Luận văn tốt nghiệp NGHIÊN cứu đặc TÍNH PHI văn HÓA

Globalization is taking place in which more people than ever are learning English. This is because it has become the planet’s language for commerce, technology and also empowerment. According to a recent report from the British Council, two billion people will be studying English and three billion people will speak it in ten years. Linguistically speaking, it is a totally new world. At the moment, there are more nonnative speakers of English than there are native speakers; the ratio is 3:1. By the most common estimates, 400 million people speak English as a first language, another 300 million to 500 million as a fluent second language, and perhaps 750 million as a foreign language. For the first time, there is a language that is being spoken by more people as a second language than as a first. The largest Englishspeaking nation in the world, the United States, has only about 20 percent of the worlds English speakers. In Asia alone, an estimated 350 million people speak English, about the same as the combined Englishspeaking populations of Britain, the United States and Canada (Crystal, 1997). All these new Englishspeakers are not only using the language, they are also shaping it. The terms Japlish (mixture of Japanese and English) and Hinglish (mixture of Hindi and English) refer to new varieties of English that came into being all over the world. In SouthAfrica, many blacks have adopted their own version of English including many indigenous words. Naturally, all languages are work in progress but the globalization of English is a process the world has never seen before, a change whose effects we can only imagine. Experts talk about a future triEnglish world in which speakers of English will speak a local dialect at home, a national variety at work, school or university and some kind of international Standard English to talk to foreigners.

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION1.1 Rationale for the study

Globalization is taking place in which more people than ever are learningEnglish This is because it has become the planet’s language for commerce,technology and also empowerment According to a recent report from the BritishCouncil, two billion people will be studying English and three billion people willspeak it in ten years Linguistically speaking, it is a totally new world At the moment,there are more non-native speakers of English than there are native speakers; the ratio

is 3:1 By the most common estimates, 400 million people speak English as a firstlanguage, another 300 million to 500 million as a fluent second language, and perhaps

750 million as a foreign language For the first time, there is a language that is beingspoken by more people as a second language than as a first The largest English-speaking nation in the world, the United States, has only about 20 percent of theworld's English speakers In Asia alone, an estimated 350 million people speakEnglish, about the same as the combined English-speaking populations of Britain, theUnited States and Canada (Crystal, 1997) All these new English-speakers are not onlyusing the language, they are also shaping it The terms Japlish (mixture of Japaneseand English) and Hinglish (mixture of Hindi and English) refer to new varieties ofEnglish that came into being all over the world In South-Africa, many blacks haveadopted their own version of English including many indigenous words Naturally, alllanguages are work in progress but the globalization of English is a process the worldhas never seen before, a change whose effects we can only imagine Experts talk about

a future tri-English world in which speakers of English will speak a local dialect athome, a national variety at work, school or university and some kind of internationalStandard English to talk to foreigners

Several decades ago, English was considered a foreign language like anyothers, which meant that learning English was to imitate their culture in using thelanguage In fact, language learners must study the culture of the same language tobehave appropriately communication with its people For example, if a Vietnamesetalks to a Japanese in Japanese, culture and rules of Japanese will be surely applied.Conversely, if they communicate in Vietnamese, the priority will be Vietnameseculture That is a feature in intercultural communication However, people now have atotally different behavior with English as a global language It is a shortcoming ifsomeone thinks learning English in the context of globalization is just to communicatewith the British or the American Having been used by too many people from differentcultures, English becomes an important tool of communication instead of the language

of Anglo-Saxon identity Indeed, there is no reason for a Vietnamese communicating

to a Spanish in English uses British culture, or two Asians talking to each other inEnglish use American culture Therefore, Larry Smith makes several importantassertions regarding the relationship of English as an international language andculture:

(a) Its learners do not need to internationalize the cultural norms of native speakers

of that language, i.e for greeting, Anglo-Saxon people say “How are you?”, but theVietnamese can say “What are you doing?” or “Where are you going?”

(b) The ownership of an international language becomes “de-nationalized”

(c) The educational goal of learning it is to enable learners to communicate theirideas and cultures to others

Since among the millions of English-speakers around the world, there arerelatively few native speakers, it is likely that students will not learn Standard Englishbut will be encouraged to embrace their own local versions Thus the English language

say, is an international sport that is no longer associated with its origins in Britain.

