants, animals, and some protists, the zygote will begin to divide by mitosis to produce a multicellular organism The result of this process is an embryo

60 Starch or amylum is a carbohydrate consisting of a large number of glucose units joined together by glycosidic bonds This polysaccharide is produced by all green

plants as an energy store It is the most important carbohydrate in the human diet and is contained in such staple foods as potatoes, wheat, maize (corn), rice, and

cassava

Pure starch is a white, tasteless and odorless powder that is insoluble in cold water

or alcohol It consists of two types of molecules: the linear and helicalamylose

and the branched amylopectin Depending on the plant, starch generally contains

20 to 25% amylose and 75 to 80% amylopectin.[1]Glycogen, the glucose store of animals, is a more branched version of amylopectin

61 An annual plant is a plant that usually germinates, flowers, and dies in a year or

season True annuals will only live longer than a year if they are prevented from setting seed Some seedless plants can also be considered annuals even though

they do not grow a flower In gardening, annual often refers to a plant grown outdoors in the spring and summer and surviving just for one growing season Many food plants are, or are grown as, annuals, including virtually all

domesticated grains Some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as

annuals for convenience, particularly if they are not considered cold hardy for the local climate Carrot, celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown

as annual crops for their edible roots, petioles and leaves, respectively Tomato,

sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals

62 A perennial plant or simply perennial (Latin per, "through", annus, "year") is a

plant that lives for more than two years.[1] The term is often used to differentiate a plant from shorter lived annuals and biennials When used by gardeners or

horticulturalists, perennial applies specifically to winter hardy herbaceous plants Scientifically, woody plants like shrubs and trees are also perennial in their habit

63 A biennial plant is a flowering plant that takes two years to complete its

biological lifecycle In the first year the plant grows leaves, stems, and roots

(vegetative structures), then it enters a period of dormancy over the colder

months Usually the stem remains very short and the leaves are low to the ground, forming a rosette Many biennials require a cold treatment, or vernalization,

before they will flower During the next spring or summer, the stem of the

biennial plant elongates greatly, or "bolts." The plant then flowers, producing fruits and seeds before it finally dies There are far fewer biennials than either

perennial plants or annual plants

V Comprehension Précis and Composition

Answer these questions in not more than 150 words

1 What is the life cycle of a plant?

2 What is germination? Germination is the first stage of a plant cycle, isn’t it?

3 What is the second stage of the life cycle of a plant?

4 What is the reproduction?

5 What is the final stage of the life cycle of a plant?

VI Practice

Germination is the ……… of activity by the dormant ………… Four ………… are essential to germination: viable seeds or …………, ………… , ………… and

convert stored ……… into sugars This increases the size of the embryo, which bursts through the water-softened coat Planting time and depth at which to sow seeds and bulbs are influenced by the ……… in the soil and its ………

The second stage in the life cycle is the ……… This is when the plant

produces ………, so it can absorb ……… to make sugars during

photosynthesis The plant also produces …………, which absorb ………… and

………… How well a plant grows is influenced by its ……… It needs the right

……… , ……… and duration of …………; the right temperature; and enough water and ………… to grow effectively Each plant can have different needs in these areas

VII Grammar review

Simple

Present Perfect

action taking place before a certain

moment in time; emphasizes the

result

He had won five matches until that day

He has won five matches so far

He will have won five matches by then

Seeing some education films

Past perfect tense, present perfect tense and future perfect

VIII Home work:

Working Group

Each group chooses one of topics as following, and presentation at next time:

(1) The life cycle of rice plant, (2) the life cycle of tomato, (3) The life cycle

of maize, (4) the life cycle of cassava, (5) the life cycle of soybean, (6) The life cycle of peanut, (7) the life cycle of chilly, and (8) the life cycle

of sweet potato

Further reading

Life cycle of plants and plant reproduction

The wide diversity of plants in nature is the result of changes that took place within their life cycle processes The early water-based plants were limited in their ability to diversify and adapt because of limitations in their physical structures As changes developed within plant life cycles, new methods for reproduction emerged and enabled land-adapted plants

to appear

Plant Types

According to Ohio State University, plant varieties can be broken down into different subgroups based on physical structure and method of reproduction Nonvascular and vascular plants differ in their structural makeup, with nonvascular types believed to be predecessors to vascular plants The term "vascular" refers to a specialized plant tissue that conducts water throughout the plant body Nonvascular plants lack this material, which is why they're primarily found in water-based environments With the development

of vascular tissue, plants were able to stand upright and take root in soil environments This change enabled alternate reproductive methods to develop