“The people who were once colonized by the language are now rapidly remaking it,domesticating it, becoming more and more relaxed about the way they use it,”(Kramsch, 1998) In other words, a great number of cultures using English transformEnglish into a language of saturation, which differs from any specific cultures

As an English learner at University of Languages and International Studies(ULIS), I realize that the more English is used globally, the less its own culturalcharacteristics are preserved Sadly, ULIS’s students have not conducted any studiesabout this issue, which could be considered as the major motivation to this study.Besides, my awareness of the significance in teaching and learning English as a globallanguage could also be partially regarded as inspiration of this thesis Therefore, Ichoose this topic, and my hypothesis is that English becomes increasingly culture-free

in the global context to satisfy all English users

1.2 Aims of the study

First, the paper aims at determining whether English has the culture-freecharacteristics when it is used by too many cultures in the light of theories ofintercultural communication Next a closer look would be taken at the approaches ofteaching and learning English as a global language in the future

More specifically, the study is intended to address the following questions:

• What does the “culture-free characteristic of English” mean?

• What are the implications for teaching and learning English as a global

language?

1.3 Scope of the study

As referred in the title, the study emphasizes the culture-free characteristics ofEnglish, allowing people to use English with their own ways regardless to the Anglo-Saxon culture where English is a native language Therefore, the research attention ispaid to neither Anglo-Saxon culture nor a specific culture, but to the cross-culturalcommunication Besides, due to the limitation of time and capability, makingassessment of all varieties of English as a global language would be difficult Thus, thescope is applied to the most outstanding theories.

Not to be generalized for a walk of life, the researcher hopes that its results canhelp provide certain implications for the English users in teaching, learning English aswell as in cultural competence

1.4 Significance of the study

The study has great significance in both the theory and the practice

In terms of theory, the paper helps the researcher equip with some issues related

to linguistics and culture It gives the researcher a chance to realize the very basis butnecessary characteristics of English as a global language such as culture-free,neutrality and internationality Thus, the researcher can learn, use and teach Englishappropriately regardless to the extremism of native English For example, imitating thenative accents in accordance with British or American culture is unnecessary as long

as people can make themselves understood Additionally, the study is expected tomotivate other students to work on the topic so that they can explore more about thecharacteristics adopted by English users

In term of practice, the study poses a question about the methods to the teachingand learning of English as a global language It is necessary to reconsider the currentmethods prioritizing English native accents and culture-specific characteristic.Moreover, the investigated topic gives the researchers a chance to discover the

influence of the culture-free characteristic toward the society and foreign languageeducation policy This will contribute to other researches in the near future.

1.5 Methodology

In order to lay a practical background for the paper, this part is going to presentthe methodology based on the secondary research with published texts Specifically,the session will serve as a report on research methods, data collection instruments andprocedures of data analysis

1.5.1 Research methods

The research method adopted was predominantly qualitative, focusing ondocumentary analysis This method was used for analyzing and comparingsystematically the features and differences in using English of different theories indifferent countries

1.5.2 Data collection instruments

This study used documents as the data collection instrument Namely, theauthentic books and studies written by famous scholars such as David Crystal, BrajKachru… etc would be discussed Based on those existing theories, the studyproposed a new perspective of English as a global language which was the culture-freecharacteristic

1.5.3 Procedures of data analysis

The data analysis process was divided into three main steps:

• The first step, the researcher chose the most outstanding theories from reliable

sources to collect data for the study

• The second step, the chosen documents are read carefully to find out key points.

• The third step, the researcher analyzed and summarized the data to make a

conclusion

1.6 Design of the study

This thesis is organized in five main parts as follow:

Chapter one (Introduction) includes rationale, aim, scope, significance, methodology

and design of the study

Chapter two (Literature review and theoretical preliminaries) – overview of culture

and culture-free characteristic- provides key theoretical concepts that the study isbased on and the current discussions related to the study

Chapter three, also the main part of the study, (Analysis from models of EGL and discussions) gives a thorough answer to the aforementioned questions Besides, the

chapter offers an in-depth discussion of the results of the research The discussion will

be based on qualitative analysis of the data

Chapter four (Implications) describes implications of the study on cultural competence

as well as teaching and learning EGL

Chapter five (Conclusion) includes the overall comments and summary of the most

important findings Moreover, this chapter presents some limitations of the study aswell as the recommendations for the future research

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW AND

THEORETICAL PRELIMINARIES

Overview of English as a global language and its culture-free characteristic

This chapter will provide a brief overview of the literature on the research topic,thus lay the theoretical basis for the whole study Firstly, a critical explanation of keyconcepts like international language, global language and culture-free characteristicwill be given Secondly, related documents concerning the spread of English will berevised Besides, the research gaps will be explored and hence, justifying theimplementation of the study

2.1 Previous studies

As a global language, English catches a lot of attention from scholars all overthe world However, regardless of the huge number of researches on features ofEnglish as an international language, the culture-free characteristic has still been a

“mystery” for those who are interested in According to the chronological order, somefamous researchers need to be mentioned with their remarkable work In 1976, LarrySmith wrote a book titled “English as an international auxiliary language” Then, in

1982, the study “English as a World Language” was conducted by Bailey, R.W & M.Görlach Three years later, Kachru, B proposed three concentric circles of Englishusers in his book “Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism: the Englishlanguage in the outer circle” In 1989, Kachru continued to study “Teaching worldEnglishes” In 1997, David Crystal, a well-known author, took a closer look at

“English as a global language” In the same year, we have “The future of English” byGraddol, D Next, in 2002, a number of works “Teaching English as an InternationalLanguage: Rethinking Goals and Approaches” by McKay, S L., “World English: Astudy of its development” by Brutt-Griffler, J and so on were conducted Recently, a

lot of attention is paid to the study “English as a lingua franca –a native- culture-freecode” by Fiedler, S (2011) In Vietnam, Hoang Van Van (2001) is the scholar whowrites the article “Vị thế của tiếng anh trên toàn thế giới và ở Việt Nam” showing hisdeep concern about this topic.

2.2 Key terms and issues related to English as a global language

2.2.1. What is English as a global language (EGL) or an international language

(EIL)?

2.2.1.1 Definition of a global language

Crystal (1997) maintains that “a language achieves a genuinely global statuswhen it develops a special role that is recognized in every country” (p.2) Such statuscan be achieved either by making it an official language of the country or by a countrygiving special priority to it as a foreign language

Smith (1976) was one of the first to define the term “international language”,noting that an “international language is one which is used by people of differentnations to communicate with one another” (p.38)

Kachru (1986, 1996) captured English users in a useful diagram he refers to asthe Three Concentric Circles of English (see Figure1) The three circles, including theInner Circle, the Outer Circle, and the Expanding Circle, “represent three distinct types

of speech fellowship of English, phases of the spread of the language, and particularcharacteristics of the uses of the language and of its acquisition and linguisticinnovations” (Kachru, 1986, p 122)

According to Bhatt (2001), in terms of language acquisition and use, the circlescomprise the following: (a) the Inner Circle, represents those countries where English

is spoken as a first or native language (L1) in countries including English-speaking

Canada, USA, UK, Australia, and New Zealand; (b) the Outer Circle, representscountries wherein English is institutionalized as an additional language and learned as

a second language (L2), such as Malaysia, Singapore, the Philippines, India, andKenya; and (c) the Expanding Circle, represents countries such as Norway, Brazil,China, Korea, and Japan, where English is a foreign language (EFL)

Figure 2.2.1.1: Kachru’s categorization of English users

By this way, English is the international language par excellence

320-380 million

2.2.1.2 Why so many names for English as a global language?

English in its role as a means of international communication has recently beengiven a variety of names (Erling 2005; McArthur 2004) Labels include English as anInternational Language (EIL), World English, English as a global language, WorldStandard (Spoken) English, Euro -English, Globish, Lingua Franca English andEnglish as a Lingua Franca (ELF)

The reasons behind so many proposals for a new name for the English language

in recent years include:

• The increase in the use of English globally

• The emergence of scholarship that critically assesses the spread of English

• The attempts of ELT professionals them-selves to counter the perceived

dominance of English

A main reason for the shift in discourse about English is demographics AsGraddol (1997) has shown, L2 speakers of English outnumber L1 speakers three toone English is increasingly used to communicate across international boundaries, and

is not therefore tied to one place, culture or people

2.2.1.3 Characteristics of EGL

Elaborating on the definition, Smith’s notion (1976) concerning the relationshipbetween a global language and culture warrant the following revisions (McKay, 2002):

(1) As an international language, English is used both in a global sense forinternational communication between countries and in a local sense as a language ofwider communication within multilingual societies.