Alternation of Generations

The alternation of generations represents the life cycle processes all plants go through,

according to Estrella Mountain Community College It consists of a set of stages in

which various plant forms are produced In effect, the differences apparent throughout the plant species result from how individual plant types move in and out of each stage within the alternation of generations Life cycles within this process alternate between a sporophyte stage and a gametophyte stage Sporophyte stages produce spores, whereas gametophyte stages produce male and female sex cells The more evolved plant types spend more time within the sporophyte stage, while earlier or less evolved plants spend more time within the gametophyte stage.

Generational Effects

According to Estrella Mountain Community College, the sporophyte phase comes before the gametophyte stage within the alternation of generations Spore production occurs through meiosis, a process where plant cell divisions produce male and female sporestructures During the gametophyte stage, gamete cells appear as male sperm materials,

or pollen and female egg materials, or ovules Nonvascular plants spend most of their life cycles within the gametophyte stage as spore structures that produce adult plants Mossesand liverworts are examples of nonvascular types Vascular plants, which range from seed-bearing and non-seed-bearing plants to trees and some fern varieties, spend most of their life cycles within the sporophyte stage

Asexual Reproduction

Asexual reproduction in plants involves a cell division process that results in a new version of the original plant, according to Math/Science Nucleus, a science reference site This form of cell division is known as mitosis The process starts out with a single cell that splits in half to create two daughter cells Both daughter cells contain the same genetic material as the original plant, which enables them to grow into individual plant forms Asexual reproduction can take place in both vascular and nonvascular plant types Algae are a type of nonvascular plant that uses this method Vascular types include vegetable plants and some fern varieties

Sexual Reproduction

Sexual reproduction in plants occurs mostly in vascular plant varieties and uses specialized plant structures, according to Math/Science Nucleus In seed-bearing plants, both male and female structures can exist on the same plant Fertilization takes place when pollen particles make contact with the ovule or ovary sac of another plant, or on the same plant This process is known as pollination and may be helped along by wind currents, insects or animal movements Once an ovule is fertilized, it produces the seed that will grow into another plant With non-seed-bearing plants, male and female conestructures reside on leaf surfaces and rely on wind currents to assist in the fertilization process

Unit 3

Lesson 1 Drainage and irrigation

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from an area Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies

Coastal plains and river deltas may have seasonally or permanently high water tables and must have drainage improvements if they are to be used for agriculture An example is the flatwoods citrus-growing region of Florida After periods of high rainfall, drainage pumps are employed to prevent damage to the citrus groves from overly wet soils

In moist climates, soils may be adequate for cropping with the exception that they

become waterlogged for brief periods each year, from snow melt or from heavy rains Soils that are predominantly clay will pass water very slowly downward, meanwhile plant roots suffocate because the excessive water around the roots eliminates air

movement through the soil

Other soils may have an impervious layer of mineralized soil, called a hardpan or

relatively impervious rock layers may underlie shallow soils Drainage is especially important in tree fruit production Soils that are otherwise excellent may be waterlogged for a week of the year, which is sufficient to kill fruit trees and cost the productivity of the land until replacements can be established In each of these cases appropriate drainage carries off temporary flushes of water to prevent damage to annual or perennial crops Drier areas are often farmed by irrigation, and one would not consider drainage

necessary However, irrigation water always contains minerals and salts, which can be concentrated to toxic levels by evapotranspiration Irrigated land may need periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to control soil salinity

An agricultural drainage system is a system by which the water level on or in the soil is controlled to enhance agricultural crop production

The function of the field drainage system is to control the water table,

whereas the function of the main drainage system is to collect, transport, and dispose of the water through an outfall or outlet In some instances one

makes an additional distinction between collector and main drainage

II Glossary

64 Surface water is water collecting on the ground or in a stream, river, lake,

wetland, or ocean; it is related to water collecting as groundwater or atmospheric water.Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to evaporation and sub-surface seepage into the groundwater Although there are other sources of groundwater, such as connate water and

magmatic water, precipitation is the major one and groundwater originated in this way is called meteoric water