(2) As it is an international, the use of English is no longer connected to the culture

of Inner Circle countries (Kachru, 1989)

(3) As an international language in a local sense, English becomes embedded in theculture of the country in which it is used

(4) In a global sense, one of its primary functions is enable speakers to share withothers their ideas and culture

In other words, English becomes increasingly culture-free in the global context

to satisfy all English users

2.2.2 Reasons for the spread of English

In 1914, Follick envisioned the global spread of a simplified form of English.Today, his vision has been enormously surpassed: English (with all its idiosyncrasies)

is used as the global language - spoken in all fields which require international contactand co-operation (Crystal, 1997, p 8) It therefore makes sense to give a shorthistorical sketch of how this "spreading" of the language happened The foundationsfor the expansion of English were laid as the British Empire itself expanded (roughlybetween 1600 and 1900) English and English Language Teaching (ELT) served as atool to strengthen British rule The result of colonial education policies was thecreation of an English speaking native elite on the one side and a vernacular speakingmajority on the other

In the 20th century the spread of English has continued because of the risinginfluence of the United States, which became the leading capitalist power Today,

English Language Teaching certainly is, as Pennycook puts it (1994, p 154), not onlygood for business but also good business itself: 600.000 people come to Great Britaineach year to learn English and in the course of doing so spend around 700 millionpounds British English language products alone are worth over 500 million pounds ayear (British Council) It has been estimated that the world-wide EFL market is evenworth 6.25 billion pounds (Pennycook 1994) In countries which have recently opened

up to the capitalist system, most importantly the nations of Eastern Europe and Asiancountries like China and Vietnam, the demand for ELT has exploded In thesecountries English is often learnt because it is the international language of money

Stating the obvious by his own admission, Widdowson (1997) declared thefollowing: “English has spread to become an international language” (p.135) In thesame year, Graddol (1997) proclaimed English the sole global lingua franca for at leastthe next fifty years In fact, he maintained “that no single language will occupy themonopolistic position in the 21st century which English has - almost -achieved by theend of the 20th century” (Graddol, 1997)

In discussing the spread of English, scholars invariably refer to Braj B.Kachru’s Three Concentric Circles of English (Bhatt, 2001; Davies, 1999; Graddol,1997; Jenkins, 2006; Kachru, 1986, 1996) Bhatt (2001) proclaimed Kachru’s model

as encapsulating the many factors informing the spread of English, includinghistorical, sociolinguistic, acquisitional, and literary elements In light of the wideacceptance of this model, Kachru’s discussion of the diaspora of the English languagefeatures as the main informant to the treatment of this topic

Kachru (1996) parceled the spread of English into several phases The firstphase saw English spread throughout the British Isles, including Wales, Scotland, andIreland, during the 16th and 17th centuries This was quickly followed by the secondphase wherein English further expanded its realm to North America, Australia, and

New Zealand by means of the migrations of English-speaking populations Kachrucited the third phase, the Raj phase, as having the greatest effect on the sociolinguisticprofile of English It was during this phase that English spread to areas where noEnglish-speaking communities had previously existed, including South Asia,Southeast Asia, South, West, and East Africa According to Kachru, this contributed tothe rise of major cross-linguistic and cross-cultural attributes, which together resulted

in the changed profile of English as a pluricentric language This pluricentricity, heasserted, “is not merely demographic, it entails cultural, linguistic, and literaryreincarnations of the English language” (Kachru, 1996, p 136-137) Bhatt (2001)echoed this notion, citing the development of “regional-contact varieties of English”(p 529) stemming from its contact with diverse languages in these disparatesociocultural contexts He went further, describing this phase of diaspora as creating “anew ecology for the teaching of English…in terms of linguistic input, methodology,norms, and identity” (Bhatt, 2001, p 529) These elements have had considerableinfluence on the paradigm shift within ELT resultant from the spread of English

2.2.3. Impacts of EGL 1

2.2.3.1 Impact on the society

According to Ngo Huu Hoang (2013), in the current situation, the role andimpacts of English is so important that it is considered as a key to success Pennycookclaims that English has now tied to many parts of the global system, therefore; its roleappears in all aspects affecting people’s life in the modern world with not only thepositive effects, but also negative ones Indeed, English is the language of bothobstacles and opportunities Tollefson is the scholar that shares the same points withPennycook He maintains that English as a key to both national and personal economicsuccess increases significantly disproportion in the society, politics and economy Thepoint can be easily understood as not everyone has “chances” and “ability” to study

1Translated by the researcher, original version in Vietnamese by Ngo Huu Hoang

English People with good English proficiency apparently have more opportunitiesthan others in the globalization Thus, what would happen for people having no chance

or no ability to study English?

2.2.3.2 Impact on the other languages

Some experts worry that English as a global language is threatening theexistence of other languages as it spreads all over the world, from urban regions toremote areas where the local languages are badly affected by foreign cultures andlanguages Ngo Huu Hoang (2013, p.5) suggested that linguists, educators andpoliticians should concern about losing the pureness and original of their ownlanguages when English enters their countries along with globalization Namely, inVietnam, people now abuse using English by code-switching and code-mixing Forexample, people say “ màu này năm nay hot lắm!” instead of “màu này năm nay thịnhhành lắm!” or “copy cho tớ cái file này nhé!” This trend of diffusion is seriouslycriticized because it ruins the traditional culture and language of each country Itshould be recommended that the governments highly appreciate “integration withoutassimilation” for the sake of their own languages

2.2.3.3. Impact on foreign language education policy

Affected by the hot trend of studying English, educators clearly give English apriority over other languages The position of Russian, French or German is inferiorthough all these languages are taught at school as elective subjects In other words, thesociety is English language maniac, leading to mistaking and overestimating the role

of English in education and training As a result, educators easily pass the unfair,unsuitable and unscientific policies for language teaching in general and for foreignlanguage teaching in particular

CHAPTER III: ANALYSIS FROM EGL MODELS AND DISCUSSIONS

This chapter will present two model of the IE with their drawbacks as well as thesolutions for this and characteristics of English as a global language with theresearcher’s analysis and comment

3.1 Models of EGL

3.1.1 New Englishes/ Kachru

Braj Kachru is the scholar who recognizes the multiple varieties of English and

is the main organizer of efforts to discuss the conceptualization of New Englishes andtheir implications As mentioned in the Literature Review chapter, Kachru (1992)identified three broad sociolinguistic contexts within which English is used He showsthem with three circles:

(a) The Inner Circle (L1) represents the conventional bases of English, dominated bythe mother tongue varieties of the language (Canada, USA, UK, Australia, and NewZealand)

(b) The Outer Circle (L2) represents countries where English is institutionalized as anofficial language and learned as a second language (ESL) such as Malaysia, Singapore,the Philippines, India, and Kenya

(c) The Expanding Circle (L3) includes countries such as Sweden, China, Korea, andJapan, where English is a Foreign Language (EFL)

English users and anywhere from100 million to one billion Expanding CircleEnglish users, this figure varying due to differing definitions of competent English use.Kachru’s (1992) model is one of the diffusion of English from the traditional center todiverse intra national and international varieties or Englishes with “cross-culturalfunctional range” (p 355) While Kachru criticizes the lack of recognition of the

pluralistic reality of English use and acknowledges the change and growth of English

as it spreads, Expanding Circle Englishes are nevertheless seen as far removed fromthe Inner Circle core and marginalized in this model: “The performance varieties ofEnglish have a highly restricted functional range in specific contexts; for example,those of tourism, commerce, and other international transactions” (p 55) Kachru’sconcentric circles seem to acknowledge diversity but little commonality acrossEnglishes, describing these varieties as separate and with the Inner Circle clearlyestablished at the top of the hierarchy

3.1.2 Nuclear English/ Quirk

At around the same time, Randolph Quirk also became interested in the state ofthe English language Because of the international spread of English and thedevelopments within New Englishes, Lord Quirk became concerned with:

1 The degree of variation within English as it is used as an international language

2 The difficulties of teaching English, especially on a mass scale, to the levelrequired for international usefulness

3 The colonial spread of British or American culture with the English language(Quirk 1982, p 37)

Quirk’s worries about the diversification of varieties of English and loss ofintercomprehensibility led him to propose a simplified variety called ‘Nuclear English’

a core form of English structure and vocabulary, similar to Ogden’s Basic English '

His pretext was that Nuclear English would also be easier to teach and easierfor students to learn as this form of English eliminated features that were considered

“dispensable” in the sense that the language has alternative means to express them

When all such options arc removed, only the obligatory minimum of the language, itscommunicative ‘nucleus’ would remain.