65 Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil and rocks It is also water that is flowing within aquifers below the water table Sometimes it is useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water")

66 The water table is the level at which the groundwater pressure is equal to

atmospheric pressure It may be conveniently visualized as the 'surface' of the

groundwater in a given vicinity It usually coincides approximately with the

'phreatic surface', but can be many feet above it As water infiltrates through pore spaces in the soil, it first passes through the zone of aeration, where the soil is unsaturated At increasing depths water fills in more spaces, until the zone of saturation is reached The relatively horizontal plane atop this zone constitutes the water table A sustainable amount of water within a unit of sediment or rock, below the water table, in the phreatic zone is called an aquifer The ability of the

aquifer to store groundwater is dependent on the primary and secondary porosity

and permeability of the rock or soil

Waterlogging or water logging may refer to:

67 Waterlogging (agriculture), saturation of the soil by groundwater

sufficient to prevent or hinder agriculture

68 Clays are distinguished from other fine-grained soils by differences in size and mineralogy Silts, which are fine-grained soils that do not include clay minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays, but there is some overlap in both particle size and other physical

properties, and there are many naturally occurring deposits which include both silts and clays The distinction between silt and clay

varies by discipline Geologists and soil scientists usually consider the separation to occur at a particle size of 2 µm (clays being finer than silts), sedimentologists often use 4-5 μm, and colloidchemists use 1

μm.[1]Geotechnical engineers distinguish between silts and clays based

on the plasticity properties of the soil, as measured by the soils'

Atterberg Limits ISO 14688 grades clay particles as being smaller than 2 μm and silts larger

69 Suffocation is the process of being asphyxiated

70 Asphyxia (from Greeka-, "without" and σφύξις sphyxis, "heartbeat") is

a condition of severely deficient supply of oxygen to the body that

arises from being unable to breathe normally An example of asphyxia

is choking Asphyxia causes generalized hypoxia, which primarily

affects the tissues and organs

71 Permeability in fluid mechanics and the earth sciences (commonly symbolized as κ, or k) is a measure of the ability of a porous material

(often, a rock or unconsolidated material) to transmit fluids

72 In soil science, agriculture and gardening, hardpan or ouklip is a

general term for a dense layer of soil, usually found below the

uppermost topsoil layer.[1] There are different types of hardpan, all sharing the general characteristic of being a distinct soil layer that is largely impervious to water Some hardpans are formed by deposits in the soil that fuse and bind the soil particles These deposits can range from dissolved silica to matrices formed from iron oxides and calcium carbonate Others are man-made, such as hardpan formed by

compaction from repeated plowing, particularly with moldboard plows

and /or heavy traffic and pollution from man-made sources

73 Evapotranspiration (ET) is a term used to describe the sum of

evaporation and planttranspiration from the Earth's land surface to

atmosphere Evaporation accounts for the movement of water to the air from sources such as the soil, canopy interception, and waterbodies Transpiration accounts for the movement of water within a plant and the subsequent loss of water as vapor through stomata in its leaves Evapotranspiration is an important part of the water cycle An element (such as a tree) that contributes to evapotranspiration can be called an evapotranspirator.[1]

74 Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil

III Comprehension Précis and Composition

Answer these questions in not more than 55 words

Fill each of the following gaps with suitable word/words

Drainage is the natural or artificial removal of ……… and ………

…from an area Many agricultural soils need drainage to improve production or to manage water supplies

Drier areas are often farmed by ………, and one would not consider drainage necessary However, irrigation water always contains minerals and …………, which can

be concentrated to toxic levels by ……… Irrigated land may need

periodic flushes with excessive irrigation water and drainage to

control ………

An agricultural drainage system is a ……… by which the water level

on or in the soil is ……… to ……… agricultural crop production

The function of the field drainage system is to control the water ………., whereas the function of the main drainage system is to collect, transport, and dispose of the

……… through an outfall or outlet In some instances one makes an additional distinction between collector and main drainage systems

V.Grammar review

Past perfect progressive

Present perfect progressive

Future perfect progressive

Progressive

Present Perfect Progressive

Future II Progressive

action taking place before a

certain moment in time (and

beyond), emphasizes the

duration

He had been playing football for ten years

He has been playing football for ten years

He will have been playing football for ten years

Seeing some education films

Past perfect progressive, present perfect progressive, and future perfect progressive

IX Home work:

Working Group: each group chooses one of topics as following, and presentation at next time: (1) water tables, (2) surface water, (3) subsurface water (4) waterlogged, (5)

evapotranspiration, (6) soil salinity,

Lesson 2 Drainage and irrigation (continue)

I Reading

Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil It is used to assist in the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate rainfall Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production, which include protecting plants against frost,[1] suppressing weed growing in grain fields and helping in preventing soil consolidation.[3] In contrast, agriculture that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dryland farming Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and in mining Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given area

Various types of irrigation techniques differ in how the water obtained from the source is distributed within the field In general, the goal is to supply the entire field uniformly with water, so that each plant has the amount of water it needs, neither too much nor too little The modern methods are efficient enough to achieve this goal which including surface irrigation, Localized irrigation, Drip Irrigation, sprinkler irrigation, center pivot irrigation, Lateral move (side roll, wheel line) irrigation, sub-irrigation (seepage

irrigation), manual irrigation using buckets or watering cans, automatic, non-electric irrigation using buckets and ropes, and irrigation using water condensed from humid air

V Glossary

75 Dryland farming is an agricultural technique for non-irrigated cultivation of land which receives little natural rainfall

76 Surface irrigation: In surface irrigation systems, water moves over and

across the land by simple gravity flow in order to wet it and to infiltrate into the soil Surface irrigation can be subdivided into furrow, borderstrip or basin irrigation It is often called flood irrigation when the irrigation results in flooding or near flooding of the cultivated land Historically, this has been the most common method of irrigating agricultural land

77 Localized irrigation

Localized irrigation is a system where water is

distributed under low pressure through a piped

network, in a pre-determined pattern, and applied as

a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it Drip

irrigation, spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation and

bubbler irrigation belong to this category of

irrigation methods

78 Drip Irrigation

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation, functions as its name suggests Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop This method can be the most water-efficient method of irrigation, if managed properly, since evaporation and runoff are minimized In modern agriculture, drip irrigation is often combined with plastic mulch, further reducing evaporation, and is also the means of delivery of fertilizer The process is known as fertigation

79 Sprinkler irrigation

In sprinkler or overhead irrigation, water is piped to

one or more central locations within the field and

distributed by overhead high-pressure sprinklers or

guns A system utilizing sprinklers, sprays, or guns

mounted overhead on permanently installed risers is

often referred to as a solid-set irrigation system

Higher pressure sprinklers that rotate are

called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear

drive, or impact mechanism

80 Center pivot irrigation

Center pivot irrigation is a form of sprinkler irrigation

consisting of several segments of pipe (usually

galvanized steel or aluminum) joined together and

supported by trusses, mounted on wheeled towers with

sprinklers positioned along its length The system moves

in a circular pattern and is fed with water from the pivot

point at the center of the arc These systems are found

and used in all parts of the nation and allow irrigation of

all types of terrain Newer irrigations have drops as

shown in the image that follows

81 Lateral move (side roll, wheel line) irrigation

A series of pipes, each with a wheel of about 1.5 m diameter permanently affixed to its midpoint and sprinklers along its length, are coupled together at one edge of a field

Water is supplied at one end using a large hose

After sufficient water has been applied, the hose

is removed and the remaining assembly rotated

either by hand or with a purpose-built

mechanism, so that the sprinklers move 10 m

across the field The hose is reconnected The

process is repeated until the opposite edge of the

field is reached This system is less expensive to

install than a center pivot, but much more labor

intensive to operate, and it is limited in the

amount of water it can carry Most systems utilize 4 or 5-inch (130 mm) diameter

aluminum pipe One feature of a lateral move system is that it consists of sections that can be easily disconnected They are most often used for small or oddly shaped fields, such as those found in hilly or mountainous regions, or in regions where labor is

inexpensive

82 Sub-irrigation

Subirrigation also sometimes called seepage irrigation has been used for many years in

field crops in areas with high water tables It is a method of artificially raising the water table to allow the soil to be moistened from below the plants' root zone Often those