Nuclear English was also designed to be as “culture-free as calculus” with noliterary, aesthetic or emotional aspirations (1982, p 43) Quirk argued that it was

"more free" than British or American English of linguistic imperialism or anysuspicion that it puts some countries at an advantage over others in internationalcommunication since native speakers of English would also have to be trained to use it(1982, p 44)

Although Quirk’s ideas for Nuclear English gained some attention for a while,they were soon abandoned Most scholars felt that English could not be controlled andcontained in this way, and that it was not desirable to reduce internationalcommunication to a limited range of vocabulary and minimalist patterns of grammar(Smith 1976) In fact, Quirk has some new consumption in the sense of consideringEnglish as culture-free language This can be seen from a large number of internationalfields where English is unified such as medicine, science, technology, law andbusiness People from different countries have to apply the same English version forthose fields so that they can understand one another Nevertheless, in terms ofcommunication, there is no world standard for English since its dialects andpronunciation vary from different countries

3.1.3 New vs Nuclear

Even though Quirk now seems to have given up his plan for Nuclear Englishand has accepted the existence of New Englishes, he among others (e.g Honey), is stillopposed to the introduction of so-called ‘non-standard’ forms from New Englishesinto standard English and language instruction And this is precisely Kachru's goal- topromote research in New Englishes, support their literatures and encourage their use inthe teaching of English worldwide

With his support of New Englishes, Kachru promotes a diverse set of regionalvarieties through which individuality or nationality can be expressed However, theincrease in diversity of forms brings in its wake a number of anxieties and problemsfor the use of English This has resulted in Quirk's concern that English will diversifyand fragment into many mutually unintelligible local forms and therefore no longer beable to serve as an international lingua franca Therefore, in Kachru vs Quirk, we haveidentified the main problem within the Global English arena-the conflict between theacceptance of new forms of English from around the world versus the fear offragmentation of English as it spreads This conflict, as you will realize, is similar tothe traditional debate surrounding standard languages.

3.2 Discussions: New labels 2 for EGL

Although it is hard to determine what IE is and what its characteristics are,scholars around the world try to give some form of English as a global language.Several proposals for some types of IE will be shown, which try to resolve thepredicament presented in the IE language paradox

3.2.1 EIAL/Smith

Larry Smith has been involved in the teaching of English internationally sincethe 1970s In an attempt to resolve the conflicting tensions due to the global spread ofEnglish (i.e those marked by the Kachru /Quirk debate) Smith suggested a solutionwhich would simultaneously allow English to function as both the language ofinternational communication and an identity marker for other varieties of English

Smith’s first suggestion was to no longer use the label “English” as it did notaccurately reflect the state of English language usage around the globe (1976, p 2) Hetherefore suggested the implementation of the term English as an International

Auxiliary Language (EIAL) Smith claims that EIAL is different from English because

it no longer belongs to the native speaker, and it is not inextricably lied to the cultures

of ’inner circle’ countries (Smith 1976, p 2) The core argument of EIAL is that theresponsibility for effective communication is shared by both native and non-nativespeakers, and native speakers must learn how to understand non-native speakers usingEIAL

Smith’s solution was to mix features from New Englishes and standard English

to conic to a new international standard This language would function as a ’neutral’means of communication, so that any identity could be expressed Ii would not berestricted like Nuclear English, so it would allow for any type of communication, and

it would be kept in place by the mere fact that it is international and needed forcommunication

3.2.2 General English/ Ahulu

In Samuel Ahulu’s 997 article “Genenal English”, he argues in the same vein asSmith that the word ’English' is "loo restrictive a way of referring to the language"(1997, p 17) Ahulu is dissatisfied with both titles "New Englishes' and StandardEnglish.' as neither appears sensitive or precise enough to encapsulate “the educationaland social reality of English as an international language" (1997, p 18) According toAhulu, even though Kachru’s term New Englishes attempts to incorporate changeswithin the English language and accept forms that are typically associated with non-native speakers of English, it fails to express the many features that are shared by thedifferent varieties Quirk's type of standard English is no longer an acceptable termbecause it has come to be associated only with British and American standards, andthe international use of English has resulted in forms that diverge from these norms.The insistence on standard English reveals scepticism about non-native and non-

standard forms of English, and by barring them from the centre, can be seen asethnocentric or imperialistic (Ahulu 1997).

Ahulu's answer is that variations in English as it is used internationally should

be subsumed within the concept of Standard English, as we need a standard that iscommon to both groups of native and non-native speakers of English for the purposes

of international communication (1997, p 19) As a more appropriate label to representthis type of English, Ahulu suggests the employment of the term "General English”

3.2.3 WSSE & MDM/Crystal

First, Crystal (1995) claims that Kachru’s (1992) model does not fully describethe reality of international English use He suggests that the concentric model can beinterpreted as the Inner Circle being norm-producing, the Outer Circle being norm-developing and the Expanding Circle being norm-dependent, claiming, however, thatthe model is insufficient because reality is often not so clear-cut Crystal wonders ifthe Outer Circle looks to Inner Circle norms or if perhaps it creates its own norms, andasks if norms might not be developed in Expanding Circle nations as well In addition

to this, defining an L1 versus an L2 can be problematic: “there are several countrieswhere population movement, language loss, divergent language attitudes, and massiveshifts in language use have made it difficult to answer the question ‘What is your firstlanguage?’” (Crystal, 1995, p 363) There may also be cases where a child’s L1 isEnglish as a Second or Foreign Language (Crystal, 1999)

While Crystal (1997) agrees with Kachru (1992) that there is not yet a common,standard worldwide variety of English, he puts forth a more integrated view ofinternational English use where varieties are not separated into distinct circles Crystalalso uses the term Englishes, defining these new varieties of L1 English as intranational dialects on an international scale involving entire countries and regions In

this model, “international varieties express national identities and are a way ofreducing the conflict between intelligibility and identity” (p 134)

Crystal also states that we are already multi-dialectical and that some formerstandard, international spoken English is inevitable as a supplement to the dialects wemake use of now: an informal local dialect, a formal intra-national dialect and aneducated international written dialect

Predicting that speakers of new Englishes would soon be in the majority,Crystal states that these dialects will most likely have some effect on a single standard,worldwide spoken type of English, for example, changing from stress-timed tosyllable-timed rhythm, and there is no reason for them not to since non-L1 English is

to some extent independent of social control

Crystal’s (1997) multi-dialectical model may acknowledge the development ofinnovative variations of English and suggest that the boundaries of Kachru’s (1992)concentric circles not be defined in such absolute terms However, Crystal’s model isstill oriented towards the Inner Circle While legitimizing new Englishes, Crystal(1999) nevertheless refers to them in a condescending manner reminiscent of Kachru’sviews on Expanding Circle performance varieties

Second, David Crystal, in his 1997 book, English as a Global Language, alsopresents a possible solution to the international English dilemma He argues that even

as English varieties around the world increasingly diversify, a world standard will stillcontinue to function for worldwide communication A likely outcome will be thatEnglish speakers will simply extend their usage in order to meet the demands of theinternational situation:

"We may in due course; all need to be in control of two standard Englishes-theone which gives us our national or local identity, and the one which puts us in touch

with the rest of the human race In effect, we may all need to become bilingual in ourown language" (Crystal 1988, p 265).

Crystal predicts that in the future, English speakers will still have their dialectsfor use within their own country, but when they need to communicate with peoplefrom other countries they will use WSSE In other words, they will code-switch intointernational English People then will have a dialect in which they can continue toexpress their national or regional identity, and they have a dialect which can guaranteeinternational intelligibility (Crystal 1997, p 138)

3.2.4 EIL/Modiano

As his solution to the international English dilemma, Marko Modiano suggeststhat the concept of standard English should be replaced with English as anInternational Language (EIL) EIL, according to Modiano, is not based on any nativevariety of English, but on "a composite of the features of English which are easilyunderstood by a broad cross-section of native and non-native speakers" (1999a: 27).The innermost circle includes proficient speakers of EIL, a general term including allvarieties of English which function well in cross-cultural communication and whichdoes not necessarily include L1 English The emphasis is on functionality and there is

no inherent need for consistency; varieties can be mixed and elements interchanged.The next circle includes speakers with native or foreign language proficiency, that is,speakers whose variety of English is far enough removed from standard EIL to requirecode-switching when speaking internationally The third circle is comprised oflearners of English and the outermost circle includes people who do not know English

In Modiano’s (1999) model, it is not necessarily L1 English speakers who define thelanguage: “Proficient non-native speakers of EIL, rather than the native speakers whoare not proficient in EIL, are better equipped to define and develop English as a tool incross-cultural communication” (p 25) This legitimization of non-L1 speakers is in

direct opposition to Kachru’s (1992) model where it is assumed that L1 speakers areproficient and norm production is restricted by geographical location Modiano arguesthat English by definition as a globally functioning language can no longer beconceptualized as restricted to any particular place There is an emphasis on thedemocratic nature of the use of English worldwide and with the increasing majority ofnon-L1 speakers, Modiano (1999) claims that a linguistic feature is correct only if itisused and understood by the majority of proficient speakers of EIL In this view, L1speakers with strong regional accents do not speak standard English and idiosyncraticfeatures negotiated into existence by two parties do not qualify as EIL Although thisposition may seem to preclude the possibility of distinct varieties of EIL, for example,East Asian or European, Modiano does not specify precisely what is meant by “aparticular place” therefore leaving open the possibility of large-scale regional varieties

of lingua franca English The shift in motivation to learn English from integrational toinstrumental or utilitarian is also highlighted alongside the importance of functionalityand the democratization of English language use

While this model may be praised for attempting to reflect a more realisticpicture of the different ways English is now being used worldwide, it has neverthelessreceived its share of criticism Toolan (1999) points out that while the model mayemphasize the democratization of language, it is still hierarchical with the innermostcircle presented as the ideal Kachru (1996) questions Modiano’s notion that non-L1speakers are in the best position to define and develop English, asking if it is notaxiomatic that L1 speakers play a role in defining a language and its dialects Inresponse to the emphasis placed on diversity and the lack of a need for consistency,Toolan (1999) suggests that diversity alone should not be promoted and that somemay, for example, need to learn standard American or British English for professionalreasons Consistency may be needed for other reasons as well; it would be hard to

imagine the recognition, description and legitimization of a variety of English withoutsome degree of regularity in its features and use.

3.3 The culture-free characteristic of EGL

Having looked at these various proposals for an international English (and theseare not the only ones) I'd like to get back to my original question: is consensuspossible in the arena of international English? The answer must be yes, as the models

of Smith Ahulu, Crystal, Modiano, and Davies have the many features in common Acompilation of these models show that international English is the following:

1. It is English used for international communication, a language which is

increasingly used to communicate across international boundaries

speakers have to “accommodate their speech so as to conform to it when they talk toeach other” (Toolan 1997, p 7) Anyone who plans to interact in English with non-native speakers or with other native speakers who use a different national variety willcode-switch into this international variety

(Platt and Weber 1984)

4. It is not the vehicle of a single culture but is "the vehicle of any culture to

which a user applies it” (Bryan 1994, p 101).

also open to vocabulary and minor grammatical differences coming from NewEnglishes It both welcomes innovation and gives correctness its proper value (Davies

1989, p 464)

6. It is no longer controlled by British or American culture International users

are increasingly claiming ownership of English (Crystal 1997) It has become alanguage for which there is no native-speaker custodian (Widdowson 1997)

3.3.1 Neutrality

Proponents of international English insist that this language is neutral andtherefore does not carry with it the culture of “inner circle” countries However, ifinternational English is to be neutral, and therefore a language without identity, then it

is doomed to be unsuccessful as a global language, as it cannot function as the vehiclefor cultural expression (as the attempts to implement artificial languages such asEsperanto, Volapuk, etc have shown) Indeed the concept of “neutralcommunication”, according to linguistics, seems to be impossible, as the expression ofidentity and power is intrinsic in language use

Moreover, claiming that international English has no link to British or Americanculture is irresponsible and dishonest Even though language is not tied exclusively toone culture, no language can be stripped of its historical past Instead of denying theconnection between the English language and its accompanying “baggage” (whetherviewed positively or negatively), applied linguists should openly admit that somecultural values necessarily accompany a language

3.3.2 The common core

As we have seen in all of our models, a common core is located at the centre ofthe circle or English, much like a nucleus But if Quirk's model of Nuclear English wascast off as imperialist and impractical, why then are these other nuclear